UNIT II SENSORS AND ACTUATORS

Working principles, construction and location of sensors

to measure speed, load, air flow, temperature, pressure,
lambda, throttle position, knock, etc.

Working principles, construction and location of

actuators viz. Solenoid, relay, stepper motor etc.

Design constraints.
Basic Principle’s of sensors
 Transducer
A device that converts energy of one form into energy of another
form.

Examples: Sensors and Actuators

Sensor
A device that responds to a physical stimulus (measurand).

Actuator
A device or mechanism capable of performing a physical action
Inductive
Faraday law of electromagnetic induction

A law stating that when the magnetic flux linking a circuit changes,
an electromotive force is induced in the circuit proportional to the
rate of change of the flux linkage.
 Hall Effect
The production of a potential difference across an electrical
conductor when a magnetic field is applied in a direction
perpendicular to that of the flow of current
Hot wire
 Thermocouple
• It is a type of temperature sensor, which is made by joining
two dissimilar metals at one end.
• The joined end is referred to as the HOT JUNCTION. The
other end of these dissimilar metals is referred to as the
COLD END or COLD JUNCTION. The cold junction is
actually formed at the last point of thermocouple material.
• If there is a difference in temperature between the hot
junction and cold junction, a small voltage is created. This
voltage is referred to as an EMF (electro-motive force) and
can be measured and in turn used to indicate temperature.
 Thermistor
A thermistor is an inexpensive and easily obtainable temperature sensitive
resistor, thermistor working principleis,it's resistance is depends upon
temperature.
When temperature changes, the resistance of the thermistor changes in a
predictable way. The benefits of using a thermistor is accuracy and stability.

NTC thermistors are resistors with a negative temperature

coefficient, which means that the resistance decreases with
increasing temperature. They are primarily used as resistive
temperature sensors and current-limiting devices.
NTC sensors are typically used in a range from −55°C to 200°C.

PTC, resistance increases as temperature rises to protect

against overcurrent conditions. The transition temperature of most
switched PTC thermistors is between 60°C and 120°C.
 Piezoelectric Effect
Piezo electric
• When pressure is applied to crystals, ceramics and

other select materials, piezoelectricity is the result.

• This is due to the piezo property getting stressed in

one manner or another, be it through vibrations or an

alternative form of pressure. As a result, a voltage

charge is produced.

• This charge, in turn, can be used to power a variety of

operations
Piezo resistive

• Pressure is also the cause of the piezo-resistive

effect, yet the defining factor here is the
resistance change of the piezo property.
• the piezoresistive effect is marked by changes in
resistance of materials as the result of pressure.
• Piezoresistive transducers transform vibrations
and pressure into correlative rates of resistance.
Automotive Sensors
Modern day automobile engines are made of many electronic and electrical components that constitute engine
sensors, relays and actuators.

All these electronic and electrical components work together to provide Engine Control Unit (ECU) with vital
data required to govern the engine functionality effectively.

Sensors send the information in very less time. Sensors used in engine are generally electro-mechanical type
devices that monitor various engine parameters.

The variables sensed in engine control includes the following:

1. Mass air flow (MAF) rate
2. Exhaust gas oxygen concentration (possibly heated)
3. Throttle plate angular position
4. Crankshaft angular position/RPM
5. Coolant temperature
6. Intake air temperature
7. Manifold absolute pressure (MAP)
8. Differential exhaust gas pressure
9. Vehicle speed
[Link] gear selector position
 Various types of sensors
1. Engine speed sensor: This sensor monitors the speed of engine.

2. Crank position sensor: Crank position sensor monitors piston TDC position in engine.

3. Knock sensor: Knock sensor detects the knocking which is occurred due to pre ignition.

4. Coolant temperature sensor: This sensor measures the engine temperature.

5. Manifold absolute pressure (MAP) sensor: Controls the fuel level of the engine.

6. Mass air flow (MAF) sensor: Measures the mass of air entering the engine.

7. Oxygen sensor: Oxygen sensor measures the amount of oxygen in the exhaust.

8. Fuel pressure sensor: To measure fuel pressure in system.

9. Vehicle speed sensor: To know the speed of the vehicle.

 Throttle position sensor (TPS)

Throttle shaft is attached with a potentiometer called TPS.

This sensor is supplied with voltage and a voltage of varying current comes back.

The voltage increases as the throttle opens.

This variable voltage and the MAP sensor determines the amount of air which
enters into the engine. This results in increase or decrease of the fuel rate as
required.
Principle of the potentiometer

For a wire having uniform area of cross section and uniform composition, the potential drop is directly
proportional to the length of wire.

The above principle is valid when potentiometer is used in comparing the EMF of two cells.
• When an engine is idling the exhaust gas scavenging of the cylinders is poor.
• This has the effect of diluting the incoming mixture.
• The ECU must detect when the throttle is in the idling position, so that
alteration of the air–fuel ratio can occur to ensure that the engine continues to
run smoothly.
• At full engine load and full throttle, the mixture (air–fuel ratio) needs enriching,
so the ECU also needs a signal to show that the throttle is fully open.
• These duties are performed by the throttle position switch.
• Figure shows how the action of a throttle position sensor is based on the
principle of the potential divider.
The sensor produces a voltage which is related to throttle position.
The voltage signal is conducted to the ECU where it is used, in conjunction with
other inputs,to determine the correct fuelling for a given condition.

There are two types of throttle position sensors in common use, and they are
quite different in certain respects.
Test procedures that will work on one type will not apply to the other type. Here
again it is important to be able to recognize which type is being used in a
particular application.
The throttle switch produces ‘step’ voltage changes at the idling and full throttle
position since the ECM program requires precise identification of the throttle open
and throttle closed positions.
The potentiometer type throttle position sensor produces a steadily increasing
voltage, from idling up to full throttle.
It is, therefore, very important that any measurements taken during tests are
accurate, and relate correctly to the angular position of the throttle butterfly, as well as
the specific type of sensor under test.
Throttle position sensor used on
the Toyota 3S-GTE engine.
• Vcc is a constant voltage of 5 V supplied by the computer.
Terminal E2 is earthed via the computer.
• The other two voltages, IDL and VTA, relate to idling and throttle
operating angle.
• The voltages at the terminals IDL and VTA relate to the position
of the throttle butterfly.
Air flow measurement

An engine requires the correct air–fuel ratio to suit various conditions.

With electronic fuel injection the ECM controls the air–fuel ratio and in order
to do this it needs a constant flow of information about the amount of air flowing
to the engine.
With this information, and data stored in its memory, the ECM can then send out a
signal to the injectors, so that they provide the correct amount of fuel.
Air flow measurement is commonly performed by a ‘flap’-type air flow sensor.
The air flow sensor uses the principle of the potential divider (potentiometer).
A voltage, say 5 V, is applied across
terminals A and B.

C is a slider which is in contact with the

resistor and a voltmeter is connected
between A and C.

The voltage VAC is related to the position of

the slider C in the form VAC = VAB * x/l.
In the air flow sensor, the moving probe (wiper) of the potential divider is
linked to the pivot of the measuring flap so that angular displacement of the
measuring flap is registered as a known voltage at the potentiometer.

The closed position of the measuring flap will give a voltage of

approximately zero, and when fully open the voltage will be 5 V.
Intermediate positions will give voltages between these values.
In practice, it is not quite as simple as this, because allowance must
1 The voltage is at its highest value when the throttle is wide open and the engine is accelerating.
2 The idling air flow produces a low voltage.
3 This dip is caused by the damping action that is caused by movement of the air flap.
4 The voltage increases as the air flow increases with speed and throttle opening
The MAF sensor uses a hot wire sensing element to measure the amount of air entering
the engine. Air passing over the hot wire causes it to cool.
This hot wire is maintained at 200°C (392°F) above the ambient temperature as
measured by a constant cold wire.
The current required to maintain the temperature of the hot wire is proportional to the
mass air flow.
The MAF sensor then outputs an analog voltage signal to the Pulse code modulation
(PCM) proportional to the intake air mass.

The PCM calculates the required fuel injector pulse width in order to provide the desired
air/fuel ratio.

The MAF sensor is located between the air cleaner and the throttle body or inside the air
cleaner assembly.
Most MAF sensors have integrated bypass technology with an integrated Intake Air
Temperature (IAT) sensor. The hot wire electronic sensing element must be replaced as
an assembly. Replacing only the element may change the air flow calibration.
 Electromagnetic sensors

Electromagnetic sensors are often used to sense the speed and/or angular
position of a rotating object.

Two common uses are:

(1)Crankshaft position for ignition and fuel injection control

(2)Road wheel rotational speed relative to vehicle frame for anti-lock braking
(ABS) and traction control (TCS).

The interactions between electricity and magnetism are used in various ways
to produce the desired sensing effect. However, there are two types of sensor
that are widely used in vehicle systems:
[Link] reluctance and
[Link] type sensors.
 THE VARIABLE RELUCTANCE TYPE SENSOR

This type of sensor is used in many vehicle applications, such as ignition systems,
engine speed sensors for fuelling, and wheel speed sensors for anti-lock braking
etc. Air has a greater reluctance (resistance to magnetism) than iron and this
fact is made use of in many sensors. The basic principle of operation of a variable
reluctance type sensor.

The principal elements of the sensor are:

• an iron rotor with lobes on it
• a permanent magnet
• a metallic path (the pole piece) for carrying the magnetic flux
• a coil, wound around the metallic path, in which a voltage is induced.
The voltage induced in the sensor
coil is related to the rate of change
of magnetic flux in the
magnetic circuit.

The faster the rate of change of

magnetic flux the larger will be the
voltage that is generated in the
sensor coil.

When the metal tab on the reluctor

rotor is outside the air gap, the
sensor voltage is zero
Crankshaft position sensor
 Crankshaft Position Sensor (NE Sensor)

• The NE signal combined with the G signal indicates the cylinder that is
on compression and the ECM can determine from its programming the
engine firing order.
• The reluctor disc is attached to the engine flywheel.
• The permanent magnet, the pole piece and the sensor coil are attached to the
cylinder block.
• As each metal tab on the reluctor disc passes the sensor pole piece a voltage is
induced in the sensor winding.
• The size of this voltage, induced in the sensor winding, depends on engine
speed; the faster the engine speed the higher the sensor voltage.
• Each time a reluctor passes the pole piece an alternating current waveform is
produced and at high engine speed the voltage produced by the sensor can be of
the order of 100 V and some sensor circuits are designed to restrict the maximum
voltage.
 In order to provide a top dead center (TDC) reference, there is a missing tab on the
reluctor disc which means that the TDC position is marked by the absence of a
voltage and this ‘gap’ is used to indicate to the ECM that the TDC position has been
reached.
The voltage waveform to be expected from this type of sensor is

The missing wave at the TDC position is evident at the left-hand side of the pattern.
 ABS wheel sensor
• The principle of operation of many ABS wheel sensors is the same as for the crank
sensor.
• However, the purpose for which it is used is somewhat different.
• To obtain the most effective braking, and to allow the driver to retain control of the
vehicle, the wheels should not lock up under braking.
• The ABS sensor is used to assess slip between the tyre and the surface on which the tyre is
working.
• The purpose of the ABS sensors is to detect when wheel lock-up is about to occur.
• This condition is indicated when the rotational speed of the reluctor ring (sensor rotor) is slow
in relation to the sensor pick-up, which is fixed to the brake back plate, or equivalent.
• The layout of the sensor and its voltage waveform is shown
Working Animation
INDUCTIVE SPEED SENSOR
SENSOR HOUSING
PERMANENT MAGNET
CRANKCASE

POLE PIN
WINDING
PULSE WHEEL WITH
REFERENCE MARK AIR GAP

46
• As the crankshaft spins, the crankshaft position sensor magnetically reads
the crankshaft position from a fixed location beside the shaft.

• This information is always being sent to the engine computer for

comparison with data from the camshaft position sensor.

• When the two signals reach the computer, they must match for the
computer to understand there are no mechanical errors in the engine.

• If the position of the crankshaft is different than the position of the

camshaft, the computer will record that an engine timing problem is
occurring, and adjust settings as designed.
 Camshaft Position Sensor (G Sensor)

• Cam position sensor monitors the position of camshaft and reports data to
ECU.
● ECM can determine when cylinder No. 1 is on the compression stroke.
● The ECM uses this information for fuel injection timing, for direct ignition
systems and for variable valve timing systems.
● Some variable valve timing systems call the Camshaft Position Sensor the
Variable Valve Position Sensor.

• The data from the cam position sensor is used by the fuel injectors in engine
and fire accordingly. This sensors is coupled with crankshaft position
sensor.
 Ignition control module

• Ignition control module controls the ignition coil's firing time.

• It is the heart of an automobile ignition system.

• It regulates spark ignition from inside the engine. It is dependent on the

battery of automobile for spark, that begins the ignition system.
 Manifold Absolute Pressure (MAP) Sensor
• Location: Either directly on the intake manifold or mounted high in the
engine compartment and connected to the intake manifold with
vacuum hose.
Manifold Absolute Pressure sensor
 Intake manifold pressure is a directly related to engine load. The ECM
needs to know intake manifold pressure to calculate how much fuel to
inject, when to ignite the cylinder, and other functions.
 The silicon chip changes its resistance with it is subjected to strain.
 Silicon chip flexes with the change in pressure, the electrical resistance
of the chip changes. This change in resistance alters the voltage signal.
 The ECM interprets the voltage signal as pressure and any change in
the
voltage signal means there was a change in pressure.
 The MAP sensor voltage signal is highest when intake manifold pressure
is highest and it is lowest when intake manifold pressure is lowest on
deceleration with throttle closed.
 Vapour Pressure Sensor (VAP)
● Measures the vapour pressure in the evaporative
emission control system.
● Located on the fuel tank, near the charcoal canister
assembly, or in a remote location.
● The pressure inside the reference chamber changes with
atmospheric pressure.
● The voltage signal out depends on the difference between
atmospheric pressure and vapour pressure.
 Working of pressure sensor
• Silicon chip mounted inside a reference chamber.
● On one side of the chip is a reference pressure ( either a perfect

vacuum or a calibrated pressure, depending on the application)

• On the other side is the pressure to be measured
Steering Torque Sensor
Fuel Level Sensor
Tyre Pressure Management system
 Temperature sensors
A commonly used device used for sensing temperature is the
thermistor.
A thermistor utilizes the concept of negative temperature coefficient.

Most electrical conductors have a positive temperature coefficient.

This means that the hotter the conductor gets the higher is its
electrical resistance. This thermistor operates differently; its
resistance gets lower as its temperature increases and this is a
characteristic of semiconductor materials.
There is a well-defined relationship between temperature and
resistance. This means that current flow through the thermistor can
be used to give an accurate representation of temperature
CRASH SENSOR
Working of Crash Sensor
 Ride height control sensor

This type of sensor is used in the Toyota height control system.

The details of the sensor and it may be seen that it uses the principle of the
potential divider that is used in a variety of other vehicle sensor applications.

Vertical movement of the vehicle body, relative to the wheels, is converted to

rotary movement of the sensor brush by means of the sensor arm.

The voltage detected at the sensor signal terminal is dependent on the position of
the brush relative to the two ends of the resistive track.

an oscilloscope trace of the signal that the height sensor sends to the control
computer.
Oxygen Sensor (Lambda sensor)

Used to measure unburnt O2 in the exhaust manifold

• Upstream oxygen sensor

• Downstream oxygen sensor
The working principle of the O2 sensor is to check the oxygen amount within the exhaust. Firstly, this oxygen
was added to the fuel for good ignition. The communication of this sensor can be done with the help of a voltage
signal. So the oxygen status in the exhaust will be decided by the computer of the car.

The computer regulates the mixture of fuel or oxygen delivered to the car engine. The arrangement of the sensor
before & after the catalytic converter permits to maintain the hygiene of the exhaust & check the converter’s
efficiency.
 KNOCK SENSOR
 Knock Sensor is located in the engine block, cylinder head, or
intake manifold.
 Knock sensor is a piezoelectric element.
 The ECM uses the Knock Sensor signal to control timing.
 Piezoelectric elements generate a voltage when pressure or a
vibration is applied.
 The vibrations from engine knocking vibrate the
piezoelectric element generating a voltage.
 The voltage output from the Knock Sensor is highest at
the time of knocking.
 Exhaust Gas Recirculation (EGR) Temperature
Sensor
• Location: The EGR Temperature Sensor is located in the EGR
passage
• Function: Measures the temperature of the exhaust gases. It
works together with the EGR solenoid to control the flow of the
EGR system.
• When the temperature rises, the EGR temperature sensor will
send a signal to the computer that will increase the flow in
order to reduce pressure and temperature of the system.
• Working: Works on thermistor principle.
 Barometric Pressure Sensor
● Sometimes called a High Altitude Compensator (HAC)
measures the atmospheric pressure.
● Atmospheric pressure varies with weather and altitude.
● Operates same as the MAP sensor except that it
measures atmospheric pressure.
 Position Sensors
● Throttle Position Sensor (TPS) indicates position of the
throttle valve.

● Accelerator Pedal Position (APP) sensor indicates position of

the accelerator pedal.

● Exhaust Gas Valve (EGR) Valve Position Sensor indicates

position of the EGR Valve.
 Camshaft Position Sensor (G Sensor)
● ECM can determine when cylinder No. 1 is on the
compression stroke.
● The ECM uses this information for fuel injection timing, for
direct ignition systems and for variable valve timing systems.
● Some variable valve timing systems call the Camshaft
Position Sensor the Variable Valve Position Sensor.
 Crankshaft Position Sensor (NE Sensor)
● To determine engine RPM, crankshaft position, and engine
misfire.
● The NE signal combined with the G signal indicates the
cylinder that is on compression and the ECM can determine
from its programming the engine firing order.
 Actuators

• Motor
• Solenoid
• Relay
• Valve
 Actuators are devices used to produce action or motion.

It is operated by a source of energy (mainly electrical signal, air ,fluids) and
converts that energy into motion.

Actuator is a mechanism by which a control system acts upon environment.

Actuator’s output is usually Mechanical i.e. linear displacement or

velocity.

 Actuation can be from few microns to few meters.

 Unmodulate
Energy Source

Control Signal Physical

Signal Amplification Transducer Process

Amplifier converts the (low power) control signal into a high power signal .
Transducer converts the energy of the amplified control signal into work
Main Attributes Of Actuators
 The size of operating forces and torques.

 The operating environment.

 Linear or rotational movement.

 The energy source.

 Speed of response and motion.

 The amount of movement needed.

 The degree of precision needed.

 The method of control and monitoring.

 Hydraulic actuator consists of cylinder or fluid motor that uses hydraulic
power to facilitate mechanical operation.
 Mechanical motion gives output in terms of linear, rotary or oscillatory motion.
 Pump driven by prime mover (electric motor) creates flow of fluid.
 Types Of Hydraulic Actuator

 Linear actuator (Hydraulic cylinder)-

 Provides motion in straight line.
 Linear displacement depends on stroke length.
 Usually referred to as cylinders, rams (single acting cylinders) or
jacks.

 Rotary actuators (Hydraulic motors)-

 Produces continuous rotational motion.
 Pump shaft is rotated to generate flow.
 Motor shaft is caused to rotate by fluid being forced into
driving chambers.
 Hydraulic jack.

 Hydraulic brake.

 Hydraulic ram.

 Used as sensor.
 Close loop velocity controlling.
 Highly precise positioning for heavy loads.
 Pneumatic Actuator
 It converts high pressure energy of compressed air into either linear or
rotary motion.
 Quickly respond in operation.
Mechanical linear actuators typically operate by
conversion of rotary motion into linear motion.

 Screw-jack

 Wheel and axle

 Cam
 Electric actuator is actuated by motor that converts electrical energy into
mechanical torque.
• Solenoid
• Electric motors
• DC servomotors
• AC motors
• Stepper motors
 Electric actuator consists of electric motor, speed reducer, position limit
mechanism and over torque protection mechanism and position feedback device.
 A solenoid is a coil wound into a tightly packed helix.

In physics, the term solenoid refers to a long, thin loop of wire, and wrapped around
a metallic core.

Which produces a magnetic field when an electric current is passed through it.
 Principle:
 Convert energy into linear motion.
 Magnetic coil and movable armature.
 Coil produce magnetic field that moves the armature.

Application:
 Pneumatic valve.

 Car door openers.

 Working Principle Of Electric Motor

 Every motor works on the principle

that when a current- carrying
conductor is placed in a magnetic
field, it experiences a mechanical
force.

Stepper Motor
A stepper motor is an electromechanical
device which converts electrical pulses
into discrete mechanical movements.
 Piezoelectric actuator is a device that makes use of the inverse piezoelectric effect
(generates mechanical energy when subjected to electrical energy).
 Piezoelectric materials are: Quartz, Ceramics, PZT(lead
zirconate titanate).
Advantages:
Short response time.
Ability to create high forces.
Higher displacement accuracy.
High energy efficiency.
Disadvantage:
Have small strains. (0.1-.2%)
High supply voltage needed.(60-1000V)
 Large hysteresis.(actuator doesn’t go back to exactly where it started).
 Application
 Hand-blurring correction of digital
cameras.
 Ultra-precise mass-flow
controller.
 Thermal/ Magnetic Actuator
 These Actuators are actuated by applying thermal or Magnetic energy.
 These use shape memory materials (shape memory alloys
or magnetic shape-memory alloys).
 They tend to be compact, lightweight, economical and with high power density.

 MEMS(Micro-Electro-Mechanical Systems)

 Thermal actuator where small amount of thermal expansion of one part of the device
translates to a large amount of deflection of the overall device.
 A device is considered to be MEMS device if its size is between 0.1 µm and hundreds
of micrometers.
 MEMS Magnetic Actuator is a device that uses microelectromechanical systems
(MEMS) to convert an electric current into a mechanical output.
 SMA Actuator use SMAs (Shape MemoryAlloys) that
contracts 4% or more when heated.
 Usually heat is precisely generated by electrical current.
Relay
Water level Indicator

Relays are a remote control electrical switch that can be

switched using low current to control a high current load.
 RELAY

➢A relay is an electrically operated switch.

➢Current flowing through the coil of the relay creates a
magnetic field which attracts a lever and changes the switch
contacts.
➢The coil current can be on or off so relay have two switch
positions and most have double throw (changeover) switch contacts.
• A relay is an electrically operated switch. Current flowing through the coil of
the relay creates a magnetic field which attracts a lever and changes the
switch contacts.
• The coil current can be on or off so relays have two switch positions and
they are double throw (changeover) switches.
 SYMBOL

o The relay’s switch connections are usually labeled

COM, NC and NO:
oCOM =Common, always connect to this, it is the moving part of a
switch.
oNC= Normally Closed,COM is connected to this
when the relay coil is off.
oNO= Normally open,COM is connected to this when the relay coil is
on.
 Relay operation based on Load

▪ Load side. (red)

▪ Control side. (green)
 Relay operation (off)
Drawn in natural state.
Where the voltage present when load
side is open.

Relay operation (on)

When there is current through the coil of wire on
the control side a magnetic field is produced.
This magnetic field closed the contacts on the load
side.
 Normally open
▪ In this relay’s natural state it is in the normally
open state.
▪ When the coil is non-energized the contacts are
open.

Normally closed
▪In this relay’s natural state it is in the normally
closed state.
▪When the coil is energized the contacts closed.
• 5(Five) pin relay.
• Most common contains normally open and normally
open contacts.

• 4(Four) pin relay.

•Contain either normally open or normally
closed.
Typical 5 Pin Relay Pin Identification
Types of Relay switching contacts
 Switch ratings (voltage and current)
The relay’s switch must be suitable for the circuit they are to control.
You will need to check the voltage and current ratings. Note that the
voltage rating is usually higher for AC,
for example: “5A at 24V DC or 125V AC”.
RELAYS
➢ Relays can switch AC and DC.
➢ Relays can switch higher voltages.
Relays are often a better choice for switching large currents
(>5 A).
➢ Relays can switch many contacts at once.
➢The contacts becoming worn, resulting in alimited lifespan.
➢That they don't perform that well when it comes to switching high
inrush currents.
➢The Electromagnetic relays are employed for the protection of
various AC and DC equipments.
➢In the over/under current and voltage protection ofvarious AC and DC
equipments.
➢For differential protection.
➢Used as auxiliary relays in the contact systems ofProtective relay
schemes.
Solenoids

123
 Solenoid operated Electronic Fuel Injector

● Fuel injector is an electronically controlled

valve.
● It is supplied with pressurized fuel by the fuel
pump.
● When the injector is energized, an solenoid
moves a plunger that opens the valve, allowing the pressurized
fuel to squirt out through a tiny nozzle.
● The amount of fuel supplied to the engine is
determined by the amount of time the fuel
injector stays open. This is called the pulse
width, and it is controlled by the ECU.
124
Design Constraint
Engine Design parameters

– Compression ratio
– Combustion chamber type
– Combustion chamber design
– Injection system: injection pressure and timing, nozzle holes, nozzle sac
volume

Operating Variables:

– Engine speed
– Engine load
– Fuel quality
– Engine temperature,
– intake air mass,
– intake-manifold pressure,
– Lambda value of the exhaust gas
– EGR
The inputs used in electronically controlled diesel fuel injection systems
are :

i) Engine speed
ii) crank shaft position
iii) accelerator pedal position
iv) intake air temperature
v) lubricating oil temperature
vi) ambient air temperature
vii) turbocharger boost pressure
viii) intake air mass flow rate
The ignition timing is affected by
i) compression ratio
ii) engine speed
iii) mixture strength
iv) combustion chamber design
v) throttle opening
vi) engine temperature
vii) type of fuel
• The engine temperature sensor senses the temperature of the
engine coolant, and from this data the computer adjusts the
mixture strength to rich side for cold starting.

• The air flow sensor, monitors mass or volume of air flowing into
the intake manifold for adjusting the quantity of fuel.

• Exhaust gas senor senses the amount of oxygen in the engine

exhaust and calculates air-fuel ratio.
• The air inlet temperature sensor, checks the temperature of the ambient air
entering the engine for fine tuning the mixture strength.

• The engine temperature sensor senses the temperature of the engine

coolant, and from this data the computer adjusts the mixture strength to rich
side for cold starting.

• The air flow sensor, monitors mass or volume of air flowing into the intake
manifold for adjusting the quantity of fuel and exhaust gas senor senses the
amount of oxygen in the engine exhaust and calculates air-fuel ratio.
• The throttle position sensor, senses the movement of the throttle plate so
that the mixture flow can be adjusted for engine speed and acceleration
• The manifold pressure sensor, monitors vacuum in the engine intake
manifold so that the mixture strength can be adjusted with changes in
engine load
• The camshaft position sensor, senses rotation of engine camshaft for
speed and timing of injection.
• The effects of knocking are
i) noise and roughness
ii) mechanical damage
iii) carbon deposits
iv) increase in heat transfer
v) decrease in power output and efficiency
vi) preignition