UNIT 9 DECISION MAKING PROCESS

Structure
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Objectives
9.3 Steps in Decision making process
9.3.1 ldentification of opportunities or problems
9.3.2 Development of alternative solutions
9.3.3 Finalization of the criteria to be used for evaluating possible solutions
9.3.4 Evaluation of alternative solutions

9.4 Models in Decision making process

9.4.1 Formal model
9.4.2 Collegial model
9.4.3 Political model
9.4.4 Subjective model
9.4.5 Ambiguity model
9.4.6 Cultural model

9.5 Adequacy of models in educational management

9.6 Managing an educational institution : Synthesis of Useful Features of the Six
Models as per the Context
9.7 Let Us Sum Up
9.8 Unit -end Activities
9.9 References
9.10 Answers to Check Your Progress

ABC Medical College is a well known institution. The College was a model
institutionfor the other institutions in the city and rest of the medical colleges
in the country. Principal, faculty members, students, stafS members, other
employees and its alumni have been proud to be apart of it. Everybody praises
its institutional environment or organizational climate.
DI: Raj Kumal; a well known surgeon, was invited as one of the key speakers
in annual lecture series of the college. In spite of his busy schedule DI:
Raj
Kumar accepted the invitation due to
the reputation of the college
the persuasive style of the invitation letter
he is the alumnus.
The arrangement of the venue, the audience, enthusiasm shown by students, the
openness and positive interactions among principal, teachers, students and other
employees were the aspects that needed appreciation by any outsider. The event
was meticulously organize. It was planned and coordinated smoothly and execution
was like any other routine activity of the college.
DI:Shanti is an instructional designer in an ITfirm. She was invited to deliver
a lecture on the theme ZCTpotentialities andpossibilities in Indian Context
in a multipurpose school located in a rural area. She wanted to expose the
students to the diflerent applications used in presentation of a lecture by using
power points and other computer applications. She prepared her presentation
very well as she had already inquired about the availability of computer and
internetfacility in the school.
She reached the school in time, the venue was an open hall with more than
200 students. She felt disappointed in the first go, as she anticipated a
presentation in a hall with compute6 a big screen, availability of electric switch
points and no outside disturbances.
She accepted the reality and started her presentation. After sometime there
was a power cut and no power back up was arranged by the school. She felt
helpless as well as frustrated but somehow kept her patience and decided to
go for interactive session rather than lecture. She asked for the speaker or the
mike. The Principal asked Ramesh, a student to bring speakerfrom Mr: Gurmeet
Singh, teacher incharge. Ramesh, came back after ten minutes and said MI:
Gurmeet Singh is in the classroom and will be coming after the class.
She continued with her presentation.
These are two [Link] might have experienced similar and many more situations
where your meticulous planning worked well and at times failed miserably. In some
situations, you might have viable alternatives and in some you had to invent one

decision making refers to making achoice among available alternatives. It is aprocess

through which a course of action is selected as the w s t suitable, viable and best
solution to aproblem.
When we talk of processes involved in decision making the focus is on factors
involved or considered while making decisions to achieve desired goals. Related
literature shows variety of models. These explain how the decisions are made /ought
to be made in different contexts. In the following section we will go through the
characteristics of each of these models. In this context, it is important to keep in
mind that human factor is the most important as they use and control all other
resources and their value increases with the passage of time on account of acquisition
of knowledge and experience when they use it effectively.
Decision making, sometimes, may take place by default; that is, without consciously

situation, there must be at least two alternatives available. If only one course of
action is available, there can be no decision-making, for there is nothing to decide.
We would have no alternative but to proceed with the single available course of
action. For example, the date of an entrance exam is declared on 2ndApril,2009
for Masters courses by a college, do not require any decision for the students
desirous of appearing for the exam but for other institutionsgoing for entrance exams
for Masters programme have alternativeslike whether to consider this date for their
exams or exclude it at all.(One might agree, however, that it is a rather unusual
situation when there are no alternative courses of action. More frequently,alternatives Decision Making Process
simply are not recognized.)"
Decision-makingprocess consists of choosing from among alternative courses of
action. But this is an inadequate definition. Consider the following:
At a horse race, a bettor was uncertain which of the five horses to bet on in the
next race. He closed his eves and pointed his finger at the list of horses ~rinted

Does the race horse selection represent the process of decision-making? Yes, it
clearly was a process of choosing among alternatives (assumingthe bettor had already
ruled out the do-nothing alternative of placing no bet). But. the decision-making
process described seems inadequate and irrational. We want to deal with rational
decision-malung.''

9.2 OBJECTIVES
After going through this unit you will able to
describe the process of decision making;
analyses the various steps involved in decision making; and
Explain1highlight the models of decision making process.

Following is a brief write up on the steps involved in the process of decisionmaking:

9.3.1 Identification of opportunity or problem

In order to define and formulate correctly the problem it is important to collect as
much information as possible. The problem needs to be correctly identified at first.

9.3.2 Development of Alternative solutions

It is also important to develop and consider various possible alternate solutions.
Brain storming in a group situation is a technique found very effective for these
activities.

9.3.3 Finalization of the criteria to be used for evaluating

possible solutions
Criteria for evaluating alternative may include legal obstacles, finance,availability of
human resources and time along with possible achievement of desired objectives
and as far as possible no negative consequences.

9.3.4 Evaluation of Alternative solutions

A good decision maker will consider as many options as possible and analyse them
in the lirrht of k n o ~ constmhts.
n The whole exercise of decision making is undertaken

course ofaction. l'recise or to the point results can be predicted in advance with
23
gecision Making in complete certainty. In such conditions task of the manager is only to idenhty the
Educational Management outcomes of available options and select the one which is close to desired objectives.
At times, a decision maker may face situations where no good solution is in sight. In
such situations there is greater need of making midway correction after making the
best choice among available alternatives.
In real life, it is difficult to have conditions where precise outcome can be attributed
to each possible course of action. Exact results can be predicted in advance with
complete certainty. In such conditions task of the manager is only to identify the
outcomes of available options and select the one which is close to desired objectives.
In case, it is not possible to eliminate all negative consequencethen the choice will
have to be made with regard to which of the negative consequence will exert minimal
impact. It may not prove to be a good practice to try previously tested or good
enough [Link] good decision may not be equally successfulin future
because of the change in circum~tan~es, availability of new opportunities and
possibility of new threats.

You might have observed that decision making process may vary. It depends on
various factors like nature of the problem, exigency of the problem, impact of the
solution and context of the problem. Adequacy of models in decision making in
education depends on the situation specificity that decides selection of the
appropriateness of model. Based on the approach or model one has to adopt in
arriving at the best possible solutionin the prevailing situation, classificationof models
is as follows:

Collegial model

Subiective
Decision Making
Model )- -
-b Formal model

Ambiguitymodel

9.4.1 Formal Modal

Formal models are normative in approach as they prescribe how people in an
organization ought to behave. Emphasis is on hierarchical system, authority of manager
is tied to the chair/ position sthe occupies and is vested in the person as long as they
hold the posts. Formal structure of each organization is represented by organization
charts showing authorized patterns of relationship between members of the
organization. Formal and structural elements have linkages with each other. For
example in a college/departmentsand other sub-units are systematically related to
each other and to the institute as well; lecturers are answerable to the head of the
departments who in turn is answerable to the Principal of the collegefor activities in
their department and they all accept and pursue organizational goals.
Organization is accountable to its sponsoring body. All government schools are
accountable to their state governments whereas private school Principals are
accountableto their governing boards.
Process of Decision Making in Formal Model Decision Making Process

Managerial decisions are made through a rational process- i.e., all options are
considered and evaluated in terms of organizational goals to select most suitable
alternatives.

9.4.2 Collegial Model

This model emphasizes and takes steps to assure determination of organization's
policy through a process of discussion leading to consensus. 'Power is shared among
some or all members of the organization who are thought to have a shared
understanding about the aims of the institution. Collegialitycan be defmed as teachers
conferring and collaborating with other teachers. (Brundrett 1998)
This seems to be appropriatefor educational organizationslike schools and colleges
having professional staff who have an authority of expertise that does not go well
with the positional authority system of the formal model. Teachers require autonomy
in the classroom but also need to collaborate to ensure a coherent approach to
teaching and learning (Brundrett,1998).Professional participation in the decision
making makes them more willing to follow the decisions.
Leithwood et a1 (1999) list three criteria that underpin this model as following- i) .
Participation will increase school effectiveness ii) Participation is justified by
democraticprinciples and iii) Leadership is potentially available to any legitimate
stakeholder. Burdm of leadership will be less if leadership functions and roles are
shared.
It assumes that people belonging to a profession share common set of values and
thereby it is possible for them to reach consensus in decision making to achieve
goals and objectives.
Process of decision making in Collegial model
The size of decision making groups is an importantelement. It should be sufficiently
small to be able to give chance to everyone to be heard. This may mean that this
model may work better in institutions such as primary or elementary schools. In
larger institutionsmeeting of the whole staff may be suitable for information exchange '

only. To overcomethis problem of size formal represedation of teachers is made in

decision making bodies, In this process decision making process takes longer in
search of compromises to be made to resolve conflicts and this is regarded as an
acceptable price to pay to maintain the shared beliefs and values.
c-

9.4.3 Political Model

As per Baldridge(l97 1) political model best captures realities in higher education.
'These models assume that in organizations policy and decisions emerge through a
process of negotiations and bargaining. Interest groups develop and form alliances
in pursuit of particular group [Link] organizationare unstable, ambiguous
and contested. Conflict is viewed as a natural phenomenon and power accrues to
dominant coaljtions rather than being the preserve of formal leaders'.
Major features of polltical model include focus on group activities rather than
organization as a whole. Conflict between the leaders of different sub- groups is
about resources and power. Interest groups pursue their independent objectives
which may be in conflictwith the interest of other subunits/ groupsin the organization'
(Morgan, 1997). Goals may be disputed and become-a significant element in the
conflict between groups (Botman & Deal. 1991).
Decision Making in Process of Decision Making
Educational Management
Concept of power is central .Decisionswithin political arenas emerge after a complex
process of bargaining and negotiations; outcomes are likely to be determined
-,cordingto the relative power of the individuals and interest groups involved in the
debate. Power influences who gets what, when and how? The sources of power are
rich and varied. (Morgan,1997).It can be of position, expertise, personal, control
of rewards or resources. For example, principals have the power to provide rewards-
promotion, reference etc. They need co- operation of staff for effective management.

9.4.4 Subjective Model

This model has supplemented the formal theories. It assumes that organisations are
social constructsin the sense that they emerge from the interaction of their participants.
It focuses on individuals within organization rather than the total institution or its
[Link] perspectives suggest that each individualhas a subjective and selective
perception of the organization. Individual's behaviour is influenced by his/ her
perception of events and participation in organizations depend on their values,
background and experience. .
Process of decision making
In subjective view leadership is a product of personal qualities and skills and not
simply an automatic outcome of official authority as s h e has to develop apower to
attend to the multiple voices in their organizations.

9.4.5 Ambiguity model

This model assumes that turbulence and unpredictability are dominant features of
organisations. There is no clarity with regard to objectives and processes. Sub units
r e portrayed as relatively autonomous groups connected loosely with each other
and with the institution itself.
Ambiguity is a prevalent feature of complex organizations like schools. Educational
institutions are regarded as typical in having no clearly defined objectives as teachers
work independently most of the time. The degree of integration required in education
is markedly less than in other settings allowing fragmentation to develop and persist.
Committee and other formal bodies have right and responsibilities which overlap
with each other. The effective power of each element within the structurevaries with
the issue and accordmg to the level of participation of committee members.
Ambiguity model assumes that organizations have a problematic technology i.e. their
processes are not clearly understood. In education, it is not clear how students
acquire knowledge and skills so the processes of teaching are clouded with doubt
and uncertainty.
Ambiguity model added important dimensions like problematic goals, unclear
technology and fluid participation, to the theory of educational management. The
more unpredictable the internal and external environment, greater will be the
applicabilityof [Link] models are appropriatefor professional
client serving organizations. Professionals act on individualjudgment rather than on
managerial prescriptions.
Process of decision making
Ambiguity theoristsemphasize the prevalence of unplanned decision. Lack of agreed
goals lead ro decisions with no clear focus. Problems, solutions and participants
26 interact and choices somehow emerge from the confusions. There is no clear
distinction between means and ends, no articulation of organisational goals, no Decision Making Process
evaluation of alternatives in relation to organizational goals and no selection of best
means ( Levacir, 1995).
Participation in decision making is fluid as members opt in or out of decision
opportunities.

9.4.6 Cultural Model

Cultural model emphasizesinformal aspects of [Link] is on the values,
beliefs and of individuals in the organizations and how these individuals in the
organizations and how these individual perception are coalesced into shared
organizationalmeanings. Cultural models are manifestedby symbols and rituals rather
than thtough formal structures(Bush, 2003). Values and beliefs of individuals influence
their behaviour and the way they judge other's behaviours. These norms become
shared traditionswhich are communicated within the group and reinforced by symbols
and rituals. Bearie, Coldwell and NIillikan (1992) define organizationalculture as a
social phenomenon that is unique to a particular organizational community.
Organizational culture is more enduring and change gradually over time.
Societal culture is one important aspect of the context within which educational
leaders must operate. Organisationalculture provides them with immediateframework
for flunctioning. Culture is expressed through rituals and ceremonies used to support
and celebrate beliefs and norms.
Schools are rich in such symbols such as assemblies, annual school functions.
Symbols are central in the process of constructing meaning (Boyle, 1986).Culture
spnngs primarily from the beliefs, values and acsumptionsof founders of organizations.
Principals have their own values and beliefs arising from many years of professional
practice. They are also expected to embody the culture of school / college.
Process of Decision making
The leadershipmodel closely linked to organizationalculture is that of moral leadership
as it is based on the values, beliefs and ethics of leaders themselves. Authority and
influence are to be derived from conceptions of right or good (Leithwood et al,
1999).It focuses on the moral purpose of education and on the behaviours to be
expected of leaders.
Cultural model adds several useful elements to the analysis of school and college
leadership and management. The focus is on the informal dimension. Stress on
values and beliefs of participants, i.e the human aspects, adds to understanding of
value based approach to leadership. It recognizes thit school and collegedevelopment
needs to be preceded by attitudinal change is important. Teachersmust feel ownership
of change if it is to be implemented effectively.
Check Your Progress
Note: (a) Space is given below each question to write your answers.
(b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the unit

27
Decision Making in 1. Exercise: Read the followingpassage:
Educational Management
Model Assumptions
Name the decision U.P is the largest state of India. In U.P there is
making model the a co-education primary school in a village that
Headmaster could remains closed for summer vacation. Suddenly
use. Write out all during the summer vacation there was a fire in
possible solutions. the village. The poor village people lost their
homes and came to school for shelter at night.
People have been staying in the school since
then. But in due course the school is opened.
And here in presence of local people how will
the headmaster run the school ? And how will
he take the decision? He is in utter dilemma.

2. What is the cultural model of decision making ?

...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
9.5 ADEQUACY OF MODELS IN EDUCATIONAL
MANAGEMENT
The six models differ along crucial dimensionsbut do they provide a comprehensive
picture of the nature of management in educational institutions is something to be
reflected on .Let us look at the formal model in this context.

in structure, Individuals come and

o, but it is expected from them to

All other models developed as a reaction to the perceived weakness of formal

theories. We will be reviewing the assumptions of these models and discuss
their appropriatenessin decision making in educational management.
28
 Political model
Assumptions Limitations
The focus is on formulation of policy
These models assume that in while the implementation of policy
organizations policy and receives little attention.
decisions emerge through a The outcome of bargaining and
process of negotiations and negotiation are endorsed or may not be
bargaining. endorsed within the formal structure of
the school or college.
Goals of organization are There in too much emphasis on conflict
unstable, ambiguous and and a neglect of the possibility of
contested. professional collaboration leading to
agreed outcomes.
Group /individual interest are It does not produce long term
prime motivator for action commitment to the values and visions
promoted by school leaders.
Decision Making in Advocates of political model claim that these approaches are realistic portrayals of
Educational Management the decision making process in schools and colleges. Recognition of interest as prime
motivator for action is valid along with concepts of conflict and political model fits
their experience of day to day reality in schools. But the less attractive aspects of
these models may make these models unacceptable to many educationistson ethical
grounds
Political model's stress on the influence of interest groups on decision making may
be inappropriate for elementary schools. Teachers' capacity to work in harmony
with other colleagues for the benefit of their students is overlooked
Ambiguity Model
Assumptions Limitations
Educational institutions are relatively more
This model assumes that turbulence and stable and predictable. In practice they
unpredictability are dominant features* operate with a mix of rational and anarchic
of organisations. processes.
Schools and colleges have a number of
predictable features. Students and staff are
expected to behave in accordance with
standard rules and procedures. Timetable
regulates the location and movement of all
participants. There are clear plan to guide
the classroom activities of teachers and
pupils. Staff are aware of the accountability
patterns, teachers are answerable to
principal and principal is answerable to
local/ state government.
There is no clarity with regard to Specific goals may be unclear but teachers
objectives and processes. usually understand broad aims of education.
Participation in decision making is Participants may move in and out of
fluid as members opt in or out of decision making situations but the policy
decision opportunities. framework remains intact and has a
continuing influence on the outcome of
discussions.
In this era of constant change, schools are experiencing difficulties in interpreting
various messages and in dealing with conflicting signals. The u n c e w t y arising from
external context adds to the ambiguity of decision making .

Subjective Model
Assumptions Limitations
Subjective model focuses on <
individuals within organization rather
than the total institution or its subunits.
Each individual has a subjective and
selective perception of the organization.
Events and participants in organizations
depending on their values, background
and experience.
Organisations are social constructs in
the sense that they emerge from the
interaction of their participants.

30

1
 Check Your Progress Decision Making Process

Note: (a) Space is given below each question to write your answers.
(b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the unit.
3. Read the following passage given below:
Assumption
Name the decision As per Government of India policy, every Anganwadi '

making model should have a kitchen for preparing mid-day meals for
used here. children. However, this was not the case in a few villages.
There was space constraints and other difficulties that
prevented the Anganwadis in these villages to have
kitchens. In order to solve the problem, the . local
government and Panchayat Committee decided to start a
Kitchen hub in the area and prepared food will be provided
to different Anganwadis by van service. Now the
responsibility for implementing the decision rests with the
Child Development Project Officer, District Administration
Officer, Anganwadi Supervisors as well the local village
committee.

4. What is subjective model ?

9.6 MANAGING AN EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTION :

SYNTHESIS OF USEFUL FEATURES OF THE SIX
MODELS AS PER THE CONTEXT
The six models differ along crucial dimensionsbut taken together they do provide a
comprehensive picture of the nature of management in educational institutions.

i "Organizations are many things at once ! They are complex and multifaceted. They
are paradoxical. That's why the challenges facing management are so difficult. In
any given situation there may be many different tendencies and dimensions, all of
, which have an impact on effective management" (Morgan, 1997).
Enderud (1980), and Davies and Morgan (1 983), have developed integrative models
incorporatingambiguity,political, collegial and formal perspectives. These syntheses
are based on the assumption that policy formation proceeds through four distinct
1
phases which all require adequate time if the decision is to be successful. These
authors assume an initial period of high ambiguity as problem; solutions and
participants interact at appropriate choice opportunities. This anarchic phase serves
to identrfy the issues and acts as aprelummy [Link] conducted properly
it should lead to an initial coupling of problems with potential solutions.
Theodossin (1983) links the subjective to the formal or systems model using an
analytical continuum. He argues that a systems perspective is the most appropriate
way of explainingnational developmentswhile individualand subunit activities may
be understood best by utilizing the individual meanings of participants.
Decision Making in However, it is certainly possible to postulate different sets of relations participants
Educational Management engage in conflict instead of seeking to achieve consensus. It is perhaps significant
that there ha<ebeen few attempts to integrate the management models since the
1980s.
The multiplicity of competing models means that no single theory is sufficient to
guide practice. Rather, managers need to develop " conceptualpluralism" (Bolman
& Deal, 1984)to be able to select the most appropriate approach to particular
issues and avoid a unidimensional stance:"Managers in all organizationscan increase
their effectivenessand their freedom through the use of multiple vantage points. To
be locked into a single path is likely to produce error and self- imprisonment".
Conceptual pluralism is similarto the notion of contingentleadership. Both recognize
the diverse nature of educational contexts and the advantages of adapting leadership
styles to the particular situation rather than adopting a " one size fits all" stance.
Appreciation of the various models is the starting point for effective action. It provides
a " conceptual tool- kit" for the manager to deploy as appropriatein addressing
problems and developing strategy.
Morgan (1997) argues that organizational analysis based on these multiple
perspectives comprises two elements:.
A diagnosticreading of the situationbeing investigated,using differentmetaphors
to identify or highbght key aspects of the situation.
A critical evaluation of the sigdicance of the different interpretations resulting
from the diagnosis.
These skills are consistent with the concept of the " reflective practitioner" whose
managerial approach incorporates both good experience and a distillation of
theoretical models based on wide reading and discussion with both academics and
fellow practitioners. This combination of theory and practice enables the leader to
acquire the overview required for stradgic management.
Check Your Progress
Note: (a) Space is given below each question to write your answers.
(b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the unit. ,

5. Read the statement given below :

--
Name the decision Most of the primary schools in the country are
making model used co-educational. It has been observed that in
here. certain pockets parents are not enrolling their
girl child in these schools. The survey conducted
in this regard stated the cultural taboos
inhibiting girl education in co-education
context. In that case the percentage of girls
students is dismal. Village panchyat members,
Area Education Committee and District
Education Officer had several meetings and
decided to have a separate section in each
primary classes for girls in all schools in the
area. Recommendation for appointing female
teachers and female attendants for girls were also
sent to the state government.
9.7 LET US SUM UP
Individuals, groups or teams make decisions everyday. Some decisions are very
important and affect a lot of people whereas other decision are small and affect only
one or two people. Adecision making process based on data leads to good decisions.
Decision making is a study of identifying and choosing alternatives based on the
values and preference of the decision maker. Making a decision implies that there
alternativechoices to be considered and in such case the decision maker not only
identify as many of these alternatives as possible but to choose the one that (a) has
the highest probability of success or effectiveness and (b)best fit with the institutional
management and so on.

9.8 UNIT END ACTIVITIES

1. Talk to the village committee members in your locality and collect the data to
know how they contribute in the decision making process of the village primary
school. Prepare a report on it.

9.9 REFERENCES
Koontz, H. & W, Heinz.(1988). Management. McGraw-Hill InternationalEditions.
MES-0 15: Operational Dimensions of Education, MA (Education)course material,
IGNOU, 2008.
R. S. Dwivedi. (1995). Human Relations and Organisational Behaviour: Global
Perspective: 5" Edition. Macmillan India Ltd.
Dash, Neena; (2008) Decision - Making in Schools;Edutracks :AMonthly Scanner
of Trends in Education: vol. 8 No-4; pp - 10-12;: Nilkarnal Publication Pvt. Ltd.,
Delhi.

9.10 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1. Refer to section 6.4
2. Cultural model emphasis informal aspect of [Link] models are
manifested by symbols and rituals rather than through formal structure.
3. Refer to section 6.4
4. This model has supplementedthe formal theories. It assumes that organisations
are social constructs in the sense that they emerge from the interactionof their
participants. It focuses on individuals within organization rather than the total
institution or its subunits.
5. Refer to section 6.4