4.

WATER APPLICATION METHODS

4.1. Land Grading, Survey and Design

Land leveling is Reshaping of the field surface to a planned grade which is necessary to control
flow of water, to check soil erosion and provide surface drainage. Irrigation of uneven land - high
spots are watered too little and low spots too much. Results in uneven water application, uneven
crop growth, yield reduction, and loss of water. Properly graded land surface- unobstructed smooth
flow of water into the land, without eroding the soil and ensuring uniform distribution of water
throughout the filed. Land leveling operations may be grouped into three phases; rough grading,
Land leveling and Land smoothing.

Rough grading: - Removal of abrupt irregularities - mounds, dunes and rings, and filling of
pits, depressions and gullies

Land leveling is land grading of land forming or land shaping. Requires moving large quantities
of earth over considerable distance

Land smoothing: Leveling operations leaves irregular surfaces. Irregularities are removed and a
plane surface obtained. Final operation in land leveling.

Survey of the area is required for land leveling design. A grid system should be Establish over the
field and Set stakes at the grid points.

Figure 4-1: Geographic survey of a field

Usual grid space is 25m in each direction. Other spacing such as 30 * 30m, 20 * 20m, and 15 *
15m depending on surface relief and precision required. Grid point is at center of grid square
represents equal area. Row lines are lettered and column lines numbered. Establish two or more
base lines in each directions to locate grid points and then to sight in the rest of the stakes

Level are run to determine ground elevation at each stake. Elevations are determined with a dumpy
level and a level rod, adopting the usual survey procedures. First rod reading is made on bench
mark (BM) and Reduced level (RL) of the grid points is computed. Values of RL may be entered
in a tabular form or may be indicated directly on the base map at the respective grid points. Contour
lines are drawn at suitable intervals based on average land slope which clearly indicate the
direction and degree of slope, ridges, depressions and other topographical features. With the help
of contour map the land is divided into fields that can be graded and irrigated individually to the
best advantage.

To make the survey information more readily understood and studied, contour lines are drawn at
suitable intervals. The contour intervals are usually based on the average land slope. The
recommended contour intervals for different ranges of land slopes are as follows:
Table 4-1: The recommended contour intervals for different ranges of land slopes are as follows

Land slope range (%) Contour interval (cm)

0–1 6 – 15
1–2 15 – 30
2–5 30 – 60
5 – 10 60 – 150
Land levelling design methods

i) Plane method
ii) Profile method
iii) Inspection method and
iv) Contour adjustment method
This chapter deals with the plane method in more detail and other methods can be referred
from literatures.
Plane Method
Most commonly used method of land leveling design. Determining the centroid of the filed which
is located by computing moments about two reference lines at right angles to each other.

Procedure of plane method

1. Determining the centroid of the field

Centroid is located by computing moments about two reference lines at right angles to each other.
Distance of the centroid of the field from any line of reference is equal to the sum of the products
obtained by multiplying the area of each part times the distance from the line of reference to its
centroid, divided by the area of the entire field.

Example consider figure 4.1

CI= rectangle = (58.5, 87.5), CII = Rectangle = (171, 56) CIII= rectangle triangle = (153,133.5))

AI= 117*175=20478, AII= 108*112= 12096, AIII=(108*63)/2= 3402

Xc = (20475*58.5 + 12150*171+ 3402*153)/(20475+12150+3402) = 105.36

Or in other way

Label No. of Stake Distance Stake*Distance

1 7 12.5 87.5
2 7 37.5 262.5
3 7 62.5 437.5
4 7 87.5 612.5
5 7 112.5 787.5
6 7 137.5 962.5
7 6 162.5 975
8 5 187.5 937.5
9 5 212.5 1062.5
Total 58 1012.5 6125 105.6034
6125
Dis tan ce of centroid from the reference line = = 105.603m
58
In the same way the distance of centroid I the south-north direction is computed as follows

Line Distance No Stakes Product

A 12.5 9 112.5
B 37.5 9 337.5
C 62.5 9 562.5
D 87.5 9 787.5
E 112.5 9 1012.5
F 137.5 7 962.5
G 162.5 6 975.0
Total 58 4750.0
4750
Dis tan ce of centroid from the reference line   81.896 m
58

Therefore the location of the centroid is (105.603, 81.896)

2. Determine the average elevation of the field

3. Subdivide the area into sub-areas, each of which can be leveled to a plane surface;

4. Calculate the average elevation of the sub-area at the centroid. Ec =

∑Ei
n

5. Locate the centroid of the sub-area (Xc, Yc).

Example Problem 4.1: The topographic survey of a filed gave the following elevations (m) at
grid points.
1 2 3 4 5
A 10.65 10.43 10.07 9.68 9.67
B 10.47 10.42 9.95 9.84 9.75
C 10.32 10.08 9.92 9.65 9.48
D 9.89 9.48 9.67 9.41 9.13
o Calculate the elevation of the centroid of the field. Stakes are to guide the leveling of this
field into a playground.
o Calculate the cut and fill at the grid points.
o Compare the quantities of earthwork in cutting and filling
Solution

Total GP = 20 Total of elevations = 197.96

sum of the elevations of the grid po int s 197.96
Elevation of centroid    9.898 m
Number of grid po int s 20

Since the field is to be used as a playground, it is to be leveled without any slope in any direction.
The cuts and fills at various grid points are obtained by subtracting the elevation of the
corresponding grid point from the elevation of the centroid.
Thus, the cut/fill at grid point A1 is 9.898 – 10.65 = -0.752m. The –sign indicates the cut, while
+sign indicates fill. The cuts and fills (in m) at the different grid points are computed which are
tabulated below:
1 2 3 4 5
A -0.752 -0.532 -0.172 +0.218 +0.228
B -0.572 -0.522 -0.052 +0.058 +0.148
C -0.422 -0.182 -0.022 +0.248 +0.418
D +0.008 +0.418 +0.228 +0.488 +0.768

Check:  cut   fill  3.228 m

Example Problem 4.2:
A topographic survey of a rectangular field was done for planning a land leveling program. Grid
points were set at intervals of 25m. The elevation of the points are given below:
Elevation (m)
Line 1 Line 2 Line 3 Line 4 Line 5
A 8.26 8.75 9.30 9.52 10.44
B 7.94 8.12 8.90 8.80 9.62
C 7.12 7.86 8.35 8.60 8.42
D 6.74 7.28 7.94 8.16 7.80
Determine the elevation of the centroid the field. The field is to have a downfield slope of 0.2%.
Determine the formation levels at the grid points and also the amount of cut or fill at each grid
point.

Solution

Total GP = 20 Sum of elevations = 167.92m

The formation levels at the grid points are computed at each grid point with reference to the
elevation of the centroid.
For example,
Station A1 is 50m from the north-south line passing through the centroid. At 0.2% slope, the
elevation of this point should be 0.1m below the centroid, or 8.296m. Similarly, the formation
level at each grid point is computed. The results are tabulated below:
1 2 3 4 5
A 8.296 8.346 8.396 8.446 8.496
B 8.296 8.346 8.396 8.446 8.496
C 8.296 8.346 8.396 8.446 8.496
D 8.296 8.346 8.396 8.446 8.496
Cut and fill information

1 2 3 4 5
A +0.036 -0.404 +0.096 -1.074 -1.944
B +0.356 +0.226 -0.504 -0.354 -1.124
C +1.176 +0.486 +0.046 -0.154 +0.076
D +1.556 +0.066 +0.456 +0.286 +0.696

Check:  cut   fill  5.58 m

 4.2. Surface Irrigation Methods
The term 'surface irrigation' refers to a broad class of irrigation methods in which water is
distributed over the field by overland flow. A flow is introduced at one edge of the field and covers
the field gradually. The rate of coverage (advance) is dependent almost entirely on the differences
between the discharge onto the field and the accumulating infiltration into the soil. Secondary
factors include field slope, surface roughness, and the geometry or shape of the flow cross-section.

Advantages using Surface irrigation:

 It is more acceptable to agriculturalists or requires less technical skills to operates &maintain.
 Energy requirements for surface irrigation systems come from gravity.
 Surface irrigations are less affected by climatic and water quality characteristics.
Disadvantages of Surface irrigation
 Greater loss of water by surface runoff and deep percolation.
 Low efficiency due to imperfect control over the water flow.
 Costly and time consuming preparation of land.
Irrigation systems generally consist of four components;
1) Physical systems
2) Social and organizational systems
3) Cropping system
4) Economic systems
This chapter deals in depth with the considerations that should be taken in the design of the
physical system in general and in particular the water use sub-system. The primary purpose of the
physical system is to supply water to an area for crop production. The Physical systems of Surface
irrigation systems as a whole consist of four subsystems.

These are:
1) The water supply subsystem
2) The water delivery subsystem
3) The water use subsystem
4) The water removal subsystem
i) Water delivery system
The function of water delivery sub- system is to convey water from the source to field through
main canal, distributaries, minors and field channels, at constant, regulated rate, at proper
elevation, with seepage controlled, without excessive erosion or sediment taken, with appropriate
water quality and amount.
ii) Water supply sub –systems
The output from water delivery sub–system is the input for water application sub–system.
Functions: -
 To distribute the desired amount of water with the designed uniformity over the
field.
 To satisfy erosion control standards
 To provide necessary surface drainage
iii) Water use sub- system
The water use sub- system receives water from the application sub –system.
Functions: -
 To supply the water requirement of the crop.
 To maintain acceptable level of soil salinity.
 To ensure adequate nutrients.
 To provide soil conditions for supporting plants, preventing soil crusting facilitating
tillage etc

iv) Water removal sub –system

This sub –system is used for removal and disposal of surface and sub- surface waters from land to
improve agriculture operations.
Functions: -
 To provide proper root aeration by lowering ground water table,
 To maintain appropriate salinity levels with in the soil profile,
 To dispose (remove) excess irrigation or rain water from the field.

4.2.1. Classification of Surface Irrigation Methods

1. Wild flooding
It is the primitive and most inefficient methods of irrigation. Water is spread into smooth or flat
field without much control over the flow prior to preparation. Croplands are irrigated without
regard to efficiency or uniformity. Although the initial costs of land preparation is low, labor
requirement are usually high and application efficiency is also low. Wild flooding is most suitable
to close growing crops, pastures or forage crops or the crop values do not justify adoption of better
method. The method is suitable for all medium to fine textured soils. This method used where
water supply is in plenty and on the field with irregular topography which makes adoption of other
methods difficult. The evaluation methods can be applied if desired, but the design techniques are
not generally applicable nor need they be since the irrigation practices tend to be minimally
managed.

Disadvantage of the method are:

Wasteful use of water, Non uniform distribution of water, Excessive soil erosion on the steeper
slopes, and require drainage arrangement to reduce pending.

Figure 4-2. Wild flooding

2. Basin Irrigation
Basin irrigation uses generally a level or flat area surrounded by ridges (bounds, dikes) to guide
water as it flows from one end to the other to prevent from leaving the field. A basin is typically
square in shape but exists in all sorts of irregular and rectangular (small or large) configurations.
Water is filled quickly in the basin and is allowed to percolate into the soil. Basin irrigation is
suited to different crops, such as, rice, cotton, groundnuts, fruit trees etc. and to soils of moderate
to low intake rate having smooth, gentle and uniform land slopes.

Disadvantages

 Precision land levelling is very important to achieving high uniformities and efficiencies
 The perimeter dykes need to be well maintained
 The flow rate must be large enough to cover the entire basin approximately 60 to 75 percent
of the time required for the soil to absorb the desired amount of water.
 Formation of dense crusts

Figure 4-3. Basin irrigation

3. Border irrigation
Border irrigation can be viewed as an extension of basin irrigation to sloping, long rectangular or
contoured field shapes, with free draining conditions at the lower end. In a border irrigation,
controlled surface flooding is practiced whereby the field is divided into border strips by parallel
ridges or dykes and each strip is irrigated separately by introducing water upstream and it
progressively covers the entire strip. Water is applied to individual borders from small hand-dug
checks or siphon pipes from the field head ditch. When the water is shut off, it recedes from the
upper end to the lower end. The size of the strips depend on types of soil, slopes of the land and
size of irrigation system. The border strip may vary from 3 to 30 meters in width and from 100 to
800 meters in length. It is suitable for high value crops (wheats), trees and used for some row crops
like cotton.
Border irrigation is generally well suited to soils with moderately low to moderately high intake
rates and the surface slope from 2 to 4m/100m. Field application efficiency is good to excellent if
the border strips are designed and installed properly and good water management practice are
followed. Design water application efficiencies of the order 70 -75 % can be attained for slopes of
0.001 to 0.002 m/m on soils of silt clay to clay with depth of application of 75 - 100 mm.

Borders can be grouped into three major categories depending on the management strategy
adopted:

Fixed flow: a system in which the inlet flow rate remains constant throughout the duration of
irrigation, the method is simple and less expensive but generally of low efficiency.

Cutback: this is a system in which irrigation begins with a maximum or near maximum non erosive
inlet flow rate, which continues for a part of the irrigation period and then reduced to a level just
above what is needed to wet the entire length of the border.

Tail water reuse: this is a system in which excess surface runoff from the downstream end is
collected in a sump and then pumped back into the same field to open up more borders or used to
irrigate another field.

Advantage of the method are: Requires less labor & time, Low maintenance cost & Provides
uniform wetting

Disadvantage of the method are: requires proper leveling, high initial cost and large supply of
water is needed.
Figure 4-4. Border irrigation

4. Furrow Irrigation

It is the common method of irrigation in row crops. A furrow consists of a narrow ditch between
the rows of crops. Water is applied in small streams between rows of crops, grown on ridges or in
furrows. The characteristic feature of furrow irrigation is that, unlike flooding method, only half
to one-fifth of the irrigated land surface is wetted, there by cutting down evaporation. Water
infiltrates through the wetted perimeter and spreads vertically and horizontally to refill the soil
reservoir. The size and shape of the furrow depend on the soil, crop spacing, equipment used for
the formation of furrow and inter cultivation.

The usual size of furrow is about 25cm wide and 8 to 10cm deep. Furrow grade may vary from 0.1
to 0.5 m/m for different soils and stream sizes. The maximum non-erosive stream size for a furrow
is determined from the following relation:

0.6
Q=
S
Where Q= maximum furrow stream size (lit/sec)
S= slope of furrow (percent)
The average depth of water applied during irrigation is calculated from the following relation:
Q * 3600
D=
S* L
 D=depth of water (cm) applied in one hr.
Q= stream size (lit/sec
S=furrow spacing (m)
L=furrow length (m) irrigated in one hr.
Furrow irrigation is adaptable to all row crops but not suitable for very light soils having high
infiltration capacity, as the water is wasted on the upper end of the furrow due to deep percolation.
Advantage of furrow irrigation
i. Low evaporation loss;
ii. Furrow serves as drainage ways for surface runoff of heavy rainfall areas;
iii. Suitable for crops like maize that injured by contact with water etc...
Disadvantage of furrow irrigation
 An accumulation of salinity between furrows;
 An increased level of tail water losses;
 The difficulty of moving farm equipment across the furrows;
 The added expense and time to make extra tillage practice (furrow construction);
 An increase in the erosive potential of the flow;
 A higher commitment of labour to operate efficiently; and
 Generally furrow systems are more difficult to automate, particularly with regard to
regulating an equal discharge in each furrow.

Figure 4-5. Furrow irrigation

4.2 Criteria for selection of surface irrigation methods.
The choice of irrigation system is frequently determined by certain limiting conditions that
preclude one or another of the possibilities and may leave no alternative. The important factors
that should be taken into account when determining which surface irrigation method is most
suitable: basin, border or furrow irrigation are;
  Natural circumstances (slope, soil type),
 Type of crop,
 Required depth of application,
 Level of technology,
 Previous experiences with irrigation,
 Required labor input.
 Moreover the irrigation system for a field must be compatible with the existing farming
operations, such as land preparation, cultivation, and harvesting practices.
a) Natural circumstances

Flat lands, with a slope of 0.1 % or less, are best suited for basin irrigation: little land leveling will
be required. Furrow irrigation can be used on flat lands (short, near horizontal furrows), and on
mildly sloping land with a slope of maximum 0.5 %. A minimum slope of 0.05 % is recommended
to assist drainage. Border irrigation can be used on sloping land up to 2 % on sandy soil and 5 %
on clay soil. A minimum slope of 0.05 % is recommended to ensure drainage. Generally, surface
irrigation may be difficult to use irregular slopes, as considerable land leveling may be required to
achieve the required land gradients.

b) Type of crop
Paddy rice is always grown in basins. Those crops that cannot stand a very wet soil for more than
12-24 hours should not be grown in basins. Furrow irrigation is best suited for irrigating row crops
such as maize, vegetables and trees. Border irrigation is particularly suitable for close growing
crops such as small grains (sesame) and forage crops (alfalfa), but border irrigation can be used
for row crops and trees.
c) Required depth of irrigation application
Field experience has shown that most water can be applied per irrigation application when using
basin irrigation, less with border irrigation and least with furrow irrigation. In practice in small-
scale irrigation projects, usually 40 –70 mm of water are applied in basin irrigation, 30 – 60 mm
in border irrigation and 20 – 50 mm in furrow irrigation
d) Level of technology
Basin irrigation is the simplest of the surface irrigation methods. Their operation and maintenance
is simple. Furrow irrigation with the possible exception of short, level furrows requires accurate
grading. Machines often do this. Borders require the highest level of sophistication. They are
constructed and maintained by machines.
e) Required labor inputs
The required labor inputs for construction and maintenance depend heavily on the extent to which
machinery is used. In general it can be stated that to operate the system, basin irrigation requires
the least labor and least skill. For the operation of furrow and border irrigation systems more labor
is required combined with more skill.

Item Basin Border Furrow

Main slope Usually zero slope or Up to 2-5 % <1%

nearly zero attained
(Min. 0.05%) (Min. 0.05%)

Soils medium to fine moderately low to Best suited to soils with

textured soils moderately high intake moderate to low intake
rate soils rates.

Infiltration one dimensional and same as basin two dimensional

vertically downward

Field size all size Large Large

Geometry shape all shape Regular Regular

of farm

Sediment load not problematic not problematic not problematic

Biological quality not problematic not problematic not problematic

Salinity not problematic slightly problematic problem if very high salt

Crops variety all crops but best for best for close growing best for row crops
ponded water crops crops

Farming machinery difficult to use easy to apply adapted to mechanized

farming

Labor input least labor compared High High

to other surface
irrigation systems

Application 65 –80 % 60- 70 % 60- 70%

efficiency

Level of technology Simplest Highest lower than border

Requirements

Initial cost Higher Lower low to medium

Selection procedure

 List different sub- factors under consideration

 Determine point from table for each irrigation method and sub-factor
 Drop the method getting Zero for any sub-factor
 Add points for all sub-factor for the remaining methods of irrigation
 Determine Grade point average (GPA) for each irrigation method as under

Sum of all factors under consideration

GPA =
Number of sub - factors

-Method scoring the highest GPA is the best method of Irrigation and the priority of different
methods is in order of GPA

Example: Select the best method of irrigation for wheat crop (grain crop) grown in light loamy
sand soil. The field had moderate land slope. The cost of maintenance, installation, and operation
were to be given due consideration.
Sub-factor Basin Border Furrow
Grain Crop (Wheat) 3 4 2
Light loamy Sand 4 3 3
Land slope- Moderate 3 4 5
Cost of maintenance 4 4 3
Cost of installation 3 4 3
Cost of operation 4 4 3
GPA 21/6 = 3.5 23/6= 19/6= 3.16
3.83

Border having highest GPA =3.83 is the best method of irrigation. The order of priority of different
methods is- Border, Basin and Furrow.
4.2.2: Hydraulic Design of Surface Irrigation Systems
The design of a surface irrigation system first involves assessing the general topographic
conditions, soils, crops, farming practices anticipated and farm operators’ desires and finance for
the field or farm in question. Moreover, the first priorities in agriculture today is the development
of irrigation design that are more efficient in the use of both water and energy resources for the
varieties of crops and farming practices.
One of the purposes of design of surface irrigation systems is to facilitate operational practices so
that the system can be managed and operated according to the plan and the desired goal can be
achieved. Surface irrigation systems are designed and operated to supply the individual irrigation
requirements of each field on the farm while controlling deep percolation, runoff, evaporation and
operational losses. Beside this, the objective of any water application is to uniformly replenish the
root zone moisture with enough percolation for the effective leaching of harmful salts.

Design can be viewed as the process of making decisions concerning the values of flow rate (Qo),
length of channel (L), and time of cutoff (Tco), prior to the onset of every irrigation season and
during the project development phase.

Surface irrigation Design inputs (System Parameters and System Variables)

Generally there are two types of design data inputs in surface irrigation: field parameters and field
decision variables. The designer can manipulate decision variables. They include flow rate, the
field dimensions and cut-off time. On the other hand, however, the designer cannot influence Field
parameters; they are measured or assumed properties of the given situation. They primarily consist
of the soil infiltration characteristics, the flow resistance, the required net application depth, and
the field slopes (for borders and furrows). A description (explanation) of each design input
parameter as related to its influence, dimensions and the procedures followed to determine each
parameter would be presented in the subsequent sections.

1. Design of furrow irrigation System

i. Non erosive stream size
To maintain proper furrow shape and reduce sediment loss from the head of the field and
deposition at the tail of the field or adjacent water way, it is desirable to operate the furrow at a
velocity that is non erosive.
The empirical relation developed by USDA-SCS for the maximum non-erosive stream size is
0.6
Q max = ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- (4.1)
s
Where S = ground slope down the furrow in %
 Furrow slope Maximum flow rate,
S (%) Qmax ,

0.1 6.0
0.3 2.0
0.5 1.2
2.0 0.3
Relation of maximum non erosive flow rates to critical slopes of furrows (after Booher, 1974)

Intake family A B C f G

0.05 0.5334 0.618 7.0 7.16 1.088*10-4

0.10 0.6198 0.661 7.0 7.25 1.251*10-4
0.15 0.7110 0.683 7.0 7.34 1.414*10-4
0.20 0.7772 0.699 7.0 7.43 1.578*10-4
0.25 0.8534 0.711 7.0 7.52 1.741*10-4
0.30 0.9246 0.720 7.0 7.61 1.904*10-4
0.35 0.9957 0.729 7.0 7.70 2.067*10-4
0.40 1.064 0.736 7.0 7.79 2.230*10-4
0.45 1.130 0.742 7.0 7.88 2.393*10-4
0.50 1.196 0.748 7.0 7.97 2.556*10-4
0.60 1.321 0.757 7.0 8.15 2.883*10-4
0.70 1.443 0.766 7.0 8.33 3.209*10-4
0.80 1.560 0.773 7.0 8.50 3.535*10-4
0.90 1.674 0.779 7.0 8.68 3.862*10-4
1.00 1.786 0.785 7.0 8.86 4.188*10-4
1.50 2.284 0.799 7.0 9.76 5.819*10-4
2.00 2.753 0.808 7.0 10.65 7.451*10-4
The average intake over the length of the furrow is given by
I = 1/LP(Vin - V0ut – Vs) ------------------------------------------------------------------------ (4.2)
Where I = equivalent depth infiltrated over wetted surface area of field, mm
 L= distance between inflow and outflow measurements, m
P = adjusted wetted perimeter, m V = volume of water (inflow, outflow, storage) in liter.
The adjusted wetted perimeter in given by the following equation

Qn
p = 0.65( ) 0.425 + 0.227 ----------------------------------------------------------------- (4.3)
S0.5

Where Q= volumetric inflow rate, l/S

N =Manning’s roughness coefficient
S = furrow slope or hydraulic gradient, m/m
A roughness coefficient of 0.04 is normally used for design of furrow irrigation system.
The volume of channel storage is given by

L Qn
V= 2.947( 0.5 ) 0.735 - 0.0217 ------------------------------------------------ (4.4)
0.305 S

The required depth of infiltration for a furrow system must be expressed as an equivalent depth
over the total field area. Infiltration depth is given by:

[
I = at b + C ]wp -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- (4.5)
Where a, b, c are intake family coefficients
t = time, min
W = furrow spacing, m
p = adjusted wetted perimeter, m
The advance time for stream of water moving down the furrow is given by

x gx
Tt = exp ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- (4.6)
f QS0.5

Where Tt = advance time, min

X = distance down the furrow, m
f &g = advance coefficients (from table)
Q= volumetric inflow rate,
S = furrow slope,
The infiltration opportunity time is equal to the time of water application minus the advance time
plus the recession time.
To = Tco – Tt + Tr min--------------------------------------------------------------- (4.7)
The cut-off time, Tco, reflects an irrigation management decision made by the farmer and designer.
It should be an adequate length of time to infiltrate a satisfactory depth of water over the length of
the furrow without causing excessive deep percolation. Tco is normally set equal to the time to
advance to the end of the furrow plus the required net infiltration time less recession time. The net
infiltration time is determined by

---------------------------------------------------------------- (4.8)
The recession time is assumed Zero for open- ended gradient furrows (i.e for furrows whose slope
is not equal to zero) without loss of accuracy. For gradient furrows,
To = Tco – Tt ----------------------------------------------------------------- (4.9)
But Tco = Tt + Tn
Where Tt = advance time required to reach end of the field at distance L, min.
gx
Let =
QS 0.5

The average infiltration opportunity time over distance x down the furrow is given by:

To-x = Tco -
0.0929
[( 1)exp() + 1]--------------------------------------------- (4.10)
0.305
2

f (x)
x

The average infiltration time for the full furrow length, To-L, is obtained by substituting L, in to egn
(4.10) for x. the average depth of infiltration for the entire furrow length, i avg, is therefore
determined by substituting To-L in to egn (4.5) for t.
The gross depth of water application, ig, is defined as the required net depth of irrigation, in,
divided by the product of the application and distribution pattern efficiencies.
In
Ig = ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- (4.11)
Ea Ed

If evaporation is neglected, Ea is assumed to be equal to 100%

 in
Ig = ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- (4.12)
Ed

The equivalent gross depth of application as a function of inflow rate and field geometry, is

Ig =
60(Q) Tco ( )
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------- (4.13)
WL
Ig = gross depth of application in mm
Q = inflow rate, l/s
W = furrow spacing, m
The equivalent depth of deep percolation, ddp
Ddp = iavg – in -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- (4.14)
Example: Given the following information,
Intake family, IF = 0.3
Furrow length, L = 275m
Furrow slope, s = 0.004 m/m
Roughness coefficient, n = 0.04
Net irrigation depth, in = 75mm
Inflow rate, Q = 0.6 l/s
Compute the desired time to cut – off, Tco , the equivalent depths of surface run off and deep
percolation, dro, ddp, and the distribution pattern efficiency.
Soln:
For Intake family IF = 0.3, a = 0.9246, b = 0.720, c = 7.0, f = 7.61
g =1.904*10-4
Advance time Tt

x gx 275m (1.904 *10 4 ) & 275

Tt = exp = exp = 144 min
f QS0.5 7.61 0.6(0.004)0.5

Adjusted wetted perimeter, P

0.423
Qn 0.6 * 0.04
P = 2.65( 0.5 ) 0.425
+ 0.227 = 0.265 + 0.227 = 0.40m
S (0.004)0.5
Net Infiltration time, Tn
Design cut-off time, Tco
Tco = Tt + Tn = 144 + 999 = 1143 min.
Gross application depth, Ig

( )
60(Q) Tco
=
( )
60 0.6 l s (1143 min )
= 200mm
WL 0.75m * 275m
Average infiltration Time, TO-L

To-x = Tco -
0.0929
[( 1)exp() + 1] where = QSgx
0.305
2 0.5

f (x)
x

Substituting for all the variables To-L = 1143 – 47.6 = 1095 min.
Average infiltration iavg
p 0.40
Iavg= (aTO L
b
+ c) = [(0.925)(1095)+ 7.0] = 80mm
W 0.75
Surface runoff depth, dro
dro = ig – iavg = 200mm – 80mm = 120mm
Deep percolation depth, ddp
ddp = iavg – in = 80mm-75mm = 5mm
Distribution pattern efficiency, ed,
in 75mm
Ed= * 100 = = *100% = 37.5%
ig 200mm

The following modifications are necessary to solve the hydraulic equation for the cut – back
conditions. The adjusted wetted perimeter under the cut – back conditions is computed by
substituting Q2 in to egn (3). The required net infiltration time at length L is solved for by
substituting P2 in to egn (8).
Tavg=
0.0929
[( 1)exp() + 1]
0.305
2

f (L)
L

The average infiltration under the cut – back condition is

[(
Iavg = a Tco Tavg ) + C]Pw + [a(T ) + c]P w P
b 2
avg
b 1 2

The gross depth of application is given by

Ig =
60
[ ( )
Q T + Q 2 Tn )
WL t t
( ]
2. Level Basin System Design
Fields to be irrigated by a level basin system are divided in to level rectangles of limited extent by
ridges of adequate height to retain the depth of flow. Level basin systems are designed on the basis
of water application rate, soil intake family, and field dimensions.
Table 4-2: suggested basin area for different soil types and rates of water flow (taken from Booher,
1974)

Area in hectares

Soil type

Flow rate Sand loam Clay loam Clay

l/s m3/h

30 108 0.02 0.06 0.12 0.2

60 216 0.04 0.12 0.24 0.4

90 324 0.06 0.18 0.36 0.6

120 432 0.08 0.24 0.48 0.8

150 540 0.10 0.30 0.60 1.0

180 648 0.12 0.36 0.72 1.2

210 756 0.14 0.42 0.84 1.4

240 864 0.16 0.48 0.96 1.6

270 972 0.18 0.54 1.08 1.8

300 1080 0.20 0.60 1.20 2.0

Hydraulic relationships
The hydraulic relationships described in this section are based on design procedures developed by
the soil conservation service and will use the intake family concept the equations in this section
can be derived by application of the continuity, infiltration and Manning’s equations with limited
depth of flow. The net time of infiltration, Tn, in a level basin system is computed using equation
1
b
in C
Tn= ( )
a

The required advance time, Tt, is determined by multiplying the net infiltration time by the
fractional advance ratio, Tt/Tn, which is a function of distribution pattern efficiency.
Table 4-3Ratio of Tt to Tn for various distribution efficiency values

Distribution pattern Efficiency (Ed)% Ratio Tt to Tn

95 0.16
90 0.28
85 0.40
80 0.58
75 0.80
70 1.08
65 1.45
60 1.90
55 2.45
50 3.20

Table 4-4: Values of the roughness coefficients used in level basin and graded border
systems.

Smooth, bare soil surfaces non cultivated, citrus 0.04

Small grain, rows parallel to border strip 0.10

 Alfalfa, broad east small grains, and similar crops 0.15

Dense sod crops, small grains with rows across the border strip 0.25

The relationship between the advance time, basin length, and inflow rate will apply the unit inflow
rate concept.

( )
6 * 10 4 Q u Tt
a (T )
L= b

+ c + 1798n (Q ) (T )
3 9 3
t 8 16 16
1+ b u t

Q
Where Qu = , W = basin width
W
The time to cut-off, Tco, is the time required to put the gross depth of irrigation, ig on to the basin
is given by
inL
Tco =
600Q u e d

Where: Tco = time to cut-off, min

in = net depth of irrigation, mm
ed = distribution pattern efficiency, percent
The maximum depth of flow in the basin, dmax, is an important parameter in basin design in that it
governs the minimum ridge height
dmax = 2250 n3/8 Qu 9/16
Tco 3/16
Where dmax = maximum flow depth, mm
Example: Given the following information
Intake family If = 0.5
Targeted distribution pattern efficiency ed = 80%
Unit flow rate Qu = 0.005 m2/s
Net irrigation depth in = 100mm
Roughness coefficient n = 0.15
Assuming 100 percent application efficiency, compute the net infiltration time, basin length, time
to cut off, and maximum depth of flow.
Graded Border System Design
Graded border systems are similar in concept to level basin systems except that there is a slope
down the border and there may be limited cross slope. Graded border systems may be more
conveniently applied to soils of limited depth than level basin systems because of reduced leveling
requirements.

Graded border systems are most applicable to soils with moderately low to moderately high in
take rates. This method is best suited to lands with slopes less than 0.5%. It can be used on lands
of slopes up to 2% for non-grassy crops and up to approximately 4%for sod crops.

Hydraulic Relationships

The hydraulic relationships applied are complicated Relative to level basins in that the water
applied is continuously moving down slope. The hydraulic relationships are derived by
consideration of the continuity relationship, manning equation and the assumption that the amount
of water infiltrated in to the soil may be approximated by the volume of a section with a triangular
cross-sectional shape as the recession curve moves down the field.

Graded border systems are designed on the principle that any point in the field should have water
applied to it for a time equal to that required to infiltrate the net depth of irrigation. Recession lag
time: The time between cut- off of water at the head of the field and the disappearance of water at
the head of the field.

Time to cut- off, Tco = Tn - Trl

The term high gradient borders is used to denote borders with a surface slope greater then
approximately 0.004m/m. In such borders, the water surface slope is assumed equal to the field
slope and the normal flow depth, that is, the depth of flow under conditions of uniform flow is
assumed equal to the depth of flow at the head of the border. Under such conditions, the recession
lag time is given by:

Q u 0.2 n 1.2
Trl =
120S1.6

Where Trl = recession lag time, min

Qu = unit flow rate, m2/s
n = Manning’s roughness coeff.
S = surface slope, m/m
For low gradient borders with surface slopes less than 0.004m/m
 Q u 0.2 n 1.2
Trl =
0.0094nQ u 0.175
120 (S + 0.88 0.5
)1.6
Tn S

Where Tn = net infiltration time, min.

0.00167i n L
The inflow rate per unit width of border strip is given by
(Tn Trl )ed
where:

in = net depth of irrigation

L = border length, m
ed= Distribution efficiency , %
The maximum depth of flow in the border strip is determined by the border ridge height. The
border ridge height is normally established at 1.25 times the maximum flow depth. Maximum flow
depths of less than 150 mm are generally acceptable. In erosion resistant soil, flow depths in the
range of 200mm may be acceptable.

Normal depth for uniform flow, (mm)

1000Q u 0.6 n 0.6

dh = ------------------for high gradient border
S0.3
dh= 2454 (Trl) 0.1875 Qu 0.5625 n 0.1875 -------for low gradient border
The maximum flow rate criterion has been established to have a non – erosive stream size
4
1.765 *10
Qmax = ……. For alfalfa and small grains
S0.75
4
3.53 *10
Qmax = ………For well-established dense sod crops, pasture & grasses
S0.75
A minimum depth of flow criterion is required to ensure that the water stream is large enough to
spread over the entire border.

5.95 *10 6 LS0.5

Qmin =
n
 4.3. Pressurized irrigation methods
Water is put into pipes, pressurized and precisely delivered to plants. This method saves much
more water than traditional surface flow irrigation, where water from canals or bodies of water is
released into open furrows or basins and distributed by gravity. Pressurized irrigation is a relatively
recent technology developed during the 1900s.

Advantages

 Pressurized irrigation systems avoid the water loss of open surface flow irrigation.
 Higher water application efficiency can normally be obtained by pressurized irrigation.
 Pressurized irrigation is especially valuable in arid and semi-arid areas.
 When the land topography is irregular, the land gradient is steeper, and soil is easily
erodible, hence unsuitable for surface irrigation.
 When the land soil is excessively permeable, so as not to permit good water distribution
by surface irrigation; or when the soil is highly impermeable.
 When the water table is high.

Disadvantages
 Water quality is crucial to the prolonged operation of pressurized irrigation systems
 Water high in dissolved minerals leads to frequent blocking of emitters
 Routine maintenance is needed to unblock delivery fittings and to maintain pumps and
fertigation units
 Water needs to be filtered before entering the irrigation system to remove suspended solids
such as silt, algae, sand and dust, which will clog emitters
 High initial investment as compared to surface irrigation
 Wind distorts sprinkler pattern and causes uneven distribution of water
 Ripened soft fruits may be affected by spraying water
 1. Sprinkler Irrigation
Sprinkler irrigation is a method of applying irrigation water which is similar to natural rainfall.
Water is distributed through a system of pipes usually by [Link] is then sprayed into the air
through sprinklers. The pump supply system, sprinklers and operating conditions must be designed
to enable a uniform application of water.

Suitable crops: Sprinkler irrigation is suited for most row, field and tree crops and water can be
sprayed over or under the crop canopy. Large sprinklers are not recommended for irrigation of
delicate crops such as lettuce because the large water drops produced by the sprinklers may damage
the crop.

Suitable slope: Sprinkler irrigation is adaptable to any farmable slope, whether uniform or
undulating.

Suitable soil: Sprinklers are best suited to sandy soils with high infiltration rates although they are
adaptable to most soils. The average application rate from the sprinklers (in mm/hour) is always
chosen to be less than the basic infiltration rate of the soil. If sprinkler irrigation is the only method
available, then light fine sprays should be used

Suitable irrigation water: A good clean supply of water, free of suspended sediments, is required
to avoid problems of sprinkler nozzle blockage and spoiling the crop by coating it with sediment.

2. Drip Irrigation/Trickle Irrigation

Drip irrigation is sometimes called trickle irrigation and involves dripping water onto the soil at
very low rates from a system of small diameter plastic pipes fitted with outlets called emitters or
drippers. Water is applied close to plants so that only part of the soil in which the roots grow is
wetted.
Although only part of the root zone is wetted it is still important to meet the full water needs of
the crop. The water savings that can be made using drip irrigation are the reductions in deep
percolation, in surface runoff and in evaporation from the soil.
Suitability of the system
 most suitable for row crops
 Adaptable to any farmable slope.
 Suitable for most soils.
 On clay soils water must be applied slowly to avoid surface water ponding and runoff.
 On sandy soils higher emitter discharge rates will be needed to ensure adequate lateral
wetting of the soil.
 One of the main problems with drip irrigation is blockage of the emitters so that it needs
pure water free from pollution
 . All emitters have very small waterways ranging from 0.2-2.0 mm in diameter and these
can become blocked if the water is not clean