more) of entities in set B.
An entity in set B can be associated with at most one entity in
set A.
● Many-to-One Cardinality - An entity in set A can be associated with at most one entity in
set B. An entity in set B can be associated with any number of entities in set A. ●
Many-to-Many Cardinality - An entity in set A can be associated with any number (zero or
more) of entities in set B. An entity in set B can be associated with any number (zero or
more) of entities in set A.
Attributes:
Attributes are the descriptive properties which are owned by each entity of an Entity Set.
Types of Attributes:
● Simple Attributes - Simple attributes are those attributes which cannot be divided
further. Ex. Age
● Composite Attributes - Composite attributes are those attributes which are composed
of many other simple attributes. Ex. Name, Address
● Multi Valued Attributes - Multi valued attributes are those attributes which can take
more than one value for a given entity from an entity set. Ex. Mobile No, Email ID ●
Derived Attributes - Derived attributes are those attributes which can be derived from
other attribute(s). Ex. Age can be derived from DOB.
● Key Attributes - Key attributes are those attributes which can identify an entity uniquely
in an entity set. Ex. Roll No.
Constraints:
Relational constraints are the restrictions imposed on the database contents and
operations. They ensure the correctness of data in the database.
● Domain Constraint - Domain constraint defines the domain or set of values for an
attribute. It specifies that the value taken by the attribute must be the atomic value from
its domain.
● Tuple Uniqueness Constraint - Tuple Uniqueness constraint specifies that all the tuples
must be necessarily unique in any relation.
● Key Constraint - All the values of the primary key must be unique. The value of the
primary key must not be null.
● Entity Integrity Constraint - Entity integrity constraint specifies that no attribute of
primary key must contain a null value in any relation.
● Referential Integrity Constraint - It specifies that all the values taken by the foreign key
must either be available in the relation of the primary key or be null.
Closure of an Attribute Set:
The set of all those attributes which can be functionally determined from an attribute set is
called a closure of that attribute set.
Keys:
A key is a set of attributes that can identify each tuple uniquely in the given relation.
Types of Keys:
● Super Key - A superkey is a set of attributes that can identify each tuple uniquely in the
given relation. A super key may consist of any number of attributes.
● Candidate Key - A set of minimal attribute(s) that can identify each tuple uniquely in the
given relation is called a candidate key.
● Primary Key - A primary key is a candidate key that the database designer selects while
designing the database. Primary Keys are unique and NOT NULL.
● Alternate Key - Candidate keys that are left unimplemented or unused after
implementing the primary key are called as alternate keys.
● Foreign Key - An attribute ‘X’ is called as a foreign key to some other attribute ‘Y’ when its
values are dependent on the values of attribute ‘Y’. The relation in which attribute ‘Y’ is
present is called as the referenced relation. The relation in which attribute ‘X’ is present
is called as the referencing relation.
● Composite Key - A primary key composed of multiple attributes and not just a single
attribute is called a composite key.
● Unique Key - It is unique for all the records of the table. Once assigned, its value cannot
be changed i.e. it is non-updatable. It may have a NULL value.
Functional Dependency:
In any relation, a functional dependency α → β holds if- Two tuples having same value