Temperature

Stevenson Screen
This screen is used to shield the thermometers and thermo-hygrograph from
direct sunlight, rainfall and other elements. It allows for the free circulation
of air around the thermometer thus creating a uniform temperature in the
screen. The base of the screen is position at about 1.25 –2metres above the
ground on a metal stand.

Thermometers which indicate the actual temperature are known as ordinary

thermometers.

Ordinary Thermometers
Dry bulb

Wet bulb
muslin

These are used to obtain the dry (air) and wet (saturation) temperature in the
screen. The muslin covering the wet bulb should be fitted snugly around the
bulb of the thermometer. The wick and water container is used to keep the
muslin covering the wet bulb moist.
The thermometers indicating extreme temperatures over a period of time are
called Maximum or Minimum thermometers.

The Maximum and Minimum thermometers are mounted horizontally inside the Stevenson
Screen with the minimum thermometer slightly tilted.

Maximum Thermometer
This is mercury in glass thermometer with a constriction in the bore between
the bulb and the beginning of the scale. This constriction prevents the
mercury column from receding with falling temperature. The thermometer
can be reset by forcing the mercury back through the constriction. This is
done with a quick rotation of the wrist.

Minimum Thermometer
This is an alcohol in glass thermometer with a glass index immersed in the
alcohol. When temperature falls, the surface tension of the meniscus of the
alcohol pushes the index down through the bore of the thermometer. When
the temperature raises again the index remains at the lowest position. The
end of the index furthest from the bulb indicates the lowest temperature.
Raising the bulb end so that the index slides down the bore of the
thermometer resets the thermometer.
Precipitation (Rainfall)

Precipitation is measured on the basis of the depth to which a flat horizontal

impermeable surface would have been covered if no water were loss by
runoff or evaporation. Rain gauges are of two types; recording and non-
recording.

Standard Rain gauge

This rain gauge consists of a funnel leading into a glass bottle inside a brass
can. The base is embedded about 6-8 inches in the ground for stability. An
extra bucket is added to prevent loss of rainfall due to overflow of bottle.
Rainfall is collected in the bottle and is measured using a graduated
measuring cylinder.

Measuring Cylinder
Recording Rain gauge
These are of two types: float type and tipping bucket type

Float type
It is called the tilting siphon recorder and has a float inside a drum. When it
rains water is collected inside the drum. The float which is connected to a
pen then rises and records the amount of rainfall on a chart.

Chart on
clock

Float

Tipping Bucket Type

Rainfall from the funnel falls into the
first bucket. When this is filled it tips
and empties its water. The second
bucket now begins to collect water,
when this is filled it empties its water.
With each tip it sends a signal to a
Funnel
recorder where the amount of rainfall
is recorded. This recorder can either be
Bucket 1 an electrical one or a chart on a drum,
Bucket 2 which is connected to a clock, and
rotates once a week.
Soil Temperature
These are mercury in glass thermometer mounted in a glass or plastic tubes
with their bulb embedded in wax. The wax enables the thermometer to be
removed from the tubes and read before the temperature has time to change
appreciably. The thermometer is placed in a steel tube, which is sunk into
the earth to a depth of either 1ft or 4 ft. The thermometer is held by a chain
that is connected to a metal cap which covers the steel tube.

Grass Minimum thermometer

The Grass Minimum Temperature is the temperature recorded in open air

ground on short turf, with the bulb of the thermometer just in contact with
the tips of the blades of grass. The alcohol column overnight causes a small
indicator within the stem of the thermometer to descend and record the
lowest temperature.
Evaporation
Evaporation of water is measured using a Class-A Evaporation Pan

Hook Gauge

Still Well

During the day the sun heats the water in the pan and causes it to evaporate.
Since the water is evaporated the level of water in the pan falls. The water
level in the pan is measured using a hook-gauge which consists of a movable
scale fitted to a hook. When properly set the point of the hook just touches
the water surface. A still well with a small hole in the bottom breaks the
ripples that may be present in the pan and also acts as a support for the hook
gauge. The pan is reset whenever more that 25mm of water is evaporated or
when it is overflowed.
WIND

Cup-counter Anemometer
This instrument measures the
average wind speed for the day. A
counter is fitted to an anemometer,
which turns according to the wind
speed. By observing the reading at
the beginning and end of a period,
the average wind speed for that
period can be calculated.

Anemometer

Wind Vane

Dials

The Anemometer measures the Wind Speed and the Wind Vane Measures
the Wind Direction.

The Anemometer consists of three cups position 120º apart. The cups are
connected to an electrical generator. When the wind blows, the cups turn and
thus the generator motor turns. Current is then produced in the generator and
is displayed on a dial. The current produced is proportional to the wind
speed.

The Wind-vane consists of a fin type tail and a round knob position in the
direction the wind is blowing from. When the direction of the wind changes
from a specific direction, this same action is repeated and displayed on a dial
where it is read.
 Sunshine The Campbell- Stokes sunshine recorder is
used to measure Sunshine hours. It consists
of a glass sphere which focus the sun’s rays
Glass sphere on heat sensitive cards causing it to burn a
trace. There are three types of cards which
correspond to the position of the sun at
different times of the year. Long curve cards
are used between 12th April and 2nd
September, Straight cards are used from 3rd
September to 14th October and short curve
cards are used from October 15th to February
28 or 29. The Straight cards are used again
from 1st March to 11th April.

Long curve
Short Curve

Straight

Solarimeter

Solarimeter Integrator

This instrument measures both sunshine hours and radiation. The

Solarimeter consists of two sets of heat sensitive diodes inside a glass dome.
When there is a temperature change between the two sets of diodes caused
by the heat of the sun the voltage changes and this change is transmitted to
the integrator. This change in voltage is proportional to the energy input in
watts per square meters.
Pressure

Pressure is measured using an instrument called a barometer.

Barograph
Aneroid barometer
Standard Accuracy Barometer

Pressure is the weight of the air which lies

Kew Pattern
vertically above an area. It is measured
using an instrument called a barometer.
Barometers are of different types, Kew
Pattern, aneroid and standard accuracy
barometer. Most weather offices use the
aneroid barometer and the Standard
accuracy barometer while the Kew Pattern
is used to check other barometers for
accuracy. The barograph gives a graphical
display of the pressure changes over time.
Radiosonde

The Radiosonde is a balloon borne, battery powered instrument used

together with a ground receiving equipment to create a vertical profile of the
atmosphere. It sends a signal of all measured variables back to the ground
receiving station where a computer calculates the measured variables and
displays them on a screen. This instrument measures pressure, temperature,
relative humidity, wind direction and speed. It uses these measurements to
determine the stability of the atmosphere.