ROCK CLIMBING, ROPEWORK & RIVER CROSSING

Chapter 13

ROCK CLIMBING, ROPEWORK & RIVER CROSSING

Why Do we Need to Climb?

The ability to rock climb is an important basic mountaineering skill with which an individual can
become both confident and competent in his or her movement through steep and exposed terrain. It
also instils technical knowledge of ropes, karabiners and all the paraphernalia associated with steep
ground rescue and is therefore an essential element of Mountain Rescue Team training.

Rock Climbing Equipment - “the Gear”

To the rock climbing beginner we often appear to use a vast and confusing array of equipment when
climbing. However, the basic ethic is that we climb the rock face using our skill and ability only. When
confronted with a problem on a rock face we overcome it by using our experience, judgement, skill and
strength alone. So why do we need such an assortment of specialist equipment? The answer is that it is
there as a reserve, just in case our judgement, skill or strength are not up to the problem; or perhaps we
suffer a moment of plain bad luck. In case we fall in other words. If correctly used and understood, the
gear can provide a safety net, preventing any serious injury. To keep the risk within those limits that we
consider to be acceptable, we must have a good knowledge of the capabilities of the gear that we use and
of how to use it properly.

The Rope
Improvement in rope design is one of the main factors responsible for the huge increase in climbing
standards which has occurred over the years. In the “olden days”, ropes were relatively weak for their
size and weight; could not stretch and being made of natural fibres, were prone to rot. The old climbing
adage that “the leader must never fall” was in those early days a pre-requisite for survival. Nowadays
climbing ropes are light and strong and easy to handle and are specifically designed to absorb the energy
which a falling climber gathers as he plummets earthwards. The ropes which we use for climbing within
the Mountain Rescue Service are of kernmantel construction (see FIG:112). This means that they are
made of a central “kern” or core, consisting of several thousand single, stretching fibres, which are as long
as the rope itself. This kern is surrounded by an outer “mantle” or sheath of braided nylon, designed to
protect the kern and give the rope an acceptable feel. Depending on its particular size and make, the rope
gains 75% of its total strength from the kern, with the remaining 25% coming from the mantle. The rope is
an essential piece of climbing equipment
and therefore deserves very careful looking after.

FIG:112 Kernmantel Climbing Rope Construction

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To look after your rope:

a. Never stand on your rope, or allow anyone else to do so.

b. Examine your rope before and after use and every 6 months. Keep a record.

c. Keep your rope clean, to prevent small particles of rock entering into the easily
damaged kern and weakening the rope from the inside.

d. Finally, take care not to expose your rope to any corrosive chemicals, solvents and
oils, or to prolonged sunlight, all of which can cause severe damage. A rope should be scrapped if:

a. It has held a major fall (more than Fall Factor One).

b. It has been in use for more than 5 years.

c. It has sustained damage which results in any “lumpy” feel or narrowing to the kern.

d. The kern itself has become exposed through the mantle. If you look after your rope,
when the day comes that it has to look after you, it will be up to the job.

Remember
* Keep your rope clean.
* Inspect your rope for damage before and after every use and every 6 months.
* Avoid any exposure to contamination or prolonged sunlight.

Rope Sizes
Climbing ropes used in the Mountain Rescue Service are normally 50 metres long; however, 2 weights of
rope are used - full and half. A “half rope” (normally 9mm diameter) has considerable advantages over the
“full rope” (normally10.5mm or 11mm diameter) in terms of weight, handling characteristics and the way in
which they can be used to avoid rope-on-rock friction (rope-drag) on steep, long and technically difficult
climbs. However, a single half rope is not designed to absorb a leader fall and therefore must never
be used on its own. The term “double-rope technique” is used to describe the way in which we use 2 half
ropes when climbing. “Full ropes” are designed to be used singly and can
be useful on short climbs. They are, however, susceptible to rope drag and are generally considered too
heavy for double-rope technique.

Coiling your Rope

Climbing ropes are coiled so that:

a. They are easy to carry, manage and store.

b. Ropes do not become tangled or twisted whilst being carried or transported.

c. They can quickly be made ready for use.

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A rope that becomes tangled is very frustrating and can be dangerous, so practice to
become adept at coiling and uncoiling your rope. Two methods of rope coiling are used; these are
“mountaineers coils” and “alpine coils” (see FIGS:113 and 114), both of which require considerable
practice if you are to become proficient. Each method has advantages, although the alpine coil is
generally more popular.

You should inspect your rope for damage each time it is coiled after use. In addition to obvious cuts and
abrasions, any “lumpiness” which could indicate more serious internal damage, should be checked for
while running the rope through your fingers. The same procedure should be followed while the rope is
being uncoiled at the start of a climb. In this way time can be saved by carrying out before and after-use
inspections as the rope is being coiled and uncoiled, thus ensuring that our ropes remain in a safe
condition and up to the task of protecting life.

Knots
A number of knots are used to attach ropes and slings to our climbing harnesses and belays. It is
important that team members can tie these knots faultlessly, first time every time and in all weather
conditions. Lives will depend on this skill. It is equally important that team members learning to tie a new
knot also gain an understanding of how that knot works, when to use it, when not to use it and
what its weaknesses are.

FIG:113 COILING YOUR ROPE - MOUNTAIN COILS. The rope is coiled either around the neck and
shoulders, or by holding the rope in the palm of the hand. When the rope is fully coiled the free ends are
secured by a single whipping of about 6 turns. The ends may be further secured by a Reef knot.

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FIG:114 COILING YOUR ROPE - ALPINE COILS. The rope is laid in folds across the palm of the hand,
leaving the last 4m free. The free ends are whipped around the centre of the folds and a bight of rope
pushed through the hole with the ends pulled through the bight to finish. The remaining tails
can then be used to carry the rope securely as illustrated.

The correct tying of knots can be difficult to learn from a book and is often best taught practically and
then practised to perfection. It should be remembered that most knots, by their nature, form a weakness in
the rope. To make the knot as safe as possible, it should be correctly “laid” (ie neat) and
“set” (tight). The most commonly used knots are:

The Overhand Knot. Although the simplest of knots, the Overhand still has many uses and is the
basis of many other more complicated knots FIG:115a.

The Figure of Eight Knot. This knot, either rethreaded or on a bight, is used in a number of climbing and
rescue scenarios and is often the chosen method of attaching the rope to the climbing harness. It is a
good knot in that it:

* is very strong

* is quite easy to tie

* does not slip

It can be difficult to undo, especially if it has been heavily loaded. FIG:115b.

The Figure of Eight on a Bight. A bight is a loop of rope which can be formed anywhere along a rope’s
length. The Figure of Eight on a Bight will therefore give a secure loop wherever needed and is a very
useful and often used knot. Care should be taken to ensure that the loaded rope lies on the outside of the
first bend to gain maximum strength from the knot. FIG:115c.

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A loop may also be formed at the rope end by tying a single Figure of Eight and then threading the end
back through. This version is one of the methods used to tie on to a climbing harness. As there is a risk
that the rope end could work loose, this knot should always be finished with a Stopper knot when used to
tie onto a harness. FIG:115d.

The Bowline. The Bowline is another very useful knot which is also frequently used to tie the rope on
to the harness. It is a good knot because it:

* is very strong

* is easy to adjust

* is easy to undo, even when it has been heavily loaded.

It is however dangerous if incorrectly tied and can slip, so should always be finished off with a Stopper
knot. FIG:115e.

Half a Double Fisherman’s (Stopper knot). The Double Fisherman’s knot itself is used to tie 2 ropes
together, often when forming a loop (such as for a Prusik loop). When only tied around one rope, it acts as
an effective Stopper knot preventing the end of the rope from slipping into the parent knot, causing failure.
When heavily loaded it can be very difficult to undo FIG:115f.

The French Prusik. This is a sliding friction knot which is extremely useful in a variety of situations.
When a load is applied it will grip the rope very tightly, yet may still be released fairly easily, even while
under load. Some practice is necessary to establish the correct length of loop and number of turns
required for a given situation. FIG:116a.

The Clove Hitch. An often used knot, particularly when creating an anchor system because it:

* is easy to tie

* is easy to adjust

When clipping the knot into a karabiner, it is important that the loaded rope is closest to the spine of the
karabiner. FIG:116b.

The Alpine Butterfly. This is a useful middle of the rope knot. Unlike many such knots, the
Alpine Butterfly will still work well if the loop and both ends are all loaded in different directions. It is one of
the harder knots to tie. FIG:116c.

The 8 knots and variations mentioned above form the basis of the rope attachment and anchoring skills
that are required of the Novice to successfully pass the MRS Badge Test. New team members
should concentrate on perfecting these 8 knots before progressing onto the more advanced techniques
covered in this chapter.

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FIG:115 Basic Knots 1

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FIG:116 Basic Knots 2

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More Advanced Knots

There are a further 7 knots which are extensively used in mountain rescue work. The tying and
understanding of these knots are skills that are required by the fully trained MR “troop”. A short
description of each is given below and illustrated in FIGS117-119. However, there is no substitute to
being shown how to tie them correctly and then practice, practice, practice!

The Italian Hitch. The Italian or Friction hitch relies upon rope friction to produce a braking effect. It
works best with only one rope, although it will work fairly well if the Hitch is tied as one knot using 2
ropes. It is useful as a simple belay method or an improvised abseil. As such, the result of tying this
knot incorrectly can be serious. FIG:117a.

The Classic Prusik. The Prusik is a friction knot. By weighting the loop, the turns will tighten onto the
“host” rope and grip. After unweighting, it can be moved in any direction along the “host”. Although
classically tied with 2 turns, more may be added if increased friction is required. It can be difficult to
release if the Prusik has been heavily loaded. In this case it can be freed by pushing the knot loop with
the thumb. FIG:117b.

The Double Fisherman’s. This is a knot used for joining 2 ropes together. It is basically 2 “Stopper”
knots, each tied around the opposite rope. Apart from the making of rope slings, it has been used for
years to join together 2 climbing ropes to allow longer abseils. If loaded heavily, this knot can become very
difficult to undo, while its larger size and blunt shape make is prone to jamming in cracks and between
boulders when being pulled through after an abseil. FIG:118a.

The Triple Bowline. This is sometimes called the 3-loop Bowline. It is useful as an improvised sit
harness and is worth practising to get the loop lengths correct. FIG:118b.

The Sheet Bend. The Sheet Bend is used to tie ropes of differing diameter together. Although rarely
used, it is the knot of choice when tying the Parisienne Baudrier, an improvised chest harness made from
a standard 2.4m sling (see Improvised Rescue Techniques). FIG:118c.

The Overhand Knot (2 ropes). An alternative to the Double Fisherman’s for joining 2 ropes together in
abseil situations. It is easy to tie, fairly easy to undo when it has been loaded and tends to lie flat when
pulled over edges etc. This makes it much less likely to jam as the 2 ropes are pulled through. It is very
important, however, that this knot is correctly laid and set and that tails of at least 50cm are left after
tying. FIG:118d. The Overhand knot must not be used to join ropes subjected to rescue-sized loads.

Bowline on the Bight. Sometimes called the Double Bowline, this is really a middle of the rope knot.
FIG:119. It can also be used in some of the more complicated anchor systems.

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FIG:117 More Advanced Knots 1

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FIG:118 Advanced Knots 2

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FIG:119 The Bowline on the Bight or Double Bowline

The Rescue Harness

For some years now, the RAF Mountain Rescue Service has used the Troll “RAM” (Rescue And
Mountaineering) as its standard rescue and climbing harness. This is a sit-type harness with a
number of features which improve its suitability for rescue work. If you intend to wear a rucksack while
climbing, it is recommended that the sit harness be worn in conjunction with an approved chest harness
to ensure that you will remain in an upright position following a fall.

The harness itself is well padded for comfort, fairly easy to fit and adjust, includes an obvious (yellow)
main strong point/belay loop and has reinforced gear loops. The fitting sequence is shown at FIG:120 and
the combination sit/chest harness at FIG:123. There are a number of ways to tie a sit and chest harness
together. That shown in FIG:123 is using a re-threaded Figure of Eight knot. As with all practical skills,
instruction by a qualified person should be given prior to use.

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FIG:120 FITTING THE RAM SIT HARNESS

After adjustment all of the “tails” are to be fed through their elasticised bands as shown

Tying On
Either of the 2 standard knots can be used to tie the rope onto the harness:

a. The Bowline.

b. The Re-Threaded Figure of Eight

Both knots must be finished off with a Stopper knot to prevent possible slipping. The 2 methods are
shown in FIGS:121 and 122.

FIG:121 The Bowline

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FIG:122 The Re-Threaded Figure of Eight

Chest Harness
When using a chest harness in conjunction with a sit harness it is important that you tie on correctly. A
common method with a lot of chest harnesses is to tie on using a re-threaded Figure of Eight, see
FIG:123. However, before using any chest harness check the manufacturers instructions for the
approved method of tying on.

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FIG:123 SIT/CHEST HARNESS COMBINATION

- Tying on using a re-threaded Figure of Eight.
Note the correct angle of a suspended climber

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BELAYING

The Principles of Belaying

To a beginner, the use of the word “belay” may seem confusing as it is used in a variety of situations.
When a climber uses the term “belay” it can mean one of three things.

1. The main belay or “anchor” is used to provide security for the climber at the start or end of a
pitch ie to prevent him from falling from his stance or from being pulled off by his falling partner.

2. The leader places “running belays” or “runners” while climbing a pitch to shorten any potential
fall, should he slip.

3. The moving climber (leader or second) is always “belayed” by the rope and his partner, who will
hold any fall that the climber may take.

Put simply, belaying can be regarded as the method used by one climber to safeguard both himself and
his partner, using the rope to provide security and in order to arrest a fall.

Belays can vary greatly in their type and complexity and the actual method used will be largely dictated
by the equipment available and the nature of the terrain. The difficulty of the climb and the skill of the
climbers themselves can also play an important role in the selection of belay methods.

Note that the rope which runs to the moving climber is known as the “live” or “active” rope, whether he is
leading or seconding. Once the rope has passed through the belay system it becomes known as the
“dead” or “inactive” rope.

SETTING UP AN ANCHOR SYSTEM

There are several ways of setting up an anchor system depending upon the equipment available and
the presence (or lack) of natural features such as spikes or cracks. The methods described in this
publication involve the use of the rope, slings, chocks and rock pitons or pegs. Whatever the method and
equipment used, there are certain factors which need to be considered when constructing the system.
Perhaps the most important is the expected direction of pull in the event of a leader falling.

A leader who falls before placing any runners (or if his runners fail), will drop past the stance in a
downwards and outwards direction, resulting in a large force being imposed on the belayer and his
anchors (unless the falling leader hits the ground first!). If he has placed runners before falling, the
resultant force will be in an upwards direction only and will be considerably less than in the “runner-less”
situation. It therefore makes sense, in most situations, to construct the belay stance with main anchors
that will take a large downward and outward loading. These anchors should be placed above waist level
with the belayer positioned in line with the anticipated direction of force, to avoid any tendency of being
flipped upside-down or jerked into the line of the fall. For the same reasons, it is important that the belayer
is tied tightly into the anchor points and that there is no slack in the system.

Screwgate karabiners should ideally be used for attachment to all belay anchors. If you only have a
limited number of screwgates available and have constructed a multi-point anchor system, you should
use a screwgate karabiner on the primary (ie most reliable) ‘anchor’ with snaplinks being used for the
others as necessary. In a total lack of screwgate karabiners, two snaplinks can be used, with the gates
on the same side, but opening in opposite directions.

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When setting up a belay stance always follow the steps outlined below:

1. Select and place anchor(s).

2. Immediately clip in to them with the climbing rope so they act as runners, should you fall off
the ledge whilst working things out!

3. Select a comfortable stance/seat along the expected line of pull between your climbing partner and
your anchor(s). This should be close to the edge when belaying someone climbing up to you, and close to
the rock face when belaying a leader climbing above you.

4. Think out the best way of attaching yourself to the anchor(s), using a combination of the methods
described in this chapter.

5. Tie on to the anchor(s) so that once you are established at the stance/seat, all anchor ropes and
slings are equally loaded.

6. Lean forward to tension the anchor ropes.

7. Check that you have a secure, braced position and can feel tension from the anchor(s); that
the live rope and the anchor ropes/slings are in line and that all anchor points are independently tied off.
Check that the anchors share the load (multiple anchors) equally and that all knots are correctly tied and
screwgate krabs secured.

8. You may now shout “Safe” - and mean it!

FIG:124a Direction of Loading on Belayer and Anchor following a fall

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Fall Factors
The different forces resulting from falls can be expressed as Fall Factors, calculated by dividing the
length of the fall by the length of rope run out. They are used as a means of classifying the severity of a
fall and the resultant loading and effect on the ropes and equipment in use. As an example, if a leader
who has climbed for 10m with no runners falls off, he will drop a total of 20m. The fall factor in the case
would be:

Length of fall (20) = Fall factor 2

Rope run out (10) (ie maximum fall factor)

Had he placed a runner at 3m before continuing for a further 1m, the calculation would look like this:

Length of fall (2) = Fall factor

Rope run out (4)

FIG:124b Fall Factors

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Anchoring Using Slings

A long sling placed over a good spike can provide a quick and easy belay anchor, giving excellent
protection against a downward force, although it is not generally suitable for an upwards pull. A thread
belay formed by passing a sling through a natural rock tunnel is an excellent way of achieving a
multidirectional belay. The simplest method of attachment to the sling is to attach it directly to the knot
loop on your harness using a screwgate karabiner. A more flexible and generally superior method is to
clip a screwgate karabiner to the sling and then attach the rope to the karabiner using either a Figure of
Eight on the Bight or a Clove Hitch. This method allows the belayer to select the exact position, and by
adjusting the knot (the Clove Hitch is best for this), can ensure that the rope connecting him to the anchor
is tight.

FIG:125a
FIG:125a ANCHORING USING SLINGS (not to scale). The sling in the inset is too small
for the spike, resulting in a much weakened anchor and a dangerous 3-way loading on the karabiner

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When two or more anchor points are used for the system then each point should be loaded equally,
either by tying the ropes into both anchors independently (see FIG:127); or by joining the anchors together
with a sling making a single point which both ropes can be clipped into (see FIG:125b). It is important that
a method is used so if one anchor point fails it will not shock load the other anchor. When passing slings
through threads or over spikes, remember that the 120 degree rule as discussed in Chapter 6 also applies
to belaying; in other words, do not stretch the sling too tightly over or around the anchor. (See also
FIG:125a).

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FIG:125b Three simple methods of bringing together two anchors to one point using
a sling with an overhand knot in the middle

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FIG:126 A BELAY ANCHOR CONSTRUCTED BY USING THE ROPE ALONE:

The returning rope has been secured to a locking karabiner clipped into the knot loop, using a
Clove Hitch with the load rope positioned next to the back bar of the karabiner

Anchoring Using the Rope Alone

It is occasionally necessary to construct an anchor using the rope alone. An example would be where
the anchor you have selected consists of a large boulder, rock flake or tree, too big for any sling you may
have. A simple, fully adjustable anchor that requires the minimum of gear can be made by passing the
rope around the object and then tying it back into the knot loop using a Figure of Eight on the Bight knot.
A variation to this is to attach the returning rope to a screwgate karabiner clipped into the knot loop using a
Clove Hitch (making sure that the load rope is positioned next to the back bar of the karabiner). Both are
equally adjustable and quick to tie and may be employed in other situations such as when the anchor point
is out of reach and an adjustable anchor system a necessity. FIG:126.

Anchoring Using Chocks, Camming Devices and Rock Pitons

The correct placement of chocks, camming devices (“Friends”) and rock pitons (pegs) is outside the
scope of this publication and no attempt is made to describe the many types and methods. One thing to
remember, however, is that it is standard practice, and strongly recommended, that you use a minimum
of 2 chocks, Friends or pegs when constructing an anchor. It should also be noted that in the interests
of preserving the environment, the use of pegs when rock climbing is not generally acceptable due to the
unavoidable damage caused by their placement and removal. This does not of course exclude them from
use during rescues and the correct techniques of selection and placement are considered as essential
knowledge for any mountain rescuer.

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The simplest and quickest (and therefore most efficient) method of attaching your rope to chocks and pegs
when constructing an anchor system is to use Clove Hitches or a sling to bring both anchors together to
one point as described previously.

FIG:127 An Anchor constructed using a Chock and a “Friend”

Types of Belay
Discounting “runners”, there are 3 basic types of belay, the differences being in how much of the force
caused by a falling climber is taken by the anchor itself:

Direct Belay. With this type of belay any force caused by a falling climber is taken directly and wholly by
the anchor which will therefore receive a maximum shock load. It stands to reason then, that any anchors
that are to be used for a direct belay must be absolutely “bombproof”. An example would be where a sling
is placed over a solid flake of rock and the ‘live’ rope attached directly to it by means of a locking karabiner
and an Italian Hitch. See FIG:128a.

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Semi-Direct Belay. This is the most common type of belay used when rock climbing. The belayer
attaches himself to the anchor using the climbing ropes and then “belays” his partner using a belay plate,
attached to the knot loop formed when he initially tied into his harness. The belayer stands to one side
and any force is transmitted through his belay plate to the anchor. See FIG:128b.

Indirect Belay. To achieve an indirect belay, the belayer simply positions himself between the climber
and the anchor to which they are both ultimately attached. The initial impact of the falling climber will this
time be taken by the belayer himself and the load (if any) which is taken by the main anchor will be much
reduced. This method is most commonly employed in winter when using snow belays and will often be
used with a “dynamic” body belay (see FIG:129-131); it may also be used in summer, however, where the
only anchors available are of dubious quality. See FIG:128c.

FIG:128 TYPES OF BELAY: Direct, semi-direct and indirect

Belay Methods
The belay methods described in this chapter can be placed into 2 basic categories - those which make
use of the body alone and those which use mechanical devices.

The Body Belay. There are 2 different types of body belay - the shoulder and the waist or hip. The
shoulder belay is an out-dated method which is rarely used nowadays and has only limited applications,
whereas the waist or hip belay is both a useful and quick method of providing security in given situations.
If you expect to be using a waist belay during a climb it is recommended that you adapt your harness to
provide a rear attachment point so that the rope from the anchor can be attached to your harness at this
point. This can easily be done by attaching a short sling and a screwgate karabiner to the load-bearing
section of the harness at the back as shown in FIG:129. If you have not adapted your harness then great
care must be taken to ensure that the ropes going to the anchor are on the same side as the live rope (see
FIG:130). The rope is passed around the belayer’s back (ensuring it passes over the ropes going to the
anchor to prevent it slipping down) and a single twist of rope taken around the dead arm to increase
friction and control. Falls are arrested by bringing the hand holding the dead rope across the front of the
body to further increase the friction to the point where the falling climber is halted. It is important that this
dead hand is never taken off the rope when using the body belay and much practice is needed to perfect

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the techniques of taking in, paying out and holding a fall with a body belay. Use of a glove on the dead
hand is essential. The sequence for taking in and holding a fall using a body belay is illustrated at
FIG:131a-e.

FIG:129 HARNESS ADAPTED FOR REAR ATTACHMENT TO ANCHOR (in this case using a Figure of
Eight knot tied into a bight of rope passed through the rear karabiner)

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FIG:130 USING A BODY BELAY WITH AN UNADAPTED HARNESS (Front Attachment):

The live rope must be placed on the same side as the anchor rope to avoid
a twisting action and loss of control in event of a fall

FIG:131 CORRECT SEQUENCE FOR TAKING IN USING A BODY BELAY (a-d): Notice that the dead
hand is in contact with the rope at all times. To hold a fall (e), the dead hand is brought across the front of
the body into the braking position with the climber tight on his anchor and in a stable position

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Mechanical Belay Devices. An array of different devices all designed for belaying are available, although
they each share similar features in that they use an increase in friction between the rope, the device and
the belay karabiner (which should ideally be of the HMS/pear-shaped type, see FIG:132) to operate.
As such, many can double as abseil devices.

FIG:132 MECHANICAL BELAY DEVICES (note use of pear-shaped karabiners)

As with body belays, there is a right and a wrong way to control the rope as it passes through a
mechanical belay device. A common error when taking in is where the rope is “snatched” through the
belay plate, with both live and dead hands moving simultaneously. In other words, for a fraction of a
second, neither hand is holding the rope and a slip at this time would result in the ropes running freely
through the device. The belayer could then find it difficult, if not impossible, to regain his grip on the
rope and so arrest the fall.

There are in fact two or three suitable methods of taking in the rope through a mechanical belay device,
although for simplicity only one method is illustrated. (See FIG:134). Whichever method is employed, it is
vital that one hand holds the dead rope firmly at all times. In most cases this will be the dead hand.
Equally, you must ensure when organising the anchor that there is enough space available to allow the
dead hand to move back to correctly brake the fall. (FIG:133).

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FIG:133 HOLDING A FALL USING A BELAY PLATE.

The dead hand is brought sharply back to lock the plate and brake the fall

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FIG:134 Taking in the Rope using a Belay Plate

The method used for locking off a belay plate is described later in this chapter under “Abseiling”.
One thing that a beginner must remember about mechanical belay devices is that they will not arrest
a fall on their own ie the person holding the rope (the belayer) must also apply the necessary braking
action on the dead rope to ensure that the device operates correctly.

As with so many other techniques, only practice and a thorough understanding of the methods involved
can lead to a proficient belayer.

CLIMBING TECHNIQUE
The actual techniques and skills you will use to scale a rock face are not covered in this publication as they
are more than adequately described in other texts, some of which are listed under “Useful Reading”.
Climbing technique is in any event best taught practically and only practice and experience can produce a
competent climber.

CLIMBING ORGANISATION
Basic Rope Management - Single Pitch Climbs

The most important skill required for efficient rope management is common sense. Firstly, it makes
sense to look after your rope correctly, as described earlier in this chapter. Equally, when preparing your
rope for a climb the following course of action should be followed:

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a. Choose a suitable area for uncoiling the rope - clean, dry and free of potential
snags”.

b. When uncoiling the rope, throw the “bottom end” to one side to allow it to be located easily
when needed for tying on.

c. Lay the remainder of the rope in a loose pile at the base of the pitch after “running it
through” (while simultaneously carrying out your before-use inspection). Resist the temptation to
just dump the rope down after removing the initial coils as this will almost certainly cause problems
later, perhaps at a crucial stage of the climb. If using double rope technique, lay each rope in
separate, adjacent piles.

During the climb itself, the second should pay the rope out so that the leader does not have to physically
drag it through the belay device. This would be tiring, frustrating and can be dangerous and is the cause
of many an argument on the crags. Once at the top of the climb, the leader should take the rope in; once
again laying the rope in a loose pile away from the edge of the cliff, ensuring that it can not drop down the
crag and onto his unfortunate second! On completion of the climb, the rope should be re-coiled neatly (not
forgetting the after-use inspection), ready for its next outing.

Rope Management on Multi-Pitch Routes

Rope management on multi-pitch routes is largely the same as for single pitch climbs and common sense
remains a vital element. There are a few additional areas which require attention, however. One of the
most frequent problems encountered on long routes is where the dead rope is allowed to drop down the
crag and becomes entangled in rock projections below, causing problems for both second and leader
when it is time to climb the next pitch. This problem can usually be avoided by placing the rope in a
suitable niche or on a ledge as it is taken in. In the absence of any suitable place, say on a hanging stance
or a slab, the rope can be laid in long folds across one or both of the belayer’s legs. See FIG:135.

Another problem area with multi-pitch rope management occurs during the change-over of leader and
second. If the climbers are “leading through” (ie taking it in turns to lead a pitch), this should not be too
much of a problem, providing that the belay stance has been sensibly constructed. If the same person is
to lead 2 pitches in succession however, the ropes can very easily become tangled, causing frustration
and delay. This is best avoided by carefully running the ropes through at the end of each pitch to ensure
that the leader’s ropes will come from the top of the pile at the start of every pitch. It is also strongly
recommended that any multi-point belays are brought to one point as shown earlier in FIG:125b

Close attention to detail is necessary for safe multipitch climbing - it is all too easy for one or even both
climbers to disconnect themselves from the anchor while attempting to sort out a rope tangle on an
exposed stance - far better surely to avoid the situation happening in the first place!

Climbing Calls

Communication between 2 climbers on a route can sometimes be difficult, particularly if there is noise
from the wind or the sea and the climbers are far apart and out of sight of each other. It is vital, however,
that communications are not only maintained, but must also be clearly understood so that each climber
knows exactly what the other is doing at all times. To this end, a simple system of coded calls has
developed over the years. The code-words and their meanings are as follows:

“Taking In” - The leader’s call when he has reached the belay stance and has made himself safe. The
second can now remove the belay device (but NOT his own anchor), as the leader is about to take in the
remaining rope after giving the second a few moments in which to remove the rope from the device.

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“That’s Me” - The second’s call when all the unused rope has been taken in by the leader.

“Climb When You’re Ready” - The leader’s call to the second to inform him that he can now remove his
own belay anchor and prepare to climb. The leader has attached the second’s rope to his belay device
and is ready to hold him should he fall. As the second dismantles the anchor, the leader should “feel” the
rope and take in any slack that is created.

FIG:135 Dropping the Dead Rope down the Crag should be Avoided

“Climbing” - The call given by the second immediately on receiving the ‘Climb when you’re ready’ call to
indicate that he is removing his anchor and will soon start climbing.

“OK” or “Aye Aye” - The leader’s confirmation that the second can begin to actually climb.

Other supplementary calls may be made as and when required, although at times when communications
are difficult it is generally best to keep calls to the necessary minimum. It is vital that both climbers fully
understand the meaning of any supplementary call to be used. These supplementary calls include:

“Safe” or “On Belay” - May be used by the leader to inform the second that he has secured himself to
the belay anchor.

“Slack” - A call used when either the leader or the second needs some more rope.

“Tight” - Usually used by a nervous second who thinks he is about to fall or if there is too much slack in
the live rope.

“Take In” - A call with a similar meaning to “Tight” but with generally less urgency!

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“Runner On” - The leader may use this call to inform his second that he has placed a running belay in
mid-pitch. A fall now would cause an upward pull on the second and his anchor.

“Below” - A loud shout to warn other climbers of a falling rock or other object.

Where verbal communications are impossible, say in very high winds, a system of tugs on the rope may
be adopted between climbers. This is a system which requires the full understanding of both partners
and should be agreed upon before the start of the climb. A second should be extremely wary of tugging
at a leaders rope for obvious reasons!

The use of lightweight, short-range “Talkabout” radios can also be of great assistance to climbing
communications when they would otherwise be difficult or impossible.

ABSEILING
Although it is possible to abseil using nothing but the rope itself (the “Classic” abseil), it is much safer
and more comfortable to use a mechanical device of some sort. This may consist of a purposedesigned
piece of equipment or a simple karabiner and hitch. Whatever the means, the principles are similar in
each case ie the climber controls his rate of descent by adjusting the friction created between the rope and
his body or abseil device.

Although abseiling can be exhilarating, it is also inherently dangerous in that once you begin your descent
you are not only committed to that course, but are also totally reliant on your equipment and the security
of the belay. A failure in any one part of the chain can very easily lead to catastrophe and it is a sad fact
that many climbers have been killed as a result of abseiling accidents. That said, many of the dangers of
abseiling can be anticipated and therefore guarded against.

There are four main elements to abseiling. These are:

1. Setting up a safe anchor and rigging the abseil.

2. Controlling the descent.

3. Safeguarding the descent.

4. Retrieving the rope.

Anchors for Abseils and Abseil Rigging

Before you select the anchor, you must first select the line of descent. This should ideally be down a clean
face with a good ledge and anchors at its base with few, if any, potential snags for the rope. In particular,
avoid trees, areas of loose rock and other climbers. The anchor should be of the “bombproof” variety,
located behind and above the departure ledge. Natural anchors such as trees, threads and spikes are
generally to be preferred as these require the minimum of kit to be left in place. Beware of sharp edges
around flakes and spikes. See FIG:136. In the absence of natural anchors it will be necessary to leave
behind one or two artificial chocks, pitons or even Friends.

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Be very careful of using in-situ rope or tape slings as they may have been severely weakened by previous
users “pulling through” their ropes or by UV degradation caused by sunlight.

You will almost certainly need to pull the ropes down after the abseil and due consideration must be given
to this, as a poorly rigged abseil rope can very easily prove impossible to retrieve due to rope friction or
jamming. It is generally better to elect to leave a sling (or piece of “tat”) around a flake or spike than to risk
the rope becoming jammed. It is not normally necessary to leave a karabiner and the rope can be
passed directly through the sling. If you are using a multi-point anchor, make sure that each anchor is
equally loaded and that the system is constructed in such a way as to prevent the failure of one anchor
causing shock-loading to those remaining. FIG:137

FIG:136 Beware Sharp Edges!

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FIG:137 A MULTI-POINT BELAY FOR ABSEILING.

Two small spikes have been utilised to construct a safe anchor.
A tape sling has been passed over the spikes and secured with an
Overhand knot to give an equal loading on each spike

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If using double ropes it will be necessary to tie them together (remembering to pass one of the ropes
through the anchor sling first!). The best knot for this is the Overhand knot as it gives a small knot which is
easy to tie, is less likely to jam and is easy to undo. (Also, in emergency situations where it is necessary
to tie 2 ropes together to provide a 100m abseil, it is possible to pass an Overhand knot through a
standard Figure of Eight descender without the need to carry out “passing the knot” procedures). When
using this knot, however, you must remember to:

a. Tie the knot neatly and correctly, ensuring that the “tails” are at least 50cm long.

b. Tighten the knot fully.

Other knots that may be used include the Double Fisherman’s, although it can become very difficult to
undo once heavily loaded. One solution to this is to first tie a Reef knot followed by the two halves of the
Double Fisherman’s on either side of the knot as shown in FIG:138. Although bulky, this combination
is much easier to undo.

FIG:138 Knots for Joining Abseil Ropes

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Once the ropes are joined and securely anchored, they are ready for lowering or throwing down the
line of descent. This should always be done in a controlled manner if you are to avoid the ropes turning
into a pile of “Grannies Knitting”. On a steep crag it may be possible to simply pay out the rope which
should be prepared in a loose pile on the ledge. More often, you will have to throw the ropes out in an arc
to clear any obstructions and intermediate ledges. If you cannot confirm whether the ropes reach the
ground, or you are in a multipitch situation, you should first tie the ends of the ropes together as described
later in this chapter. A good alternative is for the first person down to be lowered rather than abseil.

Controlling the Descent

As mentioned earlier, the rate of descent when abseiling is controlled by adjusting the friction created as
the rope passes through your abseil device. This is generally achieved by moving the controlling hand
(ie the hand holding the rope below the device) to a position where the required amount of braking is
applied.

The position of your body during the descent is also important, particularly at the start of the abseil. With
your weight taken fully by the rope, you should lean back at an angle of about 45 degrees with your legs
apart for added stability. The controlling hand holds the rope securely in the braking position while the
other hand is generally placed loosely on the rope above the abseil device to give added balance. This

FIG:139 CORRECT BODY POSITION WHEN ABSEILING.

In this instance, using a Figure of Eight Descender

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balance hand is not used as a means of controlling the rate of descent. Keep your feet flat against the rock
and “walk” backwards down the crag in short steps, adjusting your controlling hand position and grip on
the rope as necessary. Resist the temptation to descend in a series of jumps - this will only cause shock
loading on the anchor - and concentrate on maintaining the correct body position.

Too upright a posture can result in your feet slipping downwards, while leaning too far back is overly
strenuous and may, in the worst case, cause you to become suddenly inverted - a problem made more
likely if a heavy rucksack is worn during the abseil. See FIG:139.

Further precautions include ensuring that no stray items of clothing, hair or equipment are positioned
where they may become inadvertently caught and entrapped by the abseil device. Helmet straps, long
hair and scarves are among the most frequent objects that cause problems in this way and each should be
tucked well away before commencing the abseil.

Mechanical Abseil Devices

Several types of mechanical device are available, although all work on the same basic principle and many
can be used for either belaying or abseiling.

Figure of Eight Descender. This is the device most commonly associated with abseiling. It is simple to
use and generally easy to control and can be used with most combinations of rope diameters although
single or small-diameter ropes will cause less friction and therefore provide less control than double or
large diameter ropes.

Although simple to use, there is a right and wrong way to attach the Figure of Eight descender to your
harness. To ensure that you get it right, the following sequence of actions should be followed:

1. Stand parallel to the abseil ropes facing toward the anchor with your braking hand on the downhill
side.

2. Hold the Figure of Eight under the ropes and with the small eye close to your harness strong point.
Form a bight in the ropes and pass it down through the big eye and up and over the small eye. (Doing it
the other way round ie up through the big eye, creates a risk of the ropes snagging and accidentally
locking as you go over the edge, as the ropes are forced over the shoulder of the big eye to form a Lark’s
Foot knot).

3. Attach the Figure of Eight to a locking karabiner, extended from the harness strong point by a short
sling and further locking karabiner. (See FIG:140).

4. Attach your abseil protection device to the ropes as described later in “Safeguarding the Descent”.
The braking hand should now be correctly positioned to control your descent, moving it down to slow down
or stop and up to go faster.

If a prolonged stop is anticipated or an operation which requires the use of both hands is required and no
abseil protection device has been employed, it may be necessary to lock off the Figure of Eight.

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FIG:140 ATTACHING A FIGURE OF EIGHT

DESCENDER TO YOUR HARNESS.
Note correct routing of the abseil rope to
avoid snagging

This can be achieved in 2 ways:

1. Taking a firm grip on the rope, the braking hand is passed quickly up and across in front of the
loaded rope and pulled sharply down on the other side so that the brake rope becomes trapped between
the load rope and the big eye of the descender. Although quick, this method is difficult, if not impossible to
achieve if you are in a free-hanging situation, particularly if you are using either a single or small-diameter
ropes, as the brake hand must pass through the “full-ahead” position just prior to locking and it may not be
possible to prevent slippage. It can be equally difficult to unlock and is prone to slipping if not backed up
by some further method. FIG:141a.

2. An alternative, safer method, is to lock off the rope by passing a small bight of rope back through
the locking karabiner attaching the Figure of Eight to your Harness while holding the dead rope in the
braking position. A longer bight is then taken from the other side of the karabiner and passed through the
short bight which will trap the longer one, thus preventing slippage. The lock-off is then completed by
tying a further Half-hitch around the karabiner to give additional security. FIG:141b.

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FIG:141 Methods of Locking Off the Figure of

Eight Descender

Both lock-off methods are unlocked by reversing the locking-off procedures although once again, the
second method is superior to the first as it is guaranteed to work and there is no jolt as the rope comes
free. Unlocking should always be carried out carefully and under control with a hand constantly ready on
the brake rope.

Belay Plates. Belay plates are primarily designed for belaying although they may also be used for
abseiling. When used for this purpose, they are attached to the strong point of your harness via a short
sling and using a locking HMS-type karabiner which has been clipped into a bight of rope pushed through
the device. Due to their small size the devices have poor heat dissipation qualities and tend to heat up
during long descents. This need not be a problem providing that you carefully control the speed of your
descent and allow the device to cool down between the stages of a multiple abseil. Sticht plates in
particular have a tendency to give a rather jerky abseil due to the plate continually jamming. This can be
remedied by clipping an extra karabiner into the loop of the rope below the plate and above the locking
karabiner. The additional karabiner can be removed if greater friction is required, say for a free-hanging
section. FIG:142.

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FIG:142 ABSEILING USING A BELAY PLATE.

An extra karabiner has been clipped into the
loop below the plate to give a smoother descen

Care should be taken if you are abseiling on 2 ropes of different diameter, as the thinner rope will tend to
slide through the plate faster. This could result in the ropes becoming uneven in length and there is a
further danger of the fast moving rope burning or melting the abseil sling as it runs across it. A similar
problem can present itself when using ropes of a similar diameter, but where the belay plate has slots
of different sizes (ie 9 and 11mm), or a non-HMS type karabiner has been used, resulting in differing
amounts of friction being created.

The method used to lock off a belay plate is similar to that described above as method 2 for the Figure
of Eight descender and is illustrated in FIG:143.

The Italian Hitch. This is a simple and convenient method of abseiling used occasionally in the absence
of any other device. It does, however have a tendency to over-heat the karabiner and creates twists and
kinks in the ropes that preclude its use for multi-stage abseils, except in an emergency. The knot is tied as
a single hitch in both ropes and should be attached to your harness strong point via a short sling and using
an HMS-type locking karabiner, with the gate positioned well away from and in such a way that it would not
be unscrewed if it came into contact with the moving rope.

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FIG:143 LOCKING OFF A BELAY PLATE.

(Single rope only shown for clarity)

It should be noted that the position of maximum braking for the Italian Hitch is with the braking hand held
parallel to the load rope and for this reason the locking-off knot, although similar to that used for belay
plates, is tied round the load rope, as illustrated in FIG:144

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FIG:144 ITALIAN HITCH ABSEIL. Note that in(a) friction is increased by pulling the rope across the back
bar of the karabiner, keeping the rope well clear of the gate and in (b) that the hitch is locked off
around the load rope. A further half-hitch should be added for extra security. (Single rope only
shown for clarity)

Safeguarding the Descent

Your descent down the rope can be safeguarded in a variety of ways. The safest method is to use a
second rope, belayed to a separate anchor and controlled by another member of the party. Unfortunately
this method is not always practical and it is often necessary for the abseiler to employ some method of
self-protection which will stop him falling should he let go of the controlling rope at any stage. This is best
achieved by placing a short French - Prusik loop onto the controlling rope below the abseil device. The
Prusik is then attached to the strong point on your harness as illustrated in FIG:145.

The controlling hand grips the rope just above the knot, preventing it from locking inadvertently, allowing
the rope to pass through.

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FIG:145 ABSEIL PROTECTION – FRENCH PRUSIK PLACED BELOW THE ABSEIL DEVICE
(in this case, a Figure of Eight Descender). This method is not recommended when abseiling using an
Italian Hitch

Should you at any time release your hold on the controlling rope the Prusik will self-lock onto the rope
and hold it in the locked position with your weight being taken by the abseil device, thus temporarily
preventing descent. As the French Prusik is only lightly loaded, it can be easily slackened when you
are ready to continue. Remember, however, that the prusik loop must not be so long that it can become
trapped in the abseil device once loaded, causing it to either jam or fail to grip the rope properly.

Note also that if your are using an Italian Hitch for the abseil the placing of a Prusik below the hitch is not
recommended, as the rope can not be held in the fully braked position. The following method should be
used in this instance, which will allow the rope to be held in the position of maximum braking.

The French prusik may also be placed above the abseil device. In this case the balance hand is used
to hold the knot open. Great care must be taken that the loop is not so long that it will extend out of reach
when under load. The Petzl Shunt is a mechanical device which has been specifically designed for this
method of safeguarding an abseil, however its use lies outside the scope of this publication.

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FIG:146 ABSEIL PROTECTION – FRENCH PRUSIK PLACED ABOVE THE ABSEIL DEVICE.
Recommended method for Italian Hitch and abseiling past a knot in the rope

bseiling Past a Knot. Where it is normally recommended that the Prusik loop be placed below the abseil
device, there is one occasion where you will find it necessary to attach it to the rope above the device.
This is when you are aware that, for whatever reason, you will have to abseil past a knot in the rope. If
you find yourself in this situation, then the following procedure should be followed:

a. Attach your descender directly to your harness strong point (ie without extending it by use
of a short sling) using a screwgate karabiner.

b. Set up your abseil device with a French Prusik loop attached to the rope above the device.
After carefully judging the length of loop required (ensuring that it will remain within reach once
loaded), it should be attached to the central strong point of your harness using a screw-gate
karabiner (but not the same karabiner which is attached to the abseil device). See FIG:146.

c. Continue the abseil as normal until you approach the knot. Allow the French Prusik
to grip the rope and take your full weight so that the knot is about 30cms from the abseil device.
Check that the Prusik knot is holding your weight. See FIG:147

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FIG:147 ABSEILING PAST A KNOT - STEP 1.

With the knot about 30 cm from the abseil device the climber allows the French Prusik to take his full
weight

d. Having first tied a Figure of Eight on Bight (or Clove Hitch) in the rope about 2 metres
below the knot and clipped it back into the harness strong point (as a safety precaution), remove
the abseil device from the rope and re-attach it below the knot. Lock off the abseil device securely.
See FIG:148

e. Pull down firmly on the French Prusik until it begins to slip and your weight is once again
taken by the abseil device. See FIG:149.

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FIG:148 ABSEILING PAST A KNOT STEP 2. A backup knot is tied in the main rope (a) and the descender
transferred from above the knot to immediately below it (b)

f. Remove the French Prusik loop and replace it below the knot and continue with the abseil,
having first removed the knot tied as a safety precaution in step 2.

FIG:149 ABSEILING PAST A KNOT - STEP 3.

With the abseil device locked off, the French Prusik is made to slip until the climber’s weight is taken by
the device once again. The French Prusik is then removed and transferred to the rope below the knot and
the safety knot untied,the abseil can now continue as normal.

A further method of safeguarding an abseil is to have a person positioned at the bottom of the rope, ready
to pull it and apply tension if required. In this way he can not only control the speed of the abseilers
descent, but can halt it altogether if anything goes wrong. See FIG:151

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FIG:151 Safeguarding an Abseil from Below

Organisation of a Multi-Pitch Abseil

As with rope management during climbing, the safe organisation of a multi-pitch abseil is largely common
sense, although the dangers inherent in abseiling make this a potentially much more serious activity. In a
multiple pitch situation such as a large cliff, we require good, safe anchors at both ends of the rope,
accompanied (ideally!) by good ledges. Teamwork and a good understanding of the situation are also
essential as communication is often difficult on large cliffs, particularly in windy weather. The first man
down may decide to be lowered or abseil down one rope while protected by the other. If abseiling, he
should first tie a large knot about 2 metres from the bottom end of the rope to prevent him from sliding
off the end of the rope into space, and should employ a French Prusik for self-protection.

As he descends, the abseiler should be constantly looking for the safest line and for suitable anchor
system ledges. This may require some diagonal movement during the descent. If the ledge is at all
exposed, he should place an anchor and make himself safe before removing his abseil device and should
then attach the rope(s) to the anchor, leaving a loop of slack rope to allow the other members of
the party to operate their own abseil devices correctly. This will ensure that the remainder of the team
arrive on the same ledge and will also allow the first man to safeguard the descent of the remainder of the
party by applying tension to the rope if necessary. It is also wise for the first man down to prepare anchors

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for the other members of the party before they arrive so that each may be secured to the rock immediately
on arrival at the ledge and prior to the removal of their abseil device. This anchor should ideally be
independent of the anchor selected for the next abseil. Equally, each member of the party should ensure
that his abseil device is securely attached to the abseil rope before unclipping from the intermediate
anchor when preparing to abseil again. See FIG:152.

Methods of Increasing Friction

There are some occasions when you may find that the friction provided by the abseil device on its own is
insufficient to maintain adequate control during an abseil. An example is when you are making a long
abseil down a single rope. At the beginning of the descent the weight of the rope hanging below you will
provide additional friction as the rope attempts to hang in the position of maximum braking. However, as
you descend, this additional braking action decreases and the strain on your braking hand increases to the
extent where your descent can become difficult to control. Some method of gaining extra friction is
needed to maintain control of the abseil. This can be achieved in a variety of ways:

a. The simplest means of increasing friction and control is to use both hands to grip the rope
below the abseil device and continuing the descent as normal. (Not possible if you have placed an
abseil protection device above the main brake).

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FIG:152 Organisation of a Multi-Pitch Abseil

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b. If you have anticipated the problem, simply extending the attachment of the abseil device to
your harness strong point by a short sling and clipping the brake rope back through a karabiner at
the harness strong point as illustrated, will assist control. See FIG:153.

FIG:153 INCREASING FRICTION WHEN ABSEILING by extending the attachment to the abseil device
and clipping the rope in to an additional karabiner at the harness strong point

c. An additional friction device such as an Italian Hitch or belay plate may be placed on the
rope below the primary brake, which should have an extended attachment to the harness. This
extra device is best attached to the leg-loop of your harness on the braking hand side as shown in
FIG:154.

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FIG:154 INCREASING FRICTION WHEN ABSEILING by adding a secondary

friction device attached to the harness leg loop - in this case, an Italian Hitch

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d. Passing the rope around your back and holding it at the opposite side of your body will also
give increased friction. In extremes, the rope may be passed completely round your body and
allowed to hang over the top of the rope on the original side (see FIG:155a).

e. If you are using a Figure of Eight descender and have anticipated difficulty, the device can
be inverted and the rope passed through the small eye instead of the big one to create greater
friction as shown in FIG:155b.

FIG:155 INCREASING FRICTION WHEN ABSEILING - 2 futher methods requiring no extra equipment

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Two-person Abseils
Although in normal circumstances only one person will abseil down a rope at any one time, in certain
situations it may be necessary for 2 climbers to abseil together. This may be during a rescue (the Crag
Snatch) or as a means of getting several team members down a cliff in the minimum amount of time,
perhaps on the way to a rescue. Methods used for these purposes are fully described in the Chapter
“Improvised Rescue Techniques.” It should be emphasised however that any anchors must be absolutely
solid and that no more than 2 people should ever abseil together while each must be fully aware of the
procedures involved. Equally, a single 9mm rope must never be used for multi-person abseils.

Short Roping Techniques, Moving Together and Confidence Roping

The techniques and purpose of short roping, moving together and confidence roping are among the most
misunderstood and frequently confused mountaineering skills in general use. It is not intended to detail
every variation available and this section of the Training Handbook serves to provide clarification of
meaning and an introduction only to the various techniques.

Short Roping The term short roping is used to describe a series of techniques used by a leader to
provide security for his party members over steep and exposed terrain. As such it is a technique
frequently employed by mountain guides to provide security for their clients. It differs from confidence
roping in that it is a planned technique where the leader may have a maximum of two other party
members moving simultaneously under his direction. Although at first it can seem clumsy and
time-consuming, with practice it can provide an efficient and effective method of providing security while
allowing rapid movement unhindered by the stop/go nature of pitched rock climbing. It can be used both in
ascent and descent, in summer and winter, where an uncontrolled slip could have serious consequences.
It is important, however, that short roping is not considered as a rock climbing technique in its own right
and that it may be necessary to stop and pitch short sections of the planned route.

Although there are no hard and fast rules, the basic principle is that the rope between party members is
kept taut at all times, with a few coils held securely by the leader in his downhill hand. It is essential,
however, that the tying on method used is tidy, practical and efficient. The leader will decide how much
rope is required between each person, although this should generally be as short as the terrain will allow.
He will then take up coils around his chest, leaving some 5-8 metres between himself and the first party
member and will lock off the coils so as to link them to his sit harness strong-point (see FIG:156), ensuring
that they fit snugly around his body. The other end of the rope should be tied into the 2nd party member’s
harness using a rethreaded Figure of 8 knot, as when climbing. Any 3rd member of the party should be
tied in by creating an isolation loop with a long-tail Alpine Butterfly and an Overhand knot or Bowline as
illustrated in FIG:156a. Finally, the leader will take up any surplus rope between himself and the first
party member as hand coils, finished with a final locking twist.

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FIG:156 SHORTENING THE ROPE FOR MOVING TOGETHER.

Note that the coils are secured by an Overhand knot, the loop of which is clipped into a screwgate
karabiner in the knot loop or harness strong point. The leader holds a few short coils in his downhill hand

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FIG:156a Two Methods of Tying in to the Middle of the Rope when Moving Together as a Party of 3 or
more

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The relative positions and stances of the party members require constant supervision and adjustment -
usually by the leader who will place himself in such a way that he could arrest a slip by bracing himself
against the slope. The leader should hold his downhill arm (holding any surplus coils) bent at 90 degrees
with the elbow some 15-20 cm from his side. On occasion the leader may elect to place a simple anchor
to belay his party members across a particularly steep or tricky section.

The following key points apply to every situation when short roping:

* Hand coils must be locked off to prevent sliding and potential loss of control.

* Hand coils to be carried in the leader’s downhill hand.

* Changing hands on the move requires careful management.

* If guiding 2 novices, the heaviest or least experienced should be placed closest to the leader.

* The leader must stay alert at all times and must learn to anticipate potential problems and hazards.

* Should the leader himself not be happy with the situation at any time he must cease short roping and use
conventional rock climbing procedures.

Moving Together
This is essentially an Alpine technique allowing two or more climbers to travel quickly and safely across
relatively easy ground, thus saving time and exposure to potential hazards such as rock fall. It is also a
frequently used technique for moving up, down and across glaciers. A basic requirement when
considering moving together is that climbers should all be of roughly equal ability and confident to move
over the terrain in question, with the most experienced person taking the lead in ascent and bringing up
the rear in descent. For best effect the rope between climbers should be kept comfortably taut at all times,
with the intervening length being adjusted to the situation. In general each climber will take some coils
around their bodies, with no more than 15 metres of rope separating each person. As the leader climbs he
can safeguard the party by either placing running belays or simply passing the rope around any available
spikes or other natural anchors as they occur. The leader will normally continue until all available runners
have been used and subsequently collected by the second man. At this point they may simply “change
leads”, or he may elect to bring the second up to his position and then recover the runners before
continuing as before. Movement such as this requires close teamwork and liaison between climbers and
care must be taken not to underestimate the risks or difficulty of the situation and terrain. Each climber
must remain alert and ready to change to conventional pitched climbing techniques if necessary.
Considerable practice is required to allow a party to move together safely.

Confidence Roping
There may be unplanned occasions when the use of the rope to give confidence to a member of the party
may need to be used. This may be due to nerves, fatigue or injury and may be in ascent, descent or when
traversing ground that is not necessarily difficult for a fit, confident person. The leader must be fully
confident in his ability to negotiate the terrain in question, as must any remaining members of the party due
to the fact that confidence roping should only be used to assist one person at any one time. It is also
limited to situations where any perceived risk that the “victim” feels is merely subjective rather than
objective ie he/she believes that a slip will lead to catastrophe when in fact it would merely result in a wet

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backside! In anything other than these limited circumstances, an alternative technique or route choice
must be used. The rope is tied around the second’s waist with a Bowline, re-threaded Figure of 8 or
similar knot and a loop is created by tying an Overhand on a bight approximately 1 metre from the waist
attachment as shown in FIG:157. The remainder of the rope is placed uncoiled in the leader’s rucksack.
The leader holds the rope with his downhill hand placed below the Overhand on a bight and with his arm
bent at right angles to apply tension and to act as a shock absorber if required. He should lean slightly into
the slope, to oppose any outward pull and should ensure that his footing is secure. It is important that the
leader is uphill of the person to be assisted at all times, whether ascending, descending or traversing and
he must be confident that he could hold a slip without being pulled off his feet himself. Note that hand-
coils are not employed in confidence roping.

FIG:157 Confidence roping during descent (Note hand loops in rope for improved grip)

This technique can also be adapted to use a 240cm sling. An Overhand on a bight is tied in the sling and
the loop is placed over the second’s head and around their waist and adjusted to be a snug fit. The leader
then holds the sling and provides support as above. The 10m length of 8mm LSK carried by many
RAF MRS personnel is also ideal for confidence roping.

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River Crossing
Crossing rivers is one of the most dangerous activities in mountain areas, claiming more lives than
climbing alone. To enable you to make a reasoned judgment when choosing a site and the most
appropriate technique to undertake a crossing safely requires an understanding of the hazards involved.

HAZARDS
If things go drastically wrong it is worth remembering that incidents in moving water compound, unlike a
fall in the mountains where an accident happens and then stops. And incident in a river usually continues
as you are swept down stream. So it is of paramount importance that you choose a site that is not above
any significant hazards. Remember you can’t breathe water.

WATER FORCES
The volume of water flowing in a river is one of nature’s most powerful forces. The valley you may be
standing in was probably made by the force of water. The flow is measured in cubic metres per second.
So if you estimate your river is 4 metres wide by 1 metre deep and you throw in a stick and it travels 2
metres per second the volume will be 8 cubic metres per second or 8000 kilograms of water per second,
the same weight as 5 or 6 small cars.

When this river is in flood the forces increase at an exceptional rate, that is when the speed of the current
doubles the force quadruples, (in mathematical terms, the force of water increases in proportion to the
square of the velocity of the current). So the forces acting on you can be substantial.

Current M/sec Force on legs Force on body

1 M/sec 9N 15N
2 M/sec 30N 60N
3 M/sec 68N 136N
4 M/sec 122N 244N
N = Newton, Force of 1 Kg/m/second

For example a flow of 3 m/sec hitting your body is like having someone rugby tackle you.

River Bed
Most upland river beds are one of two types.

Scour channels. This is where the river has cut directly into the underlying bed rock. Common
features are: Steep sides, narrow, fast channels, pot holes, siphons, undercut banks.

Boulder beds. Usually due to water eroding a channel through alluvial deposits such, as glacial moraine.
Common features are: Undercut rocks, boulder sieves.

Because of the type of footware used, ie. Stiff soled boots, the risk of getting a foot caught in one of these
hazards is a very real possibility (losing balance). This, combined with a strong current can result in you
being held on the river bed with grave consequences.

Currents
Water flow. As water flows down a straight course the faster current will be in the middle of the river.
Due to the friction of the banks the water at the side flows in a helical, spiralling current that pushes objects
towards the main flow, therefore making it difficult for a swimmer to get to the side. As the river goes
around a bend the main flow goes round the outside of the bend, where the powerful currents erode a

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deep channel and undercut the bank, possibly exposing tree roots to get snagged on. So always look at
the direction of flow as it may not always be parallel to the banks.

River Hazards
Eco hazards. Fallen trees (strainers), Overhanging branches (sweepers). These act very much like a
tea strainer, holding objects whilst letting water pass through. With a strong current these can be the most
lethal dangers on a river and are best avoided.

Cold water. Any time in the water should be kept to a minimum as you lose body heat in water 25 to 35
times faster than in the air.

Lack of understanding. Without an awareness of the dangers involved you may be unable to make a
reasoned and safe judgment of the risks and therefore may put yourself and others in unnecessary
danger.

Assessing a crossing point

There is only one place to safely cross a river and it’s usually made of stone, steel or wood. Be prepared
to make a long detour or a change of plan to find a bridge or alternative route. The time to avoid any river
crossing is whilst your trip is in the planning stage. It is also vital to look carefully at the weather forecast
before setting out. If a crossing is unavoidable think of keeping risk to a minimum and the following may
help.

Safe, Shallow, Narrow, Slow Safe. If the heaviest strongest member of the group thinks they can’t
manage to cross unaided it is probable that the rest of the group will have a hard time. Is the river
downstream free of hazards? ie Long rapids, waterfalls, Eco hazards.

Shallow. Less than mid thigh, so as to keep the surface area on which the force of water is acting to a
minimum.

Narrow. The less time it takes to cross, the less time you are at risk.

Slow. The slower the current the less the forces involved.

Crossing Techniques
Once a decision has been made and a suitable site assessed, it’s time to get wet. Make sure everybody
knows what is expected and what is required of them. Now is a good time for a dry practice run. Before
you start making sure that all rucksack straps are loosened preferably only one shoulder strap being used
and hip belts are undone and tucked away. Over trousers must be removed as they tend to fill with water
and get pulled down around the knees. Leave your sock on your boots will fit better, they can be wrung
out after. If all precautions have been taken you should have a quick and easy crossing. Below are a few
techniques to help.

Line Astern
The key to wading is to try and present as small a surface area to the current as possible. In this method
the front person is supported by the people behind, who try to push downwards as well as supporting. This
lessens the chances of the leader’s feet being washed from under them.

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The Group Wedge

This technique requires the biggest and strongest people at the apex of the wedge, where they make
a very effective eddy behind them. The rest of the group are protected from the main force of the current
and can cross in relative ease.

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Crossing with the aid of a rope

The use of a rope should only be considered only as a last resort, mainly because it provides a very
effective way of drowning someone if used inappropriately, for the following reasons: The type of rope
used by mountaineers has a negative or at best a neutral buoyancy; therefore it will sink and be affected
by currents. If the rope becomes slack the risk of entanglement is high. If a person is tied into the rope
that in turn is tied off to an anchor, and they lose balance and fall in,they will aquaplane to the bottom of
the river in a system that may not be releasable.

THE OPEN LOOP METHOD

To set up this system join both ends of the rope using an overhand knot. (Tests show this is less likely to
snag on the river bed than other knots.) The anchor person A holds the rope upstream of the crosser B
and is outside the loop. the crosser is inside the loop and is supported by the rope as they cross. C stands
at the down stream corner and is ready to pull in if B were to fall.

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Once B has crossed a triangular loop is formed which forms the basis of the system. It is important that B
is downstream of A. As the group cross (D) holding onto the rope for support, the rope is fed round in the
direction of travel, A to B to C. It is possible for the leader to aid small or weaker members by crossing
with them, encircling them with your arms as you hold the rope.

Once all the group is across, it’s a simple matter of reversing the first stage.

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TENSIONED DIAGONAL
Simple and effective a rope tensioned across the river about 1 metre above the water and at an angle to
the flow of less than 45 degrees.

Dave Luke Swift water Rescue Technician. British Canoe Union level 5 Coach

Ref:
Langmuir, Mountaincraft and Leadership.
SRT International.
Wallbridge and Sundmacher, White Water Rescue
Manual
Ray, River rescue.

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