SOIL

 SIGNIFICANCE OF WATER TO THE SOIL

 Helps pants to absorb minerals,
 Water dissolves various substances e.g. the salt derived from plant remains to form
solution.
 Water washes away highly soluble salts from the upper layers to the lower layers
(leading to defiency / absence of minerals on the top soil,
 In dry areas,capillarity occurs leading to:-
 Note: Too much water in the soil interefere with the circulation of air in the soil thus
limits furvival of bacteria.
 Air / Gases
 Air in soil is contained in the pore spaces / air spaces.
 IMPORTANCE OF AIR
 Facilitates plant growth by supplying oxygen to the root hair of plants.
 Supports mocro organism which operate in the soil,
 Air causes oxidation which is responsible for breakdown of rocks to form soils.
 In organic matter
 This include Rock particles and minerals.
 IMPORTANCE OF INORGANIC MATTER
 Provide important nutrients,
 Help to aerate the soil,
 Improves the soil texture,
 Improves drainage of the soil,
 FORMATION OF THE SOIL
 Processes of soil formation / pedogenic process
 Begins with denudation of rocks (parent rocks),
 The rock that is weathered down to form soils is called the parent rock,
 The parent rock is further subjected to physical , biological and chemical weathering
processes to form soil,
 The breakdown of the parent rock until the soils are formed in a complex process which
takes time.
 Processes ofsoil formation
 Organic matter accumulates,
 Leaching,
 Organic sorting,
 Organic matter accumulation – involves accumulation and decay of vegetation, organic
matter and animal matter for form humus.
 Leaving – involves removal of soluble mineralsfrom the upper layers to the lower
howizons of the soil.
 Factors which influence leaching
 Nature of soil,
 Type of minerals,
 High rainfall / amount of moisture,
 Slope of the land / gentle gradient.
 Organic sorting
 This is the separation of soil components such as inorganic matter, rockj sizes, texture.
This process is responsible for occurrence of soil texture e.g. sandy, clay, loam soils as
well as the occurrence of humus in the soil.
 KCSE 1999 FACTORS INFLUENCING SOIL FORMATION
 KCSE 1996
 KCSE 2001
 KCSE 2010
 PARENT ROCK
 Rate of weathering
o Hard rocks are weathered slowly because they are more resistant. This slows
down soil formation process.
o Soft rocks are weathered faster because they are less resistant. This speeds up
the soil formation process.
 Size of grains / texture
o Large grained rocks are weathered down to form coarse soils.
o Small grained rocks are weathered down to form fine soils.
o The texture of the rocks determines the type of soil [Link], loamy or clay.
 Mineral of parent rocks
o Mineral of parent rock are transferred to the top soil during weathering.
 CLIMATE
 Rainfall provides water which makes it possible for rocks to decay / disintegrate to form
soil,
 Seasonal variation of rainfall can cause accumulation / concentration of salts in the soil.
 Rainfall can affect the rate at which some soil forming processes occur e.g. leaching/
 High temperature increases rate of weathering / accelerates rate of bacteria activities
which generates some of the organic matter in the soil.
 Wind / water / ice erodes and transport and deposit soil particles in other ares leading
to formation of new soils e.g. loess
 TOPOGRAPHY
 Valley bottoms / gentle slopes encourage formation of deep and fertile soils due to the
deposition and accumulation of fertile soils. Well developed soils because they are well
drained.
 Steep slopes encourage erosion of the top layer of soils thus slowing down formationof
soils / causes thin soils.
 Flat areas / flood plains are saturated with water therefore slows down soil formation
process.
 Slopes influence arrangements and sequence of soils (soil catena) some slopes are more
exposed to the sun / rain which accelerate weathering of the parent rock / formation of
soils – aspect.
 Living organisms
 Living organisms e.g. bacteria cause decay of plant and animals remains to form humus
eventually disintegrating and hence enhance soil formation.
 Burrowing animals help to aerate the soils,
 Living organisms influence chemical composition of soil by adding or removing organic
acid solution or minerals.

 Time
 Where soil formation processes take a short time, the soils are generally immature.
 Where soil formation processes take a long time, the soil are generally well developed /
mature.
 Young soils have poorly developed soil profiles.
 PROPERTIES AND CHARACTERISTICS OF SOIL
 Soil properties – these are the physical and chemical qualities inherent in a soil. These
include:
 Texture,
 Structure,
 Thickness,
 Colour,
 Water and air,
 Porosity,
 Temperature,
 Lime content / pH value.
 TEXTURE
 KCSE 2010 Soil texture refers to the composition of a particular soil in terms of the size
of its particles. Soil particles can either be coarse, medium or fine. Order from the
coarses to the finest. Gravel  Sand  Silt  Clay
 KCSE 2004 Gravel and sand containing soils
 Low plant nutrients.
 Low water holding capacity,
 Allow air , water, heat to move through rapidly,
 A high porosity,
 Tend to remain dry.
 Clay soils
 Hold a lot of moisture,
 Tend to be very wet (water logged),
 Expand when absorbs moisture and becomes sticky,
 On drying, they shink and crack,
 Slow movement through the soils,
 Non porous when water logged.
 Importance
 Determines the amount of soil water available within the soil,
 Influences ease with which plants can penetrate the soil,
 Determines whether a soil retains its fertility through its clay-humus content,
 Determines ability of soil to hold on to humus.
o Humus increases moisture – retention capacity of the soil preventing nutrients
from being washed down through the soil.
 SOIL STRUCTURE
 KCSE 2010 Soil structure refers to the way soil particles are grouped together with larger
sized particles. Arraned into aggregate compound particles.
 Importance:-
 Determines ease with which soil can be cultivated.
 Determines rate at which water is absorbed into the soil.
 Influences rate of erosion.
 THICKNESS
 The amount of soil overlying the parent rock. Described as thin, shallow or deep.
 Factors affecting thickness
 Nature of bedrock,
 Rate of weathering,
 Length of time taken for soil to develop.
 Climate of the place.
 Vegetation cover.
 Topography of the land.
 IMPORTANCE:
 Determines type of plants that grow.
 SOIL COLOUR
 The appearance of the soil. Determined by minerals

 KCSE 2006 Factors affecting soil colour

 Nature of parent rock,
 Amount of humus / organic matter,
 Chemical composition / degree of composition of Fe2O3
 Drainage of the soil / amount of water.
 Moisture and Air
 The amount of moisture and air in the soil.
 Determined by texture and structure of the soil.
 Soil with air – aerated,
 Soil with water – saturated.
 Porosity
 The ratio of the volume of pores in soil to the volume of matter in the soil expressed as
%. Determine by soil texture and structure.
 Temperature
 The warmth of the soil
 Conditions
 Time of day,
 Season,
 Colour of soil,
 Depth,
 Importance
 Enhance fast breakdown of organic matter to humus.
 Enhance fast germination.
 Lime content
 Importance
 Increase rate of decay of organic matter,
 Improves soil structure,
 Improves capacity of soil to absorb water and air,
 Translocation of materials
 This mainly involves inter layer movement of soil particles by the aid of water either as
solution or suspension. This include processes like:-
 Capillary action,
 Leaching.
 MAJOR SOIL GROUPS OF THE WORLD
 Climate is a major factor in the formation of soil and in the classification of soils.
 Tropical soils,
 Temperate soils,
 Tropical soils
 Latosols,
 Black and dark grey soils,
 Desert soils.
 Tropical soils occur in areas which experience –
 High temperatures,
 High rainfall,
 Alternate wet and dry season.
 LATOSOLS / LATERITES
 KCSE 1999
 KCSE 2006 Formed through laterization.
 A process that occurs in areas which experience alternate wet and dry season / tropical
continental. During the wet season, mineral salts in the top layer dissolves rainwater.
The dissolved minerals are deposited further downwards to the lower layers. Insoluble
minerals accumulate in the top layer e.g. iron aluminium. In the dry season,
evaporation occurs in horizon A on the top layer. This eventually leads to formation of
hard crust known as latent.
 Characteristics
 Deep and intensely weathered,
 Acidic and alkaline,
 Low silica content,
 Forms a hard pan of iron and aluminum,
 Well developed horizons.
 BLACK AND DARK GREY SOILS
 Form in humid regions.
 Characteristics
 Sticky when wet,
 Cracks during the dry season,
 Rich in humus,
 Dark in colour,
 Poorly drained,
 Have low organic matter,
 Good for cotton growing,
 Not heavy leaching.
 DESERT SOILS
 Found in arid areas
 Characteristics
 Are loose soils / highly porous,
 Are sandy / stony,
 Low capillarity due to large particles,
 Are very thin / shallow,
 Are saline.
 Have low moisture content,
 Have no organic matter / little humus,
 Yellow brown red in colour.
 TEMPERATE SOILS
 Podzols
 Characteristics
 Ash grey in colour,
 Heavily leached,
 Acidic,
 They lack many plant nutrients,
 Not suitable for farming due to lack of gases in A Horizons.
 Chernozems / praine soils – found in Canadian praines develop in warm temperate
grasslands.
 Characteristics
 A lot of humus content,
 Dark in colour / brown / yellow brown,
 Well drained soils,
 Rich in minerals and bases,
 Have a loose crumbled texture,
 Are deep,
 Have high moisture content.
 SOIL PROFILE
 Vertical arrangement of soils from surface to the bedrock in layers.
 The vertical section in which soil arrangement is in layers or strata is known as horizon.
 The horizons have distinct qualities such as:-
 Colour,
 Texture,
 Physical properties,
 Thickness.
 A complete soil profile / moisture soil has 4 distinct horizons.
 Horizon A
 Characteristics
 Dark in colour,
 Contains humus,
 Has true soils – solun,
 A sone where leaching occurs – elluviatio
 Divided into A00, A0,A1,A2,A3
 Horizon B
 Characteristics
 Dark in colour,
 Subdivided into B1 B2 B3
 Accumulation of leaked minerals from horizon A (illuviation),
 Soil texture is clay in nature.
 Forms a hard pan / murram / latentic duricust.
 Horizon C
 Characteristics
 Have large particles,
 Partly weathered,
 Jointed.

 Horizon D
 Characteristics
 Unweathered rock.
 LEACHING
 This is the removal of soluble minerals in solution form from the upper to the lower
horizons. Makes the top soil deficient in minerals / encourage formation of pans due to
redeposition of minerals on it.
 Soil forming processes
 Podzolization
 Calcification,
 Ferrilization,
 Dessilication,
 Salinization,
 Soloxizationn,
 Gleization
 PODZOLIZATION
 Podzols develop in areas which are cool and wet / humid temperate regions covered by
coniferous forests.
 During the wet season, salts an carbonates in the top layer of the soil dissolves in
rainwater,
 Dissolved minerals percolates / seep down from the top soil to the subsoil,
 The leached minerals including iron and aluminium are deposited in horizon B.
 Silica is not leached thus accumulates in horizon A,
 Eventually, an ash like soil (colour) called podzol forms.
 CALCIFICATION – Dry season
 Occurs in areas which experience low rainfall especially in the interior of continents.
 Calcification is common in the temperate and grassland regions which experience high
rates of evaporation than that of precipitation.
 Process
 During the dry season evaporation takes place,
 Thils leads to concentration of salts and bases in the soil,
 Continued evaporation results in precipitation of salts,
 Calcium bicarbonate change into carbonates after precipitation.
 This eventually leads to formationof a crust of calcrete.
 LATERIZATION
 Refer to earlier notes
 DESSILICATION
 During the wet season, silica in the top layer is removed by rainwater. Occurs before
laterization.
 The mineral silica seeps downwards in perfolating rainwater to horizon B.
 Iron and aluminium accumulate in horizon A.
 SALINIZATION
 Occurs in areas that experience dry conditions.
 Process
 During the dry season, salt in solution in horizon B are dawn upwards by capillary action
to horizon a.
 On the surface, evaporation occurs leading to deposition of salts in horizon A.
 This eventually result in the accumulation of salts in horizon a to form saline salts or
lime salts.
 GLEIZATION – Water logged condtions
 Takes place in water logged and anaerobic conditions,
 Results information of hydromarphic soils,
 Flat uplands or depression encourages accumulation of fine texture soils which have
poor drainage.
 The presence of silt or clay with a lot of moisture cut off oxygen supply.
 The anaerobic conditions impedes baceterial activity thus low rate of decay of organic
matter. This eventually leads to formation of gleiy soils.
 SOIL CATENA
 2006 This is the sequence of different types of soils down a slope.
 Factors affecting soil catena
 Relief / gradient / topography,
 Drainage,
 Transport of soil debries / erosion,
 Leaching.
 Relief
 The slope of the land influences drainage which in turn influence the moisture content
of the soil.
 The slope of the land influences drainage which in turn influence the moisture content
of the soil. On gentle slopes, the soils are well draned while on valley bottoms, they are
water logged. On flat topped hills / uplands soils are deeply weathered and the soil
particles accumulate leading to deep / thich soils.
 On very steep slopes, high rate of erosion occurs leading to thick or shallow soils.
 Drainage
 On steep and gentle slppes the soils are welldrained while on valley bottoms they are
poorly drained.
 Gentle slopes have mature, well drained soils white steep slopes have thin, stony dry
soils which are immature.
 Flat areas are poor drained leading to formation of pit / glei.
 Transport of rock debries
 Surface run off and mass wasting occur rapidly on steep slopes leading to formation of
thin stony immature soils with organic matter and moisture. Material transported from
the steep slopes are deposited in the low laying areas.
 These materials accumulate to form deep soils.
 Leaching
 The downward movement of soluble minerals to the lower layers cause the top layer to
be sufficient of certain minerals.
 SOIL DEGENERATION / DEGRADATION
 This is the loss of soil fertility due to mismanagement and environmental causes.
 Ways in which soil degenerate
 Physically,
 Chemically,
 Biologically.
 PHYSICAL DEGENERATION
 This is the decline in the quality and usefulness of soil due to alteration of soil texture,
moisture, structure and thickness.
 Causes of physical degeneration
 Overgrazing leads to removal of vegetation exposing soil to agents of erosion and
excessive evaporation from soil (water loss)
 Overgrazing results in loose and fine textured soils due to rock pounding by animals.
 Frequent ploughing weakens soil structure making it easy for agents of soil erosion to
carry away the top fertile soils.
 Heavy rainfall washes down the top soil leading to thin / shallow soil,
 Heavy rainfall may also alter the structure of soils from crumb to blocky / columnar
which are unsuitable for cultivation on
 Heavy rainfall may result in water logging in flat and lowland areas making the soils
unsuitable for plant growth.
 Prolonged drought cause the soils to loose water to become dry thus become
susceptible to wind erosion.
 Prolonged drought cause the soil to loose water / moisture thus soil particles held
together become loose / disintegrate.
 CHEMICAL DEGENERATION
 This is the decline in the usefulness of the soil due to a change in chemical properties of
the soil pH value.
 Causes of Chemical degeneration
 Monoculture and over-cropping lead to exhaustion of soil minerals making it infertile
and bare leading to erosion.
 Monoculture leads to loosening of soil particles thereby encouraging soil erosion,
 Continuous application of fertilizers on farmlands increases the acidity / increases the
soil pH thus making it unsuitable for plant growth.
 Continuous application of fertilizers increases acidity of the soil which destroys micro-
organisms in the soil (fungi and bacteria) which could have helped in the formation of
humus.
 Heavy rainfall can cause leaching of certain minerals making the top soil deficient of
such minerals.
 Heavy rainfall can cause water logging in the lowland areas leading to acidic soils.
 Prolonged drought cause accumulation of minerals salts on the top layers of soils /
saline salts.
 BIOLOGICAL DEGENERATION
 This is the decline of organic matter of soil and vegetation cover.
 Causes of biological degeneration
 Deforestation and overgrazing result in removal of vegetation which in turn lead to
shortage of humus.
 Prolonged drought may result in shortage of bacterial earthworms, termites and
burrowing animals which usually mix and aerate soils.
 KCSE 2006 Explain five ways n which farming practices may lead to loss of fertility.
 Overgrazing lead to exposure of soil resulting in soil erosion,
 Monoculture exhaust soil nutrients,
 Frequent clearance of cover crops cause soil erosion which in turn lead to loss of soil
nutrients.
 Compaction of soils due to frequent ploughing / digging reduces porosity of soil thus
impede percolation of water.
 Frequent cultivation increase oxidation which resultys in loss of ……
 Deep ploughing mixes soil layers therefore removes nutrients from the plant root level .
 Irrigation water leaches nutrients from the soil.
 Irrigation causes salinity of soils,
 Burning of crop remains / bushes / clearing of land through burning destroys organic
matter vegetation octer.
 Nitrogen fixing bacteria.
 SOIL EROSION
 The process by which the top soil is detached and carried away by various agents of
erosion such as wind, water, ice.
 Causes of soil erosion
 Human activities,
 Geomorphic processes e.g. mass wasting, earth movements,
 KCSE 1996, 1999, 2001, 2006 contribution of human activities
 Cutting down of trees / deforestation exposes the soil to agents of erosion.
 Continuous ploughing weakens down the soil structure making agents of erosion to
carry away soil easily.
 Ploughing across the contours / up and down the slope creates channels which
encourage easy removal of soil by running water or agents of erosion.
 Overstocking leads to trampling of the top soil by animals thereby loosening the
particles marking it easy to carry away.
 Continuous cultivation deprives the soil of fertility / humus which binds the soil particles
together. This makes soil susceptible to soil erosion.
 Road construction / mining loosens the soils making them easy to be carried away.
 Monoculture / over-cropping leads to soil exhaustion making the soils vulnerable to
erosion.
 Shifting cultivation / bush fallowing may leaves the land unprotected against soil
erosion. Cultivation of crops in the marginal areas loosens the soil leading to wind
erosion especially in the dry season.
 Cultivation of steep slopes / river banks increases soil erosion.
 Agents of soil erosion
 Animals,
 People,
 Wind,
 Running water,
 Moving ice,
 Waves.
 Types of water erosion
 Splash erosion,
 Sheet erosion,
 Rill erosion,
 Gulley erosion.

 Splash erosion
 Description
 When heavy reain falls on a bare ground, the loose soil particles are scattered due totht
eimpact of falling rain drops. As the raindrops continue lifting the souse soils, they
cause the soil particles to bond making id difficult for water to infiltrate. This causes the
water to run off the ground.
 Sheet erosion
 KCSE 2001
 Occurs on gentle slopes which are bare,
 Heavy rainfall on the gentle slopes and water spreads over a large area.
 As the water moves,it removes the top layer of soil eenly over the area.
 Rill Erosion
 Occurs on gentle to steep slopes which are bare / with scanty vegetation.
 Heavy rainfall and the water in form of surface run off drains off the slope through small
channels called rills.
 The soil particles within the channels are detached through abrasion and hydraulic
action and washed down through process called rill erosion.
 Gulley erosion
 KCSE 2001
 Occurs on steep slopes which are bare / with scanty vegetation,
 Heavy rain falls on the steep slopes and the surface run off form on the surface.
 The rainwater cuts deep grooves / channels / rills on the slopes.
 The channels are widened and deepened through hydraulic action and abrasion to form
gullies through which soils are carried away.
 Effects
 The washing away of the top soil results in reduced agricultural productivity of the land.
 The washing away of soils weakens the ground and this may cause uprooting of plants /
collapse of buildings and bridges.
 Erosion of soils causes lowering o the water table,
 Erosion of soils causes siltation of dams and river channels,
 Soil erosion result in pollution of lakes due to deposition of silt and agrochemical,
 Soil erosion may cause clean sandy beaches to become muddy.
 Measures taken to prevent soil erosion
 Afforestation,
 Agroforestry,
 Re-afforestation
 Ways in which the measure taken prevent soil erosion
 The leaf cover of plants reduces the force of raindrops that would have otherwise
loosened the soil particles or caused splash erosion.
 Vegetation cover reduces speed of surface run off thus encourages infiltration of water.
This reduces soil erosion.
 Plants roots bind soil particles together hence make the soil firm and eventually reduce
soil erosion.
 Plant roots penetrate soil thus open up the ground for water to percolate. This reduces
surface run off or erosion.
 The plants cover breaks the force of wind at ground level and reduce transportation of
soil particles.
 Plant cover reduces evaporation which would otherwise dry and loosen the soil and
make it succeptible to erosion.
 Decayed vegetable matter provides humus which binds the soil particles together thus
reduce soil erosion.
 Contour farming helps trap water hence increase soil moisture content thus reduce
erosion.
 Contours farming reduces speed of water downslope therefore prevent removal of top
soil,
 Regulation of livestock numbers reduced overgrazing and ensure that vegetation cover
is prevent hence reduce soil erosion.
 Terracing helps to reduce speed of water moving downslope and hold the water thus
increase rate of infiltration thus reduce soil erosion.
 Soil preservation – Management of soil by maintaining quality and quality
 It is realized through:-
 Preservation of existing forests,
 Afforestation and re-afforestation,
 Protection of water catchment areas,
 Land use planning.
 IMPORTANCE
 Soil erosion may cause accumulation of fertile alluvial deposits on flood plains e.g. kano
plains. Fertility increases.
 Soil erosion may result in deposition of sand on riverbeds where it is scooped and used
for construction.
 Elluviation – downward movement of fine particles (both minerals and organic) as a
suspension in water from the upper soilslayer to the layers below. the upper layer is the
eluvial zone Illuviation.
 CLASSIFICATION OF SOILS
 Soils are classified based on age, climate, texture, colour into three soils orders:
 Zonal soils,
 Intra zonal soils,
 Azonal soils.
 ZONAL SOILS
 Characteristics
 Mature soils,
 well drained,
 high humus content,
 deep soils,
 well developed soil profile.
 Examples: Temperate region – tunra, Podzols, chernozems, Drainer soils. Topical region
– laterites, red desert soils, black and dark grey.
 INTRAZONAL SOILS
 Soils which form under conditions of poor drainage, flat topography and presence of
vegetation.
 Characteristics
 Alkaline / saline,
 a lot of moisture,
 incomplete soil profile.

 Example: Red Zina, Terra rossa (calcerous soils), Solenete, Solochaks (Halomorphic), Bog
peat and Plano soils hydromorphic soils.
 AZONAL SOILS
 Immature / young soils
 Have not had adequate time to form / develop.
 Characteristics
 Incomplete soil profile,
 thin,
 have little humus.
 Examples: Alluvial soils, volcanic soils, marine soils, loess
 ZONAL SOILS IN TROPICAL REGIONS
 Laterites / latosols.
 Red in colour,
 Very rich in iron and aluminium oxide,
 Are sticky soils,
 Very porous,
 Have low humus content,
 Are acidic,
 Are of low agricultural value.
 Tropical Black Earths (Regur)
 Dark grey / black in colour,
 very sticky / plastic when wet,
 poorly drained,
 low organic matter,
 good for cotton growing,
 Red Desert Soils
 Reddish brown incolour,
 are loose soils,
 very thin,
 are saline,
 are coarse textured,
 Have no organic matter.

 ZONAL SOILS IN TEMPERATE REGIONS.

 Tundra soils
 Poorly drained,
 blue grey incolour due to lack of oxygen,
 sticky due to poor structure,
 not suitable for cultivation.
 Podzols
 Greying / ashy in colour
 heavily leached,
 acidic,
 lack many plant nutrients,
 not suitable for farming due to lack of gases in a horizon.
 Chernozems
 black in colour,
 very rich in humus hence fertile,
 Well drained,
 rich in carbonates,
 very good soil structure (crumby structure),
 Very productive agriculturally.
 Praine soils
 dark brown in colour
 Contain less carbonates due to leaching,
 are deep soils,
 have a crumbly structure,
 very productive agriculturally,
 Intrazonal soils
 Common in areas where local drainage is poor,
 Influenced by local factors such as terrain, parent rock rather than vegetation and
climate.
 classified into:
 Calcareous soils
 contains high amount of carbonates,
 found in limestone regions,
 they are basic due to the calcium carbonate,
 Two types: Redzina and Terra rosa soils.
 Red zina
 black to brown in colour,
 thin layered,
 are basic
 rich in calcium
 Terra Rosa soils
 Redish,
 rich in calcium,
 Alkaline,
 common in depression in arid and semi arid areas.
 Halomorphic soils
 are saline due to high salt accumulation,
 commonly found in iinland basins,
 examples Solonets and solonchacks,
 Solonets
 black in colour,are desalinized soils,
 sticky when wet and hard when dry,
 are of low agricultural value as most nutrients are leached.
 rich in Ca2Co3
 Solonchaks
 White in colour,
 Are alkaline,
 are of low agricultural value,
 Hydromorphic soils
 Are water ligged,
 contains partially decayed vegetation,
 two types Bog peat and Meadow soils.
 Bog peat
 Grey / blue in colour,
 are acidic,
 are water logged,
 have a layer of partially decomposed vegetation,
 Low productivity.
 Meadow soils
 are dark
 have a lot of orgnic matter content,
 AZONAL SOILS
 Alluvial soils
 Are a mixture of sand, clay and silt,
 are fine textured,
 common along river valleys,
 deposited by running water,
 very productive agriculturally
 Volcanic soils
 grayish or redish incolour,
 formed by weathered lava,
 very rich in nutrients and therefore productive,
 fine textured,
 very sticky when wet,
 Marine soils
 occur along low lying coasts or reclaimed land from the sea,
 are made of clay and sand deposits,
 saline,
 Do not support plant life.
 SOIL CONSERVATION AND MANAGEMENT
 Soil management measure put in place to control the processes and activities that lead
to detonation of soil.
 Steps put in place to manage soil:
 Addition of lime to soils to raise / improve the pH level and improve soil porosity and
moisture content.
 saline soils may be treated by adding water to remove excess salts,
 Addition of manure to the soils to improve fertility.
 Water logged soil scan be improved by draining away excess water by construction of
ditches.
 Soil conservation
 Measures taken to protect the soils from destruction or wastage
 Measure taken to conserve the soil
 maintaining soil fertility,
 prevention of soil erosion / loss,
 preservation of soils,
 Measures taken to maintain soil fertility
 Crop rotation – different rops utilize different mineralstherefore rotation helps
inbalancing placing mineal content,
 mixed farming – manure from animals and humus from crop residue helps enrich the
soil with minerals in soil nutrients.
 application of hemical fertilizers – proper application helps to improve soil nutrients,
porosity texture and waer holding capacity.
 creation of drainage ditches / trenches – helps remove excess waterfrom the soil leadint
to improved aeration and bacterial growth thus support plant growth,
 Proper ploughing – ensure proper maintenance of soil texture thus iprove soil texture
and porosity.
 Intercropping ensures soils minerals content is balanced / added e.g. by nitrogen fixing
plants like beans.
 mulching – useful because
o mulch adds humus to the soil whenit decays,
o improves water retention capacity by protecting it against direct sunlight,
o increases rate of infiltration by holding rainwater and releasing it gradually,
o controls speed of surface run off therefore reduce rate of removal of soil.
 Bush fallowing – the practice of resting the land after cultivation ensure soil nutrients
are replenished naturally.
 KCSE 2001 USES OF SOIL
 USES OF SOIL

 Soils are source of valuable minerals which are extracted by man.

 Soils are used as a raw material for pottery, ceramics, tiles and bricks industries,
 Soils are used for agriculture,
 Soils are used in building and construction industry,
 Soils support pasture which are eaten by livestock,
 soil are mixed with herbs for medicinal purposes