A Bit of Human Anatomy

Module 11
Anatomy:
Tissues, Organs
Organ Systems (Integumentary,
Skeletal, Circulatory)

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Some Basic Ideas Tissue Types

 Anatomy describes the physical parts of an  There are 4 main
organism
 Physiology describes the way in which those kinds of tissues
parts work, alone and in combination  1. Epithelial Tissue
 Most organisms are organized into different  2. Connective Tissue
levels:
 Cells  3. Muscle Tissue
 Tissues: groups of cells performing some specific  4. Nerve Tissue
function
 Organs: groups of tissues performing some specific  Most organs are a
function combination of two or
 Organ systems: groups of organs performing some
specific function more tissues

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Epithelial Tissue
 Serves as covering or lining of various body parts
 Involved in both absorption of material and secretion of
material
 Cells can vary in shape:
 Squamous cells are flat; found in areas where diffusion
important
 Cuboidal cells are cubes; involved in secretion and
absorption
 Columnar cells are rectangular: also used for secretion
and absorption
Clockwise from upper left:
 Tissue can vary in # of layers: simple columnar; simple
 Simple epithelium has one layer cuboidal; stratified
squamous
 Stratified epithelium has 2 or more; can be different cell
types

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 Nervous Tissue
Connective Tissue
 Perform a variety of functions • Composed of special cells called neurons
 All consist of two components: that carry electrical impulses
 Living cells, scattered in a…
 Non-living matrix secreted by these
cells • Receive stimuli and cause other tissues
 Some examples include: or organs to respond
 Bones
 Cartilage
 Adipose (fatty) tissue
 Blood
 Ligaments
 Tendons

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Muscle Tissue
Enables movement (3 types): Major Organ
Systems

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Integumentary System General Anatomy of the Skin I

 Outermost layer is the epidermis
 Or, more commonly, skin!
 Living epithelial cells towards interior
 Major functions include:
 Outer layer of dead cells, many filled with
 A barrier to injury or invasion by other organisms keratin (helps prevent water loss)
 A (very large) sensory organ
 Production of body covering (hair)
 Production of various substances (oils,
pheromones, waste)
 Body cooling (via sweat)

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 General Anatomy of the Skin II General Anatomy of the Skin III
 Middle layer is the  Inner layer is the hypodermis, or subcutaneous
dermis layer
 Contains primarily  Mostly a layer of adipose tissue, which helps…
connective tissue, plus  Cushion underlying organs
nerves, blood vessels,  In heat retention
muscles, sensory  Also contains some nerves and blood vessels
organs
 Hairs and glands
appear to come from
this region, but
actually are infoldings
of the epidermis

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2 Primary Skin Glands in Humans

 1. Sweat Glands, with two types:
 Eccrine sweat glands occur over most of body
 Release a clear fluid, mostly water with dissolved
salts
 Apocrine sweat glands are found mostly in
groin, armpits, face
 Release more viscous and odor-causing fluid
 2. Sebaceous Glands Human skin also possesses a
number of different kinds of
 Release a thicker, oily/waxy fluid called sebum sensory receptors (for
temperature, pressure or touch,
 Helps lubricate hair follicles pain)

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 Skeletal System
 Major functions include:
 Protection for internal organs
 Attachment points for muscles
 Some animals possess a hydrostatic
skeleton
 Body is a fluid-filled “bag” under pressure
which animal can push against Above are some hydrostatic skeletons, in
a roundworm and an earthworm. To the
 Others have an external skeleton, or right is a shed exoskeleton of a cicada.
exoskeleton
 Still others possess an internal skeleton

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Anatomy of the Human Skeleton

 The axial skeleton consists of bones
along the midline of the body
 Includes skull, spinal column, ribcage,
sternum
 The appendicular skeleton is everything
else
 Includes arm bones, leg bones, pelvic
girdle, pectoral (shoulder) girdle

Axial skeleton Appendicular skeleton

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3 Components of Skeleton Bone Structure

 Bones: the hardest  Bones may be long, short, flat, or irregular in
part of the skeleton shape
 Cartilage: more  Most bones have a dense region of compact
flexible than bone bone, and a less dense region of spongy (or
cancellous) bone
 Ligaments: a type of
 Within the spongy bone of long and flat
connective tissue bones is red marrow
linking two bones  Involved in production of red blood cells
 NOTE: tendons link  Within the shaft region of long bones is
muscles to bones yellow marrow
 Mostly fat storage
 Can be converted to red marrow in emergencies

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 Long bones above, flat bones below

Above right is a cross-section through

living bone (specifically, the head of the
femur). Most of the red stuff is red
marrow, with a tiny spot of yellow
marrow in the middle.

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The Inside of Bones

 The living cells in bones are called osteocytes
 Osteocytes are found within spaces called lacunae
 Osteocytes produce bone, which is the non-living matrix part
 Osteocytes are arranged (at least in compact bone) in
groups called osteons, or a Haversian system
 In the middle of each osteon is a canal containing blood
vessels to nourish the osteocytes

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Joints Classification of Joints

 Joints occur where
two bones come into • Structural – focuses on material binding the
contact and can move joint together
relative to each other
 At the end of each – Fibrous (least mobile)
bone is a layer of – Cartilaginous (somewhat mobile)
cartilage – Synovial (highly mobile)
 Ligaments link bones
 Fluid usually fills space
between bones to
reduce friction and
wear

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 Fibrous Joints -Sutures
• Only found in the bones
of the skull
• Short connective tissue
fibers that are
continuous with the
periosteum
• Eventually the junctions
ossify and become
synostoses

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Cartilaginous Joints Synovial Joints

• Articulating bones separated by fluid-
• Fibrocartilage unites the bones filled joint cavity
• Limited movement at these joints • Permits freedom of movement
• Designed for strength with flexibility • Most joints of the body are of this type
– Almost all joints of the limbs

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Movements Allowed By Synovial Joints Gliding Movements

Three basic types of movements: • Occurs when flat or nearly
flat bones surfaces slip
• 1. Gliding
over another
• 2. Angular movements • No appreciable angulation
–Increase or decrease the angle between or rotation
two bones
• Examples:
–Includes: flexion, extension, – Intercarpal and intertarsal
hyperextension, abduction, adduction, joints
and circumduction – Flat articular processes of
• 3. Rotation vertebrae

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 Angular Motions: Flexion, Extension Angular Movements: Adduction,
and Hyperextension Abduction, and Circumduction
• Flexion: decreasing the angle • Abduction: Moving something
between two articulating bones away from midline along the
• Extension: opposite of flexion frontal plane
• Hyperextension: going beyond
anatomical position
• Adduction: opposite of
abduction
– Imaginary midlines through
hands and feet as well
• Circumduction: combination
movement
– Flexion, abduction, extension,
adduction successively

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Rotation
• Turning of a bone along
its own longitudinal axis
• Only movement allowed
between C1 and C2
• Common in shoulder
and hip
• Internal (medial) and
external (lateral)
rotation

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The Cardiovascular System

Circulatory System
 Major functions include:
 Transportation of materials throughout body
(oxygen, carbon dioxide, nutrients, metabolic
wastes, heat, hormones)
 Maintenance of fluid balance
 Protection against invading organisms
 Circulatory systems may be open or closed
 Open circulatory systems allow circulatory fluid to
empty out of vessels
 Closed circulatory systems keep circulatory fluid
inside vessels at all times

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 Components of the Cardiovascular
System
 Blood
 Connective tissue which transports material
 Blood vessels
 Tubes of various size which contain the blood
 Heart
 Muscular pumping organ

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Blood components Blood Component I: Plasma

 Plasma is a watery fluid that forms matrix of
blood
 Normally about 55% of blood by volume
 Has a pH of around 7.4 (very slightly basic)
 Contains dissolved nutrients, metabolic wastes,
hormones, and dissolved gasses
 Several major protein types
 Albumin: transports lipids, calcium, some wastes
 Globulins: transport lipids and can act as antibodies
 Fibrinogens: assist in blood clotting

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Blood Component II: Formed Elements

 This includes the red blood cells (RBCs), white blood

cells (WBCs), and platelets
 RBCs, or erythrocytes, normally make up about 45% of
total blood volume (and 95-99% of formed elements)
 These lack a nucleus and organelles
 Possess a biconcave shape
 Packed with hemoglobin (Hb) which binds oxygen and
carbon dioxide
 Hb contains a central iron atom
 Iron + oxygen = red coloration
 RBCs contain a number of surface proteins called
antigens

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 Blood Types

oxygenated deoxygenated

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Rh factor

B-

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 Rh Factor Effects- Hemolytic disease of the Formed Elements II: White Blood Cells
newborn
& Platelets
 WBCs, or leukocytes, are primarily
involved in the immune response
 Platelets are cell fragments and assist in
the clotting process
 Together, these make up less than 1% of
blood by volume
 All formed elements arise from stem cells
in the red bone marrow

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[Link]

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Blood Vessels I: Arteries Blood Vessels II: Capillaries

 Very thin, with only a
 These carry blood away from the heart single (or perhaps
 No exchange of gases or nutrients occurs several) layers of
between arteries and rest of body epithelial tissue
 Generally have thick muscle and connective  Site of exchange
with other tissues
tissue layers
 Oxygen and nutrients
 Pressure high move out of blood
 Carbon dioxide and
wastes move into
blood
 RBCs usually move
through in a single
line

[Link]

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 Blood Vessels III: Veins The Heart: Basics
 Carry blood back to  Hearts are muscular pumping organs
the heart
 Muscle and  Structure differs among animals
connective tissue  In invertebrates, it may often be simply a
layers usually thinner muscular swelling of a main blood vessel
than in arteries
 Pressure low  In vertebrates, primary difference is in the # of
 Many have one-way chambers
valves to prevent  Fish have 2 chambers, but only 1 atrium and 1
backflow ventricle
 Muscles throughout  Amphibians and most reptiles have a 3-chambered
body assist in heart
pushing venous
blood  Mammals, birds, and crocodilians have a 4-
chambered heart

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The Heart: Structure I The Heart: Structure II

 An atrium and ventricle are separated by the
 Atrium (plural is atria): chamber receives blood
from the lungs and the body atrioventricular valve, or AV valve
 All terrestrial vertebrates have 2 atria, one getting  These are one-way valves to prevent backflow
blood from the lungs and one from the rest of the
body
 Ventricle: chamber pumps blood out to the
lungs or the body
 Amphibians and most reptiles have just a single
ventricle
 Other terrestrial vertebrates have 2 ventricles
 Ventricles have much thicker walls than do atria
 Ventricle pumping blood to body has thicker
wall than one pumping blood to lungs

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The Heart: Structure II

 The right atrium receives blood from the body,
mainly through the inferior and superior vena
cava
 The right ventricle pumps blood to lungs
through the pulmonary artery
 The left atrium gets blood from the lungs via
the pulmonary veins
 The left ventricle pumps blood to the body via
the aorta

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 The Heartbeat Blood Pressure
 Most muscles require an external signal
 Some cardiac muscle in the heart can spontaneously
 Blood pressure is given in the form 110/90
generate their own signal  Top number is the systolic pressure, measured as
ventricles contract
 These are called pacemaker cells
 Bottom number is diastolic pressure, measured as
 Signals from these pacemaker cells then spread ventricles relax
throughout heart, causing it to beat
 NOTE: Heart rhythm can be influenced by the main
nervous system, but the basic beat forms without
direct involvement of a nerve signal

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Normal vs High Blood Pressure Blood Pressure

(according to the American
Heart Association)  High blood pressure, or hypertension, may result
from a variety of causes
 One cause is plaque formation in the blood vessels
 Plaque usually consists of cholesterol & other fatty
deposits within wall of blood vessel
 Plaque can also block vessels, leading to strokes or
heart attacks

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