Ancient History

➢ Origin of Earth – 4.8 Billion Years back

➢ Origin of Life on earth – 3.5 Billion Years back
➢ Start of Human Life on Earth – 42 lakh Years back.
➢ Father of History – Herodotus

Old Stone Age/ Palaeolithic Period

• 50,000 B.C – 10,000 B.C
• The main tools of lower Palaeolithic phase were handaxes, cleavers and choppers.
These are called chopping tools.

• The geographical distribution of the Palaeolithic

sites suggests that this culture was spread
throughout the length and breadth of the
Indian subcontinent like Kashmir Valley,
Sohan Valley (Rawalpindi now in Pakistan),
Rajasthan, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, etc.

• The Palaeolithic people practised hunting

and food-gathering for their subsistence.
They made simple stone tools for
hunting, cutting, digging and other purposes.

• They led a nomadic life and migrated to places where plant and animal resources
along with water were easily available.
 Middle Stone Age/ Mesolithic Period
• 10,000 B.C – 6,000 B.C
• The microliths used during the mesolithic period were very small in size varying in
lengths from 1 to 8 centimeters and were largely made out of chipped or flaked
pieces. Some of these tools have geometric forms such as Triangles, lunates and
Tra-pezes.
• The distribution of Mesolithic sites
indicates that the Mesolithic cultures
covered almost the entire India
from north to south and east to west,
like Langhnaj (District Mehsana)
in Gujarat; Bhimbetka (near Bhopal)
in Madhya Pradesh; Chopani Mando
(near Allahabad in Belan Valley) in
Uttar Pradesh; Birbhanpur
(District Burdwan) in West Bengal;
Sanganakallu (District Bellary) in
Karnataka; and Tuticorin in southern Tamil Nadu.

• The Mesolithic people still subsisted on hunting and gathering, but now there was a
shift in the pattern of hunting from the big animals in the Palaeolithic period to the
smaller animals which could be attacked with the help of bows and arrows. In
addition to this, fishing and fowling also became important.

• Fire had been discovered in this Period.

 New Stone Age/ Neolithic Period
• 6,000 B.C – 1,000 B.C
• The use of the sharp and polished Neolithic tools made it easier to cultivate the soil
• The Neolithic people also produced
pottery for the purpose of storing grains.
• The Neolithic tools consist of the ground
tools having smooth surfaces, and
well-rounded and symmetrical shapes.
The ground stone tools of the Neolithic
period included different types
of axes called ‘celt’.
• Besides the stone tools, the sites of this period have also yielded various types of
bone objects such as needles, scrapers, borers, arrowheads, pendants, bangles
and earrings.
• The Neolithic sites were spread over almost all the regions of Indian subcontinent,
such as Mehargarh (Baluchistan), Burzahom & Gufkral(Kashmir Valley),etc.
• The people cultivated various kinds of crops such as wheat, barley, rice, millet,
lentils, etc,. depending on the geographical conditions. Agriculture gave impetus
to animal domestication.
• Hunting still remained an important occupation.
• The people domesticated animals which included sheep, goat, cattle, etc. and
also hunted wild animals such as boar, nilgai, gazells, etc.
• The Neolithic cultures created the conditions which helped in the growth of towns in
the later period.
 Chalcolithic Period/ Copper StoneAge
• 4500 – 3500 B.C
• Technologically before Harappa but actually overlaps with Harappa too.
• Occasional use of Low grade Bronze.
• Chalco means = copper + stone.
• Copper is mostly used Metal in the in the Chalcolithic Period.
 Some Important Facts
• Hunting was the main living Source of OLD STONE AGE.
• Around 36,000 B.C. back Humans in the form of Homo-Sapiens.
• The 1st pet of Human was --- Dog as seen in Middle stone Age.
• The 2nd pet of Human was --- Horse as mentioned in vedas.
• Humans knew about fire from ‘OLD STONE AGE’ but it had become in use by --- NEW
STONE AGE.
• Firstly the Institute of ‘STONE AGE CULTURE’ was established by – “Robert Boose Foot “
in India(1863) at Calcutta.
• 1st Weapon of Humans --- STONE
• 2nd weapon of Humans --- BONE
• 3rd weapon of Humans --- METAL
• BONE WEAPONS were found from Bihar in NEW STONE AGE.
• Firstly the metal used in weapons was -- Copper(Cu), moreover Humans knew firstly
the Metal named as— ‘COPPER(Cu)’
• Man firstly made the STONE WHEEL after that , Man then Made –WOODEN WHEEL.
• WHEEL was introduce in NEW STONE AGE
• Agriculture was introduce in NEW STONE AGE
• Firstly the clues of Agriculture was found from – Mehargarh(West of Indus River).
• Indus Valley Civilisation name was given by --- john Marshal
 INDUS VALLEY CIVILISATION
➢ HARAPPA:
• Location: Montgo Mery, Punjab, Pakistan
• River: Ravi River
• Discovered Year: 1921
• Excavator: D.R. Sahini (Daya Ram Sahini)
• Findings: Grainaries, Coffin Burrial, 1st Town which is Excavated

➢ MOHANJODARO – Biggest city in IVC

• Location: Sindh, Pakistan
• River: Sindhu (Indus River)
• Discovered Year: 1922
• Excavator: R.D. Banerjee(Rakhal Das Banerjee)
• It is the most Facilitated site of IVS.
• Findings: Great Bath(The Biggest Bath Ghat),
great Grainary, Bronze Dancing Girl
Beared Priest/ Man, Terracotta Toys, Bull Seal,
Pashupati Seal, Hidden Drainage,
A piece of woven Cloth,etc.
• It is the Most Modern Site of Indus Valley.
• It is the Largest City of Indus Valley.

Pashupati Seal
Male deity with Three-Horned Heads,
represented in the sitting posture of a
Yogi. This deity is surrounded by an
elephant, a Tiger, a Rhinoceros, & has a
Buffalo beneath his throne. At his feet are
two deer.
The depicted god is recognised as
Pashupati Mahadeva.
Beared Priest Dancing Girl
Bull Seal

➢ CHANHUDARO (Lancashire of India)

• Location: Sindh, Pakistan
• River: Sindh/ Indus
• Discovered Year: 1931
• Excavator: Gopal Mazumdar & Mackery(Foreign)
• Findings: Bead Making Factory,
Use of Lipstick, Black Liner, Comb, etc.

➢ ROPAD
• Location: Punjab
• River: Sutlej
• Discovered Year: 1953-1955
• Excavator: yagyaDutta Sharma(Y.D. Sharma)
• Findings: Burried of Dog with man,etc.
➢ DHOLA VIRA
• Location: Kutch, Gujrat
• River: Luni
• Discovered Year: 1968
• Excavator: J.P. Joshi
• Findings: Bullocks & Driven by a nude Human,
Water Harvesting & No. of Reservoirs,
Use of Rocks for Construction, Drainage system, Livelihood, Wells,
Bullocks, etc.

➢ LOTHAL
• Location: Ahemdabad, Gujrat
• River: Bhogwa (Gulf of Khambat)
• Discovered Year: 1955- 1962
• Excavator: Rangnath Rao
• Findings: Dockyard, Bead making factory,
Button seal, Fire Altars, Painted Jar,
Earliest cultivation of Rice, set of
Elephant Teeth, etc.
• It is the biggest Dockyard of IVS.
• Chess Board
• Manchester of IVC (due to production of Cotton)
➢ KALI BANGA(Black Bangles/ Non-Planned City)
• Location: SriGanga Nagar, Rajasthan
• River: Ghaggar/ Sarasvati River
• Discovered Year: 1961
• Excavator: Brij Basi Lal, Bal Krishna Thapar
• Findings: Baked/Burned bangles, Fire Altars,
Shiva Lingam, Bones of Camel,

➢ BANAWALI
• Location: Fatehabad Haryana
• River: Ghaggar/ Sarasvati River
• Discovered Year: 1973
• Excavator: R.S. Bisht
• Findings: Barley, Terracotta Figure of plough, etc.

➢ LARKANA
• Location: Larkana District, Punjab Pakistan.
• River: Sindhu/ Indus
• Discovered Year:
• Excavator:
• Findings: Barley, etc.
➢ RAKHI GARHI
• Location: Hisar, Haryana
• River: Ghaggar
• Discovered Year:1963
• Excavator: Prof. Surbhajan
• It is the Biggest/Largest Site of IVS.
• Findings: Terracotta, wheels, Toys,
Figurines, Pottery,etc.
 THE VEDIC AGE (1500-600BC)
The word veda is derived from the root vid which means ‘to know’. The word veda means
the sacred knowledge contained in the texts known as Vedic text.
Two categories of texts are included in the corpus of the Vedic literature. These are
Mantra and Brahmana.
➢ The Brahmanas not to be confused with Brahaminical class are prose texts
containing the explanations of the mantras as well as the sacrificial rituals.

➢ The Aranyakas (literally forest treatises) and the Upanishads (sitting down beside) are mainly
appendices to the Brahmanas.

• The Mantra category forms the core of the Vedic texts and has four separate
collections. These are the Rigveda, the Samaveda, the Yajurveda, and the
Atharvaveda.

RIGVEDIC PERIOD/ EARLY VEDIC PERIOD(1500-1000BC)

➢ Rigveda
• Collection 1028 Hymns
• Divided into 10 Mandalas.
• Oldest Religious Text.
• Included in the UNESCO.
• Depicts the life of Early Vedic Period
• Hymns------ 1028
• Mandalas(Chapters)----- 10
• Rigveda starts with the line ‘Agnimele Purohitam’
• Famous Gayatri Mantra is contained in the Rigveda (It is believed to have
composed by Vishwamitra).
• Contains the knowledge of chemistry & Medical science.
• It contains the Prayers of God & Gayatri Mantra.
➢ Early Vedic Society
• It was patriarchal in nature.
• Monogamy was the usual norm of marriage but the chiefs at times practiced
polygamy.
• The family was part of a larger grouping called vis or clan.
• One or more than one clans made jana or tribe. The jana was the largest
social unit.
• The Rigvedic society was a simple and largely an egalitarian society.
• There was no caste division.
• The Vedic people were fair whereas the non-Vedic indigenous people were
dark in complexion and spoke a different language.
• Here dasa has been used in the sense of a group different from the Rigvedic
people.
• The women in society enjoyed respectable position. She was married at a
proper age and could choose a husband of her own choice. She could take
part in the proceedings of the tribal assemblies called sabha and samiti.

➢ Early Vedic Religion

• The prayers to propitiate gods for physical protection and for material gains
were the main concerns of the Rigvedic people.
• The Rigvedic gods were generally personifications of different aspects of
natural forces such as rains, storm, sun etc.
• Indra, Agni, Varuna, Mitra, Dyaus, Pushana, Yama, Soma, etc. are all male
gods.
• In comparison, we have only a few goddesses such as Ushas, Sarasvati,
Prithvi, etc which occupy secondary positions in the pantheon.
• Signs & Terms that represents God are given as:
1. ThunderBolt & Strom – God Indra(Main God at that time)
2. Fire – Agni God
3. Intoxicate Plant – Soma
4. Cosmic order “Rita” – Varuna God
5. Roads, Heardsmen & Cattle – Pushan God
 • Early Vedic phase people did not construct temples nor did they worship any
statue.

➢ Early Vedic Polity

• The chief social unit of the Aryans was known as jana.
• The chief of this unit was the political leader called rajan.
• The main function of the chief was to protect the jana and cattle from the
enemies. He was helped in his task by the tribal assemblies called sabha,
samiti, vidatha, gana and parishad.
• Out of these sabha and samiti were the most important assemblies. All
aspects of life were discussed in these assemblies.

• The purohita assisted and advised the chief on various matters.

• Other than the purohita, there were a limited number of other officials who
assisted the chief in the day-to-day tribal affairs. Senani, kulapa, gramani,
etc. are some of the functionaries which find mention in the Rigveda.
 LATER VEDIC PERIOD (1000-600BC)
• During later Vedic phase, agriculture became the mainstay of the Vedic people.
• The buffalo had been domesticated for the agricultural purposes. This animal was
extremely useful in ploughing the swampy land.
• The god Indra acquires a new epithet ‘Lord of the Plough’ in this period.
• The number and varieties of plant food increased. Apart from barley, people now
cultivated wheat, rice, pulses, lentils, millet, sugarcane etc.
• The items of dana and dakshina included cooked rice.
• Tila, from which the first widely used vegetable
food-oil was derived increasingly,
came to be used in rituals.
• During the later Vedic period was the
beginning of the use of iron around 1000 BC.
• The use of iron tools now helped people
clear the dense rain forests particularly the
huge stumps left after burning, in a more
effective manner.
• With the passage of time the Vedic people also acquired better knowledge of
seasons, manuring and irrigation.
• All these developments resulted in the substantial enlargement of certain
settlements such as Hastinapur and Kaushambi towards the end of the Later Vedic
period.

➢ Later Vedic Society

• The later Vedic family became large enough to be called a joint-family with
three or four generations living together.
• The institution of gotra developed in this period. This means that people
having common gotra descended from a common ancestor and no
marriage between the members of the same gotra could take place.
• Monogamous marriages were preferred even though polygamy was
frequent.
 • Some restrictions on women appeared during this period. In a text women
have been counted as a vice along with dice and wine. In another text a
daughter has been said to be the source of all sorrows. Women had to stay
with her husband at his place after marriage. The participation of women in
public meetings was restricted.
• The most important change was the rise and growth of social differentiation
in the form of varna system. The four varnas in which society came to be
divided were the brahmanas, kshatriyas, vaishyas and shudras.
• The kshatriyas, next in the social hierarchy, were the rulers. They along with
brahmanas controlled all aspects of life.
• The vaishyas, the most numerous varna were engaged in agriculture as well
as in trade and artisanal activities.
• The brahmanas and the kshatriyas were dependent on the tributes (gifts and
taxes) paid to them by the vaishyas.
• The shudras, the fourth varna were at the bottom of the social hierarchy. They
were ordained to be in the service of the three upper varnas.
• In this period Brahmans are considered as very Powerful.
• Another important institution that began to take shape was ashrama or
different stages of life. Brahmacharya (student life), grihastha (householder),
and vanaprastha (Hermitage) stages are mentioned in the texts.
• Later, sanyasa, the fourth stage also came to be added.

➢ Later Vedic Religion

• Vishnu and Rudra which were smaller deities in the Rigveda became
extremely important.
• The increase in the frequency and number of the yajna which generally
ended with the sacrifices of a large number of animals. This was probably the
result of the growing importance of a class of brahmanas and their efforts to
maintain their supremacy in the changing society.
• These yajnas brought to them a large amount of wealth in form of dana and
dakshina. Some of the important yajnas were - ashvamedha, vajapeya,
rajasuya etc.
 • A large number of cattle and other animals which were sacrificed at the end
of each yajna must have hampered the growth of economy.
• Therefore, a path of good conduct and self-sacrifice was recommended for
happiness and welfare in the last sections of the Vedas, called the Upnishads.
• The Upnishads contain two basic principles of Indian philosophy viz, karma
and the transmigration of soul, i.e., rebirth based on past deeds.
• According to these texts real happiness lies in getting moksha i.e. freedom
from this cycle of birth and re-birth.

➢ Later Vedic Polity

• The people started to loose their control over the chief and the popular
assemblies gradually disappeared.

• The chiefship had become hereditary.

• The brahmanas helped the chiefs in this process.
• The elaborate coronation rituals such as vajapeya and rajasuya established
the chief authority.

• The authority of the popular assemblies started waning.

• The officers were appointed to help the chief in administration and they
acquired the functions of the popular assemblies as main advisors.

• The chiefs of this period belonged to the kshatriya varna and they in league
with the brahmanas tried to establish complete control over the people in
the name of dharma.

➢ Samveda
• Deals with Music.
• Hymns--- 1875
• Adhayas(chapters)--- 6
• It is the origin of Indian Classical Music.
• Sama Veda deals with Music.
• Sama Vedic hymns are meant to be
sung by priests called Udgatri.
 ➢ Yajurveda
• Procedures for the performance of Sacrifices.
• The Yajurveda is found in two recensions, Black and White
• Hymns--- 1975
• Adhayas(chapters)--- 40
• Contains the knowledge of all
Sacrificial formula & Weapons.
• Experts of Yajurveda were called -- Adhvaryu
• Only veda divided into two parts –
Krishna Yajur Veda & Shukla Yajur Veda.

➢ Atharvaveda
• Deals with Medicines.
• also called “veda of Magical Formulas”
• Hymns--- 730
• Khandas(chapters)--- 20
• Atharva veda is a collection of spells and incantations.
• Contains the knowledge of Ayurveda, also charm and
spells hence it is known as Black Veda.
• The saying, ‘‘War begins in the minds of men’’ is from
Atharva Veda.

Vedic Officials
Ratnis Responsibilities
Purohit Chief Priest, also something referred to as the Rashtragopa
Senani Supreme Commander of the army
Vrajapati Officer Incharge of the Pasture Land
Jivagribha Police Officer
Spasaa/Dutas Spies, who also sometimes worked as Messengers
Gramani Head of the Village
Kulapati Head of Family
Madhyamasi Mediator of Disputes
Mahishi The Chief Queen
Suta Charioteer & Court Minister
Govinkartana Keeper of Games & Forests
Palagala Messenger
Kshatri Chamberian
Akshavapa Accountant
Athapati Chief Judge
Takshan Carpainter

The Mahajanpadas
• Most of these states were monarchical in nature but some of them, called
ganasangha, had an oligarcharical system of governance.

• At that time Silver and Copper time in use.

• Post under the Magadh are given below :

▪ Senani -- Senapati
▪ Purohit -- Pujari
▪ Amatya – Amatya
 • The most important of these are given below:

[Link]. Mahajanapadas Capital Modern location

1 Anga Champa Munger and

Bhagalpur(Bihar)
2 Magadh Girivraja / Rajagir Gaya and Patna(Bihar)

3 Kasi Varanasi Banaras

4 Vatsa Kausambi Allahabad(U.P)

5 Kosala Sravasti Eastern Uttar Pradesh

6 Sursena Mathura Mathura(U.P)

7 Panchala Ahichchatra and Western Uttar Pradesh

Kampilya
8 Kuru Indraprastha Merrut Delhi region

9 Matsya Viratnagar Jaipur

10 Chedi Suktimati / Banda Bundelkhanda (U.P)

11 Avanti Ujjain / Mahismati Madhya Pradesh &

Malwa
12 Gandhar Taxila Peshawar (Pakistan)

13 Kamboja Rajpura Near Gandhar

14 Asmak Pratisthan / Paithan Bank of Godavari

(Maharashtra)
15 Vajji (Ganasangha) Vaishali Muzaffarpur (Bihar)

16 Malla Kusinara/ Pava Gorakhpur, U.P.

 Mahajanpads
Mahajanpad Capital Current Location
Magadha Girivraj or Rajgriha District Patna, Gaya & Part of
Shahabad in Bihar.
Anga Champa or Munger & Bhagalpur district of Bihar
Chapanagari
Kashi Varanasi Varanasi district of U.P
Koasala Saravasti Faizabad, Gonda Region or Eatrern
U.P
Malla Kushinagar or Pawa South of Vaishali distt. in U.P
Kuru Hastinapur Haryana & Delhi
Chedi Shaktiman Eastern Part of Bundelkhand
Panchal Ahichharta, Kampilya Rahilkhand western U.P
Sursena Mathura Brajmandal Mathura Region
Matsya Viratnagar Alwar, Jaipur, Bharatpur in Rajasthan

Avanti Malwa/Ujjain Ujjain District

Gandhara Taxila Western part of Pakistan &
Afghanistan
Kamboj Rajput/ Hataka Punch area in Kashmir & Hazara
District of Pakistan
Ashmika Potana / Patali Between river Narmada & Godavari
Vatsa Kaushambi Dist. Of Allahabad Mirzapur of U.P
Vajji Vaishali Vaishali district of Bihar

Some Important Fact about Mahajan padas

✓ Kashi was famous for its cotton textiles and market for horses.

✓ Champa was noted for its trade and Commerce.

✓ Vajji represented a confederacy of eight clans.

✓ The Buddha died in the vicinity of Kushinagar.

✓ The Northern Panchalas had their capital at Ahicchatra.

✓ The Southern Panchalas had their Capital at Kampilya.

✓ Viratnagar was used as the hiding place by Pandavas.

✓ Mathura was located at the junction of two famous trade routes i.e. Uttara patha

and Dakshinapatha.

✓ The Kambojas were regarded as uncultured by the Brahamanical texts.

✓ The Buddha calls himself Kosalan in the Majjhima Nikaya.

✓ Kashi had emerged as a cloth manufacturing centre by the time of Buddha.

 JAINISM(600BC)
➢ 1st Tirthankara : Rishabhanath
➢ 23rd Tirthankara: Parshvanath

➢ 24 or Last Tirthankara: Vardhaman Mahavira

• Birth – Kundagrama near Vaishali (540Bc)
• Childhood Name – Vardhman
• He belonged to the Jnatrika kashatriya clan.
• Father – Siddhartha(Head of janatrika clan)
• Mother – Trishla(Sister of Lichhavi chief chetaka)
• Elder Brother -- Nandiverdhan
• Wife – Yashoda
• Daughter – Annoja Priyadarsni
• At the age of 30, Vardhaman renounced his home & became a
wandering ascetic for 12 Years.
• Mahavira’s first disciple was Jamali.
• Austerity Place – Jrambhik Village
• Attainment of Knowledge – 12 (Rajupalika River, Under the Saal tree
near Jrimbhikgrama)
• 1st Follower – Jamali
• Language – Natural (Prakrit)
• He was Contemporary to Bimbisara.
• Death – 468BC (PavaPuri)

Tri- Ratna or Three Novels

1. Samyaka Darshan – Right Faith
2. Samyaka Gyan – Right knowledge
3. Samyaka Acharan – Right Action
4.

Note: Bimbisara Contemporary to both

Mahavira & Buddha.
 FIVE MAIN TEACHINGS
✓ Non-injury (ahimsa)
✓ Non-lying
✓ Non-Stealing (asateya)
✓ Non-Possession (aparigraha)
✓ Observe continence (Brahamcharya). It was added by Mahavira.

JAINA LITERATURE
• Most of the literature is written in Prakrit.
• The Jaina Literature includes,
(1) The 12 Angas
(2) The 12 Upangas
(3) The 10 Prakirna
(4) The 6 Chhedsutras
(5) The 4 Mulasutras
 JAINA COUNCILS
➢ First Council was held at Pataliputra by Sthulabahu in the beginning of the third
century BC and resulted in the compilation of 12 Angas to replace the lost 1 Purvas.

➢ Second Council was held at Valabhi in the 6th (513 AD) century AD under the

leadership of Devaradhikshamasramana and resulted in final compilationd 12

Angas and 12 Upangas.

Facts about Jainism

Mahavira, Arhat Titles of Vardhamana

Vardhamana Original name of Mahavira

Kundagram Mahavira's birth place

Trisala Mahavira's Mother

Yashoda Mahavira's Wife

Jamali Mahavira's Son in Law.

Jnatrika Clan to which Mahavira belonged.

Rijupalika River on the bank of which Mahavira got

Kaivalya.
Sal tree The tree under which Mahavira got
Kaivalya.
Pava Place where Mahavira died.

➢ Explanation of formation of Digambaras and Shvetambaras: After the

death of Mahavira during the reign of king Chandragupta Maurya a severe fam-
ine led to the migration of some jains under Bhadra- bahu to the Deccan.
Sthulabhadra remained in North and allowed wearing white garments Bhadrabahu
maintained nudity leading to division as Digambaras (sky clad or naked) and
shwetambars (white clad).
 24 TIRTHANKARAS AND THEIR SYMBOL
Name Symbol
1. Rishabha Bull
2. Ajitnath Elephant
3. Sambharnath Horse
4. Abhiaandam Swamy Monkey
5. Sumathinath Curlew
6. Padamprabhu Red Lotus
7. Suparaswanath Swastik
8. Chandraji Prabhu Moon
9. Suvidhinath Crocodile
10. Shitalnath Srivatsa
11. Shreyansnath Rhinoceros
12. Vasupujya Buffalo
13. Vimalnath Boar
14. Ananthanth Falcon
15. Dharamnath Vajra
16. Shantinath Deer
17. Kuntunath He-Goat
18. Arnath Fish
19. Mallinath Water Pot
20. Muniswasth Tortoise
21. Naminath Blue Lotus
22. Arishtanemi (Neminath) Conch Shell
23. Parswanath Serpent
24. Mahavir Lion
 Some other facts about Jainism
• The names of two Jaina Tirthankaras, Rishabha and Aristanemi, are found in the
Rigveda,
• The Vishnu Purana and the Bhagvata Purana describe Rishabha as an incarnation
of Narayana.
• In the course of wandering Mahavira met Makkhali Gosala (the founder of Ajivika
sect).
• Ashoka's grandson Samparati accept Jainism.
• In First century A.D. Mathura became the Centre of Jaina art and culture.
• The spread of Jainism in Karnataka is attributed to Chandragupta Maurya.
• Many Jaina followers went to south under the leadership of Bhadrabahu.
• These southern followers later formed the Digambra sect (lives nude).
• Those who remained at Magadha, under the leadership of Sthulabahu, formed
Shvetambar sect (wears white garments).

SIMILARITIES BETWEEN BUDDHISM AND JAINISM

• Both opposed Brahmanical domination and caste system but uphold the essence
of Vedas, Preached Truth, non violence, celibacy and detachment from material
comforts, believed in karma and rebirth and were liberal towards women.

• Aacharangsutra about rules and regulation for Jain Bhikshus.

Differences between Buddhism and Jainism

Buddhism Jainism

Followers Monks Lay man

Salvation Moderate one Extreme one

Spread Died in India but spread to foreign lands Confined to India and
survived
Ahimsa Liberal Policy Over-emphasis

Soul Did not believe in soul Believed in Soul

 BUDDHISM(600 BC)
Lord Buddha
• Birth – 563 BC, Lumbini, Nepal
• Childhood Name – Siddhartha
• Other Name – Tathagat
• Family Name -- Gautam
• Father – Suddhodana(Ruler of kapilvastu)
• Mother – Mahamaya Devi (Kosala Dynasty)
• Foster Mother – Pajapati Gotami
• Wife – yashodhara
• Son – Rahul
• Cousin brother – Devdatt
• First teacher – Alara Kalama
• Second Teacher – Rudraka Ramputta
• Austerity Site -- Baudhgaya
• Austerity Duration – 6 Years
• Home sacrifice – In the age of 29 (Mahabhinishkraman)
• He was Contemporary to Bimbisara & Udayan.
• He got Niravana – at the age of 35 years at Uruvela (Niranjana River)
(Gaya)
• Samobdhi – He took Bodhtawa on 49th day from starting Meditation in
Gaya.
• He perfomed 1st Sermon – Dharmachakkaparvatna in Sarnath near
Varanasi.
• He gave Maximum Sermon at Shravasti.
• He was Contemporary to BimbiSara
• In Sarnath he established Sangha & the 1st Lady Pupil was Pajapati
Gotmi (Foster Mother).
• Buddha’s last words were “ All composite things, strive diligently”.
• After seeing an old man, a sick man, a corpse and an ascetic, Buddha
decided to become a Wanderer.
• Asvajit, Upali, Mogallana, Sariputra & Ananda were five disciples of
Buddha.

• Five Great Symbols of Lord Buddha:

 ✓ Birth – Lotus, Elephant, & Bull
✓ Great Departure / Renunciation –
Horse
✓ Enlightenment (Nirvana)– Sign of Feet
✓ First Sermon – Wheel (Noble Path)
(Dharm Chakra Parvartan)
✓ Death – Stupa & Foot Print
(Parinirvana)
• Death – 483 BC, Kushinagar(Village Kasia), Uttar Pradesh.
• Four Noble Truths
✓ The world is full of Sorrows.
✓ Desire is root cause of Sorrow.
✓ If desired is conquered, all sorrows can be removed.
✓ Desire can be removed by following 8 fold Paths.

8 Fold Path has to be followed in Buddhism

1. Samyak Dristi – Right Understanding
2. Samyak Sankalpa – Right Resolve
3. Samyak Vani – Right Speech
4. Samyak Karma – Right Action
5. Samyak Ajiv - Right Living
6. Samyak Vyayam – Right Efforts
7. Samyak Smriti – Right Mindfulness/ Thought
8. Samyak Samadhi – Right self- Concentration

IMPORTANT FACTS RELATED WITH BUDDHA

Titles of Buddha
Sakya Clan to which Buddha belong
Gautama Gotra of Buddha
Suddhodana Buddha's Father
Mahamaya Buddha's Mother
Prajapati Gautami Foster Mother
Yasodhara Buddha's Wife
Rahul Buddha's Son
Kanthaka Buddha's Horse
Channa Buddha's Charioteer
Alara Kalam Buddha's Teacher
Sujata Girl who offered rice and milk
Niranjana River on the bank of which Buddha attained
Nirvana

Mara King of spirit who trouble Buddha during

meditation

Chunda The person who offered pork to Buddha

Sravasti Buddha preached most of his sermons here

THREE RATNAS
• Buddha
• Dhamma
• Sangha
Code of Conduct
(1) Do not covet the property of others

(2) Do not commit violence

(3) Do not speak a lie

(4) Do not indulge in corrupt practices

Four Buddhist Councils

1st Buddhist Council • Time Period – 483 BC
– Rajgriha (Bihar) • King – AjatShatru (Haryankya Dynasty)
• Chairman – Mahakassapa
• Outcome – Vinay pitaka & Sutta Pitaka were written.

2nd Buddhist Council • Time Period – 383 BC

– Vaishali (Bihar) • King – kalaShoka (ShishuNaga Dynasty)
• Chairman – Sarvakamini
• Outcome – 1st time Buddhism divided in two sects:
Sithavira & Mahasnghiska.

3rd Buddhist Council • Time Period – 255 BC

– Pataliputra (Bihar) • King – Ashoka (Mauryan Dynasty)
• Chairman – MoggaliPutta Tisya
• Outcome – AbhiDhamma Pitaka was written here.
4th Buddhist Council • Time Period – 1st Century A.D(72 A.D)
– Kushan (Kashmir) • King – Kanishka (Kushan Dynasty)
• Chairman – Vasumitra & Ashvagosha
• Outcome – Finally Buddhism divided in two sects:
Hinayana & Mahayana.

5th Buddhist Council • Time Period – 1871 A.D

• Held in – Burma

6th Buddhist Council • Time Period – 1954 A.D.

• Held in – Burma

SECTS OF BUDDHISM
➢ Hinayana:
(a) Its followers believed in the original teachings of Buddha.
(b) They sought individual salvation through self-discipline and meditation.
(c) They did not believe in idol-worship.
(d) Hinayana, like Jainism, is a religion without God, Karma taking the place of God
(e) Nirvana is regarded as the extinction of all
(f) the oldest school of Hinayana Buddhism is the Sthaviravada (Thervada in Pali) or the
'Doctrine of the Elders'.
(g) Its Sanskrit counterpart, which is more philosophical is known as Sarvastivada or the
doctrine which maintains the existence of all things, physical as well as mental.
(h) Gradually, from Sarvastivada or Vaibhasika branched off another school called
Sautaantrika. Which was more critical in Outlook.

➢ Mahayana :
(a) Its followers believed in the heavenliness of Buddha and sought the salvation of all
through the grace and help of Buddha and Bodhisatvas.
(b) Believes in idolworship.
(c) Believes that Nirvana is not a negative cessation of misery but a positive state of bliss.
(d) Mahayana had two chief philosophical schools: the Madhyamika and the Yogachara.
(e) The former took a line midway between the uncompromising realism of Hinayanism
and the idealism of Hinayanism and the idealism of Yogachara.
(f) The Yogachara school founded by Maitreyanatha completely rejected the realism of
Hinayana and maintained absolute idealism.

➢ Vajrayana:
(a) Its followers believed that salvation could be the best attained by acquiring the
magical power, which they called Vajra.
(b) The chief divinties of this new sect were the Taras.
(c) It became popular in Eastern India, particularly Bengal and Bihar.

BUDDHIST LITERATURE
• The Buddhist scriptures in Pali are commonly referred to as Tripitaka i.e. Three fold
Basket.
• Tripitaka includes Vinaya Pitaka, Sutta Pitaka, and Abhidhamma Pitaka.
• The Vinayapitaka comprires of suttavibhanga, Khandakas and Parivarpatha.

➢ The Vinay Pitaka:

(a) Mainly deals with rules and regulations, which the Buddha promulgated.
(b) It describes in detail the gradual development of the Sangha.
(c) An account of the life and teaching of the Buddha is also given.

➢ The Sutta Pitaka is divided into five Nikayas.

• The five Nikayas are Digh Nikaya, Majjhima Nikaya, Samyutta Nikaya, Anguttara
Nikaya and Khuddaka Nikaya.
• The Khuddaka Nikaya consists of large number of miscellanceous works,
• The Jatakan are a part of Khuddaka Nikaya of Sutta Pitaka.

➢ The Sutta Pitaka consists chiefly of:

(a) discourses delivered by Buddha himself on different occasions.
(b) Few discourses delivered by Sariputta, Moggalana and other are also included in it.
(c) It lays down the principles of Buddhism.

➢ The Abhidhama Pitaka consists chiefly of:

 ▪ The Abhidhamma Pitaka is written in the form of questions and Answers.
▪ It consists of seven books of which Kathavattu is most important.
▪ Kathavattu is attributed to Moggaliputta Tissa.
▪ The Abhidhamma Pitaka:
(a) Contains the profound philosophy of the Buddha's tecahings.
(b) It investigates mind and matter, to help the understanding of things as they truly
are.

BUDDHIST ARCHITECTURE
Buddhist architecture developed essentially in three forms, viz.
(a) Stupa (relics of the Buddha or some prominent Buddhist monks are preserved)
(b) Chaitya (prayer hall)
(c) Vihara (residence)
BODHISATTVAS
• Vajrapani (holds thunderbolt).
• Avlokitesvara/Padmapani (lotus bearer)
• Manjushri (holds books describing 10 paramitas)
• Ksitigarbha (guardian of purgatories)
• Maitreya (the future Buddha)
• Amitabha/Amitayusha (Buddha of heaven)
[Link] Buddhist Universities Location Founder
1 Nalanda Badagaon, Bihar Kumargupta-1

2 Vikramshila Bhagalpur, Bihar Dharmapala (Pala ruler)

3 Somapuri North Bengal Dharmapala (Pala ruler)

4 Jagadal Bengal Ramapala (Pala ruler)

5 Odantpuri Bihar Sharif, Bihar Gopala (Pala ruler)

6 Vallabhi Gujarat Bhattarika (Maitrak rule)

 PRE- MAURYAN EMPIRE
HARYANKYA SHISHUNAGA NANDA MAURYAN
DYNASTY DYNASTY DYNASTY DYNASTY
(544-413BC) (413-343 BC) (343-321BC) (321-184BC)

HARYANKYA DYNASTY (544-413BC)

➢ The epic Mahabharata has provided information about the early period of
Magadha.
➢ Jarasandh and Brihdrath were the rulers during the period of Mahabharata.
➢ Girivraja was the magadhan capital during the early period.

➢ Founder/ 1st Ruler—Bimbisara (Son of Bhattiya) (544 – 491B.C)

• Also called – Sreniya
• Capital(Magadh)—Grivraja/ Rajgirha
• Contemporary of Buddha.
• In Jain Literature he has been called
as “Shrenika”
• He had three wives – Mahakosala,
Chellana & Kshema.
• Mahakosala was the Sister of Kosal ruler Prasenjit & Chellana was Lichchhavi
Princess.
• He defeated Anga & annexed it.
• He send his Physician Jivak to treat Chand Pradyot of Avanti.
• He was Prisoned by his son “ Ajatshatru” & died in 493 B.C.
• Follow marriage alliance for expansion
of Magadh.
➢ 2nd Ruler – Ajatshatru (Son of Bimbisara & Chellna)
• Contemporary of Buddha.
• 492 – 460 B.C. (Title – Kunika)
• Took throne(Magadha) by killed his father
• 1st Buddhist Council held at Rajgir.
• He followed an expansionist Policy.
• After a long struggle he defeated Kasi & Vajji
confederacy.
• He took the services of his minister Vassakar to divide the Vajji confederacy.
• He got a large stupa constructed in Rajgriha.
• Gautam Buddha died during his reign.
• Ajatshatru constructed a fort around Rajgriha to protect it from Lichcchavi
attack.
• He was killed by his son Udayin in 461 B.C.
• Won War against Kosala & Vaishali
• He had 2 main weapons: Rathmusal, Mahashilakantika

➢ 3rd Ruler – Udayin (460 – 444 B.C.)

• Also called ‘Udaya Bhadra’
• Shifted capital of Magadh – Patliputra
• Founder of Patna/Patliputra.
• Follower of Jainism.
• He killed his father “Ajatshatru”

➢ 2 kings Succeeded: Annirudha & Manda

➢ Last Ruler – Naga Dasak (437-413Bc)
 SHISHUNAGA DYNASTY (413-343 BC)
• Founder/ 1st Ruler – Shishu Naga
• Minister of Naga dasak

• He killed the Naga dasak

• 413 – 395 B.C.

• Shifted capital of Magadh --- Vaishali

• Won Avanti Area to Magadha.

• 2nd Ruler – Kalashoka (son of Shishu Naga)

• 2nd Buddhist Council held at Vaishali

• 395 – 367 B.C.

• Shifted capital of Magadh --- Patliputra

• Last Ruler – Nandivardhan

 NANDA DYANSTY (343-321BC)
• Founder/1st Ruler – Mahapadma Nanda
• 1st Non- Kshatriya Ruler.(343 – 329 B.C.)

• Also called ‘Ekrat & Empire builder of India’

• Also called ‘Sarva kashtriyantaka’

• He conquered Kalinga.

• 2nd Ruler – Dhana Nanda(329-321 B.C)

• Also called ‘Xan-drammes & Aggrames’

• Alexander invaded during his reign.

• Alexander feared about the army of

Dhana Nanda & ran away.

• Contemporary of Alexander.

Note: Nandas have been termed as first empire builders of India.

 Battle of Hydaspes(326BC – on Jhelum River)
• Alexander Vs Porus (king of Kashmir)
• Alexander defeated Porus & ran towards
fight Dhana Nanda(Magadh) but
returned back after saw Dhana
Nanda’s Army & left his
Governor --- Seleucus Nicator at Baluchistan(Pakistan).
• Later Seleucus Nicator fight with Chandra Gupta Mauryan
• Then Chandra Mauryan defeated Seleucus Nicator with the help of ‘Chanakya or
Kautilya’.

FACTORS FOR THE RISE OF MAGADHA

• Magadha enjoyed an advantageous geographical position.
• Iron deposits were situated close to Rajgir, the earliest capital of Magadha.
• Rajgir and Pataliputra were situated at very strategic points.
• Pataliputra was surrounded by rivers from all sides it was called as jaladurga (water-
fort).
• Magadha lay at the centre of the middle Gangetic plain.
• Magadha for the first time used elephants on a large scale in wars.
• Greek sources have mentioned that the Nanda maintained 6000 elephants.
• Magadha society was unorthodox and was recently Aryanized.
• Ambitious rulers like Bimbisara, Ajatshatru and Mahapadma nanda established
Magadha as a powerful kingdom.

FOREIGN INVASION
• North-West India was ruled by smaller principalite like Kambojas and Gandharas.
• The Period of 6th century B.C. marked by politica instability in North-West India.
• In 516 B.C. the Iranian ruler Darius penetrated int North-West India.
• Darius annexed Punjab, west of Indus and Sindh.
• This area constituted the 20th kshatrapy (province) of Iran.
• The Indian Kshatrapy included Sindh, the North-West frontier and part of Punjab.
• The Indian Kshatrapy paid a tribute of 360 talents of Gold.
• Xerxes, the successor of Darius, employed Indians the long war against the Greeks.
 • The Iranian Scribes brought into India Kharosh script.
• Under the leadership of Alexander of Macedonia, the Greeks destroyed the Iranian
Empire.
• Alexander marched to India through the Khyber Pass in 326 B.C.
• Ambhi was the king of Taxila.
• Porus ruled between Jhelum and Ravi.
• Porus provided a strong resistance to Alexander.
• Alexander remained in India for 19 months (326-325 B.C.).
• Alexander's campaign opened up four distinct routes by land and sea.
• Alexandria and Boukephala were Greek settlements which were established in the
North West.
• Alexander's historian Nearchus has left valuable geographical accounts.
• Battle of Hydaspes was fought between Porus and Alexander.
• Alexander sent 20,000 oxen to Macedonia for use in Greece.
• The Sati system and slave trade was prevalent in the society.
• Alexander's invasion paved the way for the expansion of Mauryan Empire in North
West India.

EFFECTS OF ALEXANDER'S INVASION

✓ It exposed India to Europe by opening up four distinct lines of communication three
by land and one by sea
✓ The Hindu and the Buddhist religious faiths and philosophies had an impact of the
Greek world of philosophy following Alexander's time.
✓ Due to cultural contacts, a cosmopolitan school of art came up in Gandhara.
✓ It paved the way for the unification of North India under chandragupta by
weakening small states.
 MAURYAN DYANSTY (321-184 BC)
• Founder/1st Ruler – Chandra Gupta Mauryan(321-297 B.C)
• He defeated Seleucus Nicator with the help of ‘Chankya or Kotalya’.

• Also called ‘Sandrocottus or Androcottus’

• Expension in western Part.

• In 305 BC he defeated ‘Seleucus Nicator’

• Seleucus surrendered a large territory including

Paropanisadai(Kabul), Aria(Herat), Arachosia
(Gandhara) & Gedrosia(Baluchistan), in return
For 500 Elephants.
• Seleucus sent an ambassador “Megasthenes” to the Mauryan Court.

• “Megasthenes” wrote the texts “Indica”.

• He adopted Jainism Later.

• Brahamanical texts say he was born of Mura, a Sudra women in the court of the

Nandas.

• An earlier Buddhist tradition says he belonged to the Moriya Kshatriya Clan.

• In some texts he is referred to as Vrishala & Kulahina.

• His origin is not clear(from which caste)

• He died at Sharven Belagola Hill(Karnataka)

• 2nd Ruler – Bindusara (Son of Chandra Gupta Maurayan)
• His Greek Name – Amitro Chattes
• (297 – 268 B.C.)
• Called ‘Amitra Ghat’ by Greek Writers.
• Expansion in South
• In Jain Literature he has been called as
“Simhasen”
• Antiochus sent Deimachus (from Syria) as an
Ambassador to Bindusara’s court.
• Ptolemy Philedelphus of Egypt sent Dionysius as ambassador.
• He wrote to Antiochus 1 of Syria & asked for some sweet,wine, dry figs & a
Sophist.
• The Syrian ambassador Deimachus was sent to his court.
• During his reign, a revolt took place at ‘Taxila’ & later Ashoka ended that revolt.
• He is said to have conquered “The land between two seas i.e, The Arabian sea
& Bay of Bengal”

• 3rd Ruler – Ashoka (Dev Nama Piya)(268 - 232 B.C.)

• Greatest Mauryan Ruler
• He was holding viceroyalty of Taxila & Ujjain during his father’s lifetime.
• After his fathers death he ascended the throne but formal consecration was
delayed for 4 years.
• A Buddhist text says he usurped the throne after killing his 99 brothers.
• Under Ashoka, the empire reached its zenith. And in the history, for the first time, the
entire Indian sub-continent came under a single umbrella (except extreme
Southern India).
• In course of his second Dharmayatra tour (in 21st year of his reign), he visited
Lumbini.
• In the 14th year of his reign he started the institution of Dharma Mahamatras.
• The reverberation of the war drum (Bheri Ghosha) was to become the
reverberation of the law (Dhamma Ghosha).
• His Hellenistic contemporaries were Antiochus II of Syria, Ptolemy II of Egypt,
Antigonas of Macedonia. Magas of Cyrene and Alexander of Epirus.
• Ashoka banned animal sacrifice, regulated the slaughter of animal for food.
• According to his Maski and Gurjara Inscriptions he was known as Devanam Priya
Priyadarshi.
• He was converted to Buddhism by Nigrodh.
• Ashoka sent peace missionaries inside India as well as abroad.
• His 1st & Last war was ---- ‘Kalinga war (261Bc), Results – Massive Blood shed & “13
Rock Edict of Ashoka”.
• After ‘Kalinga War’ he adopted ----“Buddhism”(under UpaGupta Guru)
• Ashoka’ Mother – Subhadrangi
• The emblem of Indian Republic has been adopted from the 4-lion capital of
Ashokan Pillar at Sarnarth.
• Built the Sanchi Stupa (Madhya Pradesh)
• He sent his son Mehendra and Daughter
Sanghmitra to Sri Lanka for Propagation of
Buddhism.

• Mauryan Administration
• Mantriparishad – A Council of Ministers.
• The council consisted of Purohit, Mahamantri, senapathi & Yuvaraja.
• The important Functionaries were known as the Trithas.
• Amatyas – Civil servants who were appointed to maintain day-to- day
Administration.
• Rajukas – responsible for rewarding & Punishing the People.
• In order to spread of Dhamma, Dhamma Mahamatras were appointed.
• Spies -- maintained to track the Foreign enemies & Officers.
• Patliputra (capital) was administrated by 6 Committees each Consist of Five
Members.
 Names & Titles of Ashoka
Ashoka Personal name

Piyadassi Official name

Ashoka Maski minor rock edict

Ashoka Vardhan Puranas

Ashoka Maurya Junagarh inscription

Piyadassi Dipavamsa, Kandhar inscription

Piyadassi Raja Barabar hill cave inscription

Piyadassi Raja Bhabru-Bairat minor rock edict

Magadh
Raja Ashoka Udegolum minor rock edict
Dewanampiya
Raja Ashoka Nittur minor rock edict

Devanampriyas Gurjara minor rock edict

Ashoka Rajas

EDICTS OF ASHOKA RELATED PLACES

LOCATION OF MAJOR ROCK EDICTS
(1) Kalshi (Dehradun) (2) Manshera (Hazara dist. Pakistan) (3) Shahbazgarhi (Peshawar) (4) Girnar
(Gujarat) (5) Sopara (Near Mumbai) (6) Dhault (Odisha) (7) Jaugada t (Odisha) (8) Maski (Andhra
Pradesh) (9) Yerragudi (Andhra Pradesh)

Location of Minor Rock Edicts

1) Bairat (2) Rupnath (3) Sahsaram (4) Rupnath (5) Brahmagir! (6) Gavimath (7) Jatinga
Rameshwar (8) Maski (9) Palkigundu (10) Rajula-Mandagiri (11) Suvarnagiri (12) Yerragudi
(13) Gurjara (14) Ahraura

LOCATION OF PILLAR EDICTS

(1) Allahabad (4) Nigalisagar (7) Rampurva

(2) Delhi-Topra (5) Lauriya-Araraj

(3) Delhi-Meerut (6) Laurtya-Nandangarh

 INFORMATION ABOUT ASHOKAN INSCRIPTIONS
➢ 1st major rock edict declares prohibition of animal sacrifice.
➢ 2nd major rock edict mentions medical treatment of human and animals.
➢ 3rd major rock edict mentions Pradeshikas, Rajukas and Yukta.
➢ 4th major rock edict mentions Bheri Ghosha is replaced by Dhamma Ghosha..
➢ 5th major rock edict mentions the appointment of Dhamma Mahamattas.
➢ 6th major rock edict mentions Mantri Parishad and officers like pulisani and
Prativedikar.
➢ 7th major rock edict mentions religious toleration amongst all sects.
➢ 8th major rock edict mentions that he went to Sambodhi in Bodh Gaya.
➢ 9th major rock edict mentions the uselessness of various ceremonies.
➢ 10th major rock edict mentions that the king desires no more fame.
➢ 11th major rock edict explains the policy of Dhamma.
➢ 12th major rock edict appeals for toleration among sects.
➢ 13th rock edict mentions Kalinga war.
➢ 14th major rock edict mentions the purpose of the rock edicts.

There are 7 pillar edicts.

➢ In the 1st pillar edict, social code has been mentioned.
➢ In the 2nd pillar edict eye donation has been mentioned.
➢ In the 3rd pillar edict soul and sin has been mentioned.
➢ In the 4th pillar edict Rajukas have been mentioned.
➢ In the 5th pillar edict animal killing is mentioned.
➢ The 6th pillar edict mentions the welfare of people.
➢ The 7th pillar edict mentions the Dhamma Mahamattas.

FACTS ABOUT ASHOKAN INSCRIPTIONS

➢ Maski edict discovered in 1915 is the only edict which mentions the name Ashoka.
➢ The Topra & Meerut pillars were brought to Delhi by Feroz Shah Tughlaq.
➢ Ashokan edicts were deciphered by James Princep in 1837.
➢ The Kausambi pillar was brought to Calcutta by Jahangir.
➢ The Bairat inscription was brought to Allahabad by Cunningham.
➢ Two major rock edicts as Mansehra and Sahbazgarhi are in Kharoshti script.
➢ The Kandhar inscription is bilingual-Greek and Aramaic.
➢ Most of the Ashokan edicts are written in Brahmi script.
➢ The language used in Ashokan edicts except Kandhar is Prakrit.
➢ The inscription in fragmentary condition found at Lampak/Lamghan is in Aramaic,
➢ In all the edicts except the Maski edict Ashoka refers to himself by his title
Devanampiya Piyadasst.
➢ The Allahabad pillars (brought from Kaushambi contains the inscription of Samudra
Gupta and Jehangir also.
➢ Major rock edicts are fourteen in number.
➢ Total number of pillar edicts is thirteen, they are inscribed in ten pillars. Out of
thirteen seven are major pillar edicts, four are minor pillar edicts and two are
commemorative pillar edicts.
➢ Of the four minor pillars edicts one is known as Queen's edict and it is on Allahabad
pillar.
➢ Schism edicts (one each) are found in Allahabad, Sanchi and Sarnath Pillars.
➢ The commemorative pillar edicts are Rumeindel and Nigalisagar (both in Nepal).
➢ The longest among the major rock edict is 13th rock edict (in Odisha).
➢ 7th pillar edict is longest among all the edicts.
➢ The Allahabad pillar contains first six pillar edicts. Queen's edict, Kosam Schism
edicts, Prasasti of Samudragupta written by Harisena and some decrees of
Jehangir.
➢ Kharosthi script was derived from Persian Aramaic.
➢ He constructed Sanchi Stupa at Vidisha (M.P.)
 18 TIRTHAS MENTIONED IN ARTHASHASTRA
1. Mantrin Chief Minister

2. Purohita Chief Priest

3. Senapati Commander in Chief

4. Yuvaraja Crown prince (These four were the highest

functionaries among the tirthas).

5. Dauvarika Chamberlain

6. Antarvesika Chief of the harem.

7. Prasastri Inspector general of prisons

8. Samaharta Collector general

9. Sanidhata Treasury Chief

10. Pradeshtri Divisional Commissioner

11. Nayaka City Constable

12. Paura Governor of the City.

13. Vyavaharika Chief Judge

14. Karmantika Chief of the Mines

15. Mantri President of the Council, Parishadhyaksha

16. Dandapal Police Chief

17. Dvarapala Chief of the Home Defence.

18. Antapala Chief of the Frontier Defence

IMPORTANT ADHYAKSHAS AND THEIR DUTIES
1. Panyadhyaksha Commerce

2. Samsthadhyaksha Markets, checking wrong practices

3. Pautavadhyaksha Weights and measure

4. Navadhyaksha State Boats

5. Sulkadhyaksha Tolls/Customs

6. Akaradhyaksha Mines

7. Lohadhyaksha Iron

8. Savvarnika Gold

9. Sitadhyaksha Crown lands

10. Aksha pataladhyaksha Accounts

11. Rathadhyaksha Chariot

12. Hastyadhyaksha Elephant force

13. Ayudhagaradhyaksha Production and maintenance of

armaments
14. Kosadhyaksha Treasury

15. Kosthagaradhyaksha Store house

16. Kupyadhyaksha Forest produce

17. Manadhyaksha Measurement

18. Mudradhyaksha Passports

19. Pattanadhyaksha Ports

20. Ganikadhyaksha Courtesan

21. Devatadhyaksha Religious institutions

22. Lakshanadhyaksha Mint

 IMPORTANT OFFICIAL
Amatyas The Secretaries

Antapala Governer of the Frontier

Akshapatala Accountant General

Durgapala Governer of Fort

Dhamma A New Post created by Ashoka.

Gopa Responsible for accounts

Lipikaras Scribes

Kumaras The Viceroys-in-change of a province

Mahamatras Functions of Propagating Dhamma

and taking care of the common folk
for their material well being.
Pra deshikas Modern District magistrate.

Rajukas later day Patwaris

Sthanika The tax collector officers

THE VILLAGE LEVEL OFFICERS

• Gramika: Head of Village
• Gram widdhas: Village elders.
 MAURAYAN ART & CULTURE

• Pillars
• Ashoka’s Pillar -- The famous edicts of Ashoka
propagating the Dhamma (laws of the Buddha) or
the imperial sermons of Ashoka to his people.
• Rising to an average height of about 40 feet.
• The top portion of the pillar was carved with capital
figures like the bull, the lion, the elephant etc.

• The lion capital of Sarnath, the bull capital of

Rampurva and the lion capital of Laurya Nandangarh.
• These pillars were carved in two types of stone.
Some were of spotted red and white sandstone from the region of Mathura.

• Sarnath Lion Pillar :

• The Mauryan pillar capital found at Sarnath popularly known as the Lion
Capital is the finest example of Mauryan sculptural tradition.
• The first sermon or the Dhammachakrapravartana by Buddha at Sarnath, the
capital was built by Ashoka.
• The capital originally consisted of five component parts:
(i) The shaft (which is broken in many parts now)
(ii) A lotus bell base
(iii) A drum on the bell base with four animals
proceeding clockwise
(iv) The figures of four majestic addorsed lions, and
(v) The crowning element, Dharamchakra, a large wheel.
 • The capital without the crowning wheel and the lotus base has been
adopted as the National Emblem of Independent India.
• The abacus has the depiction of a chakra (wheel) having twenty four spokes
in all four directions and a bull, a horse, an elephant anda lion between
every chakra is finely carved.
• The motif of the chakra becomes significant as a representation of
Dhammachkrain the entire Buddhist art.

• Stupas
• The stupa was not unknown in India before the time of Ashoka.
• The stupa was crowned by an umbrella of wooden fence enclosing a path for
pradaskshina (circumambulatory path).

• The great stupa at Sanchi was built with bricks during the time of Ashoka and
later it was covered with stone and many new additions were made.

• Thus events from the life of the Buddha, the Jataka stories, were depicted on the
railings and torans of the stupas.

• Caves
• The notable rock-cut caves carved at Barabar and Nagarjuni hills near Gaya in

Bihar are Sudama and Lomus Rishi cave.

• The facade of the Lomus Rishi cave is decorated

with the semicircular chaitya arch as the entrance.

• The elephant frieze carved in high relief on the

chaitya arch shows considerable movement.

• The cave was patronised by Ashoka for the

Ajivika sect.

• The two important features of the caves of this period were –

1) Polishing inside the cave.

2) Development of artistic gateway

• Sculpture (DIDARGUNJ YAKSHINI)
• Large statues of Yaksha and Yakshiniare found
at many places like Patna, Vidisha and Mathura.

• These monumental images are mostly

in the standing position.

• Yakshini is considered as folk goddess in

all major religions.

• Pottery
• The most highly developed technique is seen in a special type of pottery known
as Northern Black polished ware (NBPW).
• The NBPW is made of finely levigated alluvial clay.

Mauryan Architecture
• Carved Elephant at Dhauli.
• Sanchi Stupa built by Sanchi Stupa.
• 4 Lion Capital, 1 Lion Capital & 1 Bull Capital
• Rock Edict 13th – Horrors of Kalinga War & Ashoka Spread Buddhism.
• 14 Major Rock Edicts, 7 Pillar Edicts & other Edicts.
 POST MAURAYAN EMPIRE
In around 187 BC, the Mauryan Empire met its end. In the present section we shall study
about the political and cultural developments in the Indian subcontinent from the end of
the Mauryas to the rise of the Guptas, i.e., from BC 200 and 300 AD. In these five hundred
years we see not only the rise of multiple political powers in different parts of the
subcontinent but also the introduction of new features in art, architecture and religion.

Native Rulers of Post Mauryan

Empire

SHUNGA KANVA SATVAHANAS

DYNASTY DYNASTY DYNASTY

SHUNGHA DYNASTY(185 – 73 B.C.)

• They ruled from vidisha in Madhya Pradesh
• Founder/ 1st Ruler – Pushya Mitra Shungha(185-151BC)
• He performed – 2 Ashwameha yagya Under Patanjali. It was corroborated by
Patanjali and Malavikagnimitram.
• Ruling in North- India.
• They were the “Brahmins”
• He promted “Brahminism”
• This Period saw the revival of Bhagvatism.
• Patanjali’s Classic “Mahabhashya” was
written at this time.
• Capital – Patliputra
• The Great Buddhist Stupa at Bharhut (M.P)
was built during his reign.
• The fin Gateway railing which
Surrounds the Sanchi Stupa, built by
Ashoka was Constructed during
the Shunga Period.
• Pushyamitra killed the last Mauryan ruler Brihdrath in 185 B.C.
 • Patanjali was a contemporary of Pushyamitra Sunga.

• 2nd Ruler – Agnimitra (149-141BC)

• He was the son of “Pushya Mitra Shungha”
• ManuSmriti also complied in this period.
• The Greek King Antialcidas 1 – sent his Ambassador named ----
Heliodorus(King Bhagbhadra) to the court of Shungas.
• Heliodorus constructed a pillar --- Garudadhwaja in the honour of God
Vasudeva with inscriptions in Prakrit Language.
• Agnimitra was the hero of kalidasa's Malavika-gnimitram
• Heliodorus came during the reign of Bhagbhadra.
• He was the ambassador of Greek king Antialkidas of Taxila.

• 3rd Ruler – Vasumitra (149-141BC)

• 4th Ruler/ Last Ruler – Deva Bhuti (149-141BC)

KANVA DYNASTY(73- 28 BC)

• They ruled from Patliputra

• Founder/ 1st Ruler – Vasu Deva

• 2nd Ruler – Bhumi Mitra

• 3rd Ruler – Narayana

• 4th / Last Ruler – Sasur Maan

ANDHARAS/ SATVAHANAS DYNASTY(120 – 159 A.D.)
• The Satvahanas became the dominant power in Deccan and Central India with
Pratishtana or Paithan as the Capital.
• Most important Port city --- Bhrauch.
• The Puranas speak only of Andhra rule and not
of Satvahana rule.
• They issued mostly coins of lead.
• They were the successors of the Mauryans in
the Deccan and the central India.
• Satvahanas were the first rulers to make land
grants to Brahamanas.
• Nasik and Nanaghat are important inscription
of the Satvahana period.

• Founder/ 1st Ruler – Simuka

• Official Language – Prakrit
• 120 – 96 B.C.
• They were the Successors of the Mauryans in the Deccan & the Central India.
• GautamiPutra SataKarni (106 – 130 AD) – Famous King of this Dynasty. Who
raised the power & prestige of Satavahans to greater heights.
• Sathavanas issued coins of Lead, copper, Bronze & Potin.
• The third ruler of the dynasty Satakarni I, raise the power and prestige of
the dynasty by conquests. He performed Vedic sacrifices.
• Hala, its 17th ruler, was the author of “Gathasaptasati” or, Sattasai in
Prakrit. The text contains the love lures.
• The 23rd ruler of the dynasty was Gautamiputra Satakarni (106 –
130 A.D.) who revived the Satavahana power and defeated the Saka
Ksatrap Nahapana. He was the greatest Satavahan ruler.
• The achievements of Gautamiputra Satakarni are recorded in the Nasik
inscription by his mother, Gautami Balasri.
• Vasishthiputra Sri Satakarni, its 24th ruler, was married to the daughter of Saka
Kstrapa Rudradaman, but the former was defeated twice by the latter.
• Yajna Sri Satakarni, its 27th ruler, was the dynasty‘s last great ruler.
• Yajnasri Sri Satakarni its 27th Ruler (165-194 A.D.) recovered Malwa from the
Shaka rulers.
• Pulamavi III, its 30th ruler, was the last Satavahana rulers.
• Satavahanas started the practice of donating land with fiscal and
administrative rights to Brahmanas and Buddhist monks, which eventually
weakened their authority and resulted in the rise of feudalism in the later
period
 • The famous Stupas built during the Satavahana period are located at
Amravati and Nagarjunakonda.
• The Satavahanas issued their coins in lead (mainly), copper and bronze.
• Two important religious construction was
1) chaitya --- bhudh temple
2) Vihar --- monasteries
• Vashisthaputra Pulmari (130-158 A.D.) set up his capital at Paithan.
• He enlarged Amravati Stupa and decorated it with marble.
• He has been praised in Nanaghat Inscription.
• Ship is depicted on the coins of Vashisthaputra Pulmari & yajna Sri Satakarni.
• Satavahanas were finally succeeded by the Vakataka dynasty in
Maharashtra and Ishuvaku dynasty in Andhara Pradesh.
• The official language of the Satavahanas was Prakrit.
• Prakrit text Gathasaptashati is attributed to Satvahana king Hala. They had
brisk trade with Romans.
• In Junagarh Rock Inscription (Girnar Rock Inscription), Rudraman claims that
he defeated Vashishthaputra Satakarni Twice.

Chedi Dynasty(185 – 73 B.C.)

• After Mauryas, the Chedi dynasty emerged in the Kalinga region, i.e. modern
Odisha
• The capital city of this dynasty was Sisupalgarh
• The important ruler of this dynasty was Kharwela.
• Kharvela patronized Jainism and the Hatigumpha inscription gives a reference of
his victories.
 Foreign Rulers of Post Mauryan
Empire

KUSHANAS

INDOGREEKS SAKAS PAHLAVAS

INDOGREEKS
• A series of invasions from central Asia began around 200 B.C.
• The first to cross the Hindukush were the Indo- Greeks.
• Demetrius, the king of Bactria invaded India about 190 B.C.
• Important Ruler: Menander/ Milinda(165-145Bc)
• Converted to Buddhism under Naga Sena or Nagarjuna.
• INDO GREEKS were the 1st to introduce Coins in India.
• They ruled over the North western Part of
the Country in the Post – Maurya Period.
• Capital – Sialkot
• He is mentioned in the famous Buddhist
text – “Milind- Panaho”.
• The Last king of the Indo Greek --- Hesatrius.
• Demtrius was the first came after Alexeandar
(greek).
• They were the first rulers in India to issue
coins definitely attributed to the kings.
• First issued Gold Coins in India.
• They also introduced practice of military
governorship. The governors were
called 'Strategos.
• The Greek ambassador Heliodorus set up
a pillar in honour of Vishnu at Vidisha.
• The term Horashastra used for astrology in
Sanskrit is derived from the Greek term
Horoscope.
 THE SAKAS/SCYTHIANS(130 – 152 AD)
• The Shakas overthrough the Greeks
• They are referred to as Scythians.
• The Saka poured into India through the Bolan Pass.
• The earliest Indian textual reference to the Sakas are found in the Mahabhasya.
• The first Saka king in India was Maues or Moga who established Saka power in
Gandhara.
• Maues was succeeded by Azes who successfully attacked the last of the Greek
kings in Northern India, Hippostratos.
• Important Ruler – Rudra Daman(130 AD -150 AD) who fought against
Satvahanas.
• He is famous not only for his military conquests but also for his public works.
• The Junagarh inscription in Gujarat is attributed to Rudradaman is first ever
inscription written in Sanskrit.
• He repaired the famous Sudarsan lake of the Mauryan period and gave patronage
to Sanskrit language
• Other important Saka rulers in India were Nahapana, Ushavadeva,
Ghamatika, Chashtana etc.
• 1st Shaka King (Indian) – Maues or Moga.
• A king of Ujjain --- Vikramaditya defeated the Shakas.
• An era called the Vikram Samvat is reckoned from the event of his Victory over the
Shakas in 57 BC.
• Among the five branches of Sakas with their seats of power in different parts of
India, the most important was the one which ruled in Western India till the 4th
Century AD.
The five seats of power or Satraps were:
1. Kapisa (Afghanistan)
2. Taxila (Pakistan)
3. Mathura (Uttar Pradesh)
4. Upper Deccan
5. Ujjain
THE PARTHIANS/ PAHLAVAS(19 – 226 AD)
• Originally the Parthians (Pahlavas) lived in Iran
• They replaced the Sakas in North-Western
India, but controlled an area much smaller
than the Sakas.
• Famous Parthian king was

Gondaphernes (19 – 45 AD) in whose

reign St. Thomas is said to have come to India
from Israel for the propagation of Christianity.
• Pahlavas restricted themselves to issuing copper coins and in rare instance silver
money
• After the death of Gondaphernes, this empire started fragmenting & the Kushans
under Kujula Kadphises began absorbing the northern Indian part of this Parthian
Kingdom.

KUSHANAS(30 – 375 A.D.)

• They are referred to as Yuch-Chis or Tocharians.
• The Kushans were one of the five Yeuchi clans of Central Asia.
• They came from North Central Asia near China. Their empire included a good part
of central Asia a portion of Iran a portion of Afghanistan, Pakistan and almost the
whole of North India.
• They replaced the Parthians in North-Western India and then expanded to the
lower Indus basin and the upper and middle Gangetic basin.
• The Kushans controlled famous silk route starting from China, passing through their
empire on to Iran & Western Asia. This route was a source of great income to the
Kushans.
• Kujula Kadphises initiated copper imitation of Roman coins.
• The dynasty was founded by Kadphises I or Kujula Kadhphises.
• The Kushans were the first rulers in India to issue gold coins on a wide scale..

• Important Ruler – Kanishka (2nd Ashoka, 78-144 A.D)

• He started Saka Era(78A.D)
• Headly statue of Kanishka in ‘Mathura’
• 4th Buddhist Council held during his reign.
• Kushanas were the 1st to issue Gold Coins.
• He started an era in 78 AD which is now
known as the Saka era and is used
officially by the Government of India.
• Charak was the court physician of Kanishka.
• The Gandhara School of art recieved royal
patronage of the Kushans.
• The Kanishka group of rulers used the title 'Shah Naushahi'.
• The Kushanas started erecting mortuary temples called Devakulas.
• Kushanas divided their empire into strips.
• The empire of Kanshika was spread over a large area in the portion of five countries
i.e. Russia, Afghanistan, Iran, Pakistan and India.
• His two capitals were Peshawar & Mathura.
• He erected a monastery stupa at Peshawar.
• He was a great patron of art and literature.
• At Toprak-Kala a huge Kushan palace has been unearthed.

• He was a great patron of Buddhism.

• Kanishka controlled the famous Silk route in central Asia.
• Kanishka provided patronage to Ashvaghosha and Nagarjuna.

• The last great Kushan ruler was Vasudeva I.

 Foreign Rulers of Post Mauryan
Empire

CHOLAS CHERAS PANDYAS

CHOLAS EMPIRE( 300 B.C.)

• Capital: Uraiyaur & Puhar/Kaveri Pattanam
• Emblem: Tiger
• Important Ruler – karikala(Foundation

of Kaveri Patanam Port)

• Location -- North- East of Pandyas between Penner
& Vellar Rivers
• Famous Port – Puhar
• Famous Rule –
▪ Elara was the earliest known Chola King. He conquered Sri Lanka & ruled over
it for 50 years.
 ▪ Karikala founded the capital city Puhar/ Kaveripatnam & Constructed
embankment along Cauveri river.
• The Kingdom was known as CholaMandalam or CholaMandal.

• Uraiyur – a famous place for Cotton Trade

• Main source of wealth was Trade in Cotton Cloth.
• The Chola kingdom was destroyed by the attack of Pallavas from the North.

CHERAS EMPIRE
• Capital: Vanjji (Kerala Country)
• Emblem: Bow
• Important Ruler – Senguttuvan(Red Chera)
• Famous Port – Muzris Todi, Bandar
• It owed its Importance to trade with the Romans.
The Romans set up Two regiments there to
protect their interest.
• Famous Rules:
▪ Udiyangera is one of the earliest known Chera rulers. This Title of Udiyangeral
was given to him because it is said that he served both the armies of
Kurukshetra war.
▪ Senguttuvan / Red Chera – was the greatest Chera king. He invaded north &
Crossed Ganga. He is remembered for building a temple of “kannagi” the
Goddess of chastity & foubded the famous Pattini cult.
• It has well established trade with Romans & also set up two regiments at Muzris to
protect their interest, They built temple of Augustus a Muzris.

PANDYAS EMPIRE
• Capital: Madurai
• Emblem: Fish/ Carp
• Important Ruler – MenduJeelian
• Famous Port -- Korkai
• Famous for pearls
• 1st mentioned by Megasthenes.
• The Pandya Kings profited from trade with the Roman Empire & Sent Embassies to
the Roman Emperor Augustus.
• Famous Rules:
▪ Mudukudumi was the earliest known Pandyan ruler.
▪ Nedunjelian was the most important king of Pandaya. He accused Kovalon
of Madurai was laid under a curse by Kannagi (Kovalan’s Wife).
• This Kingdom was first mentioned by Megasthenes, who says that their Kingdom was
famous for pearl & was a ruled by a woman, Also find mention in the Ramayana &
Mahabharata.

POST MAURYAN ART

• Caves Tradition
• Mainly three architectural types were executed –
(1) Apsidal Vault – Roof Chaitya halls (found at Ajanta, Pithalkhora, Bhaja)

(2) Apsidal Vault – Roof pillarless hall (found at Thana – Nadsur)

(3) Flat- Roofed quadrangular hall with a circular chamber at back (found at
Kondivite).

• The second important development in the caves was excavation of Viharas.

• Purpose of Cave Structures –

 1. Chaitya – Prayer Hall for Monks
2. Vihara – Residence/ Rest Palce for Monks.

• Stupas:
• Stupa – 1 at Sanchi has upper as well as lower pradakshinapatha or
circumbulatory path. It has four beautifully decorated toranas depicting
various events from the life of the Buddha and the jatakas.
• Symbols continued to be used representing the Buddha and the Manushi
Buddhas.

• According to tradition, there are 24 Buddhas but only 1st one dipankar and
last six are pictorially represented at Sanchi -1.

• Sculptures: Gandhara, Mathura , Amravati

Basis Gandhara Mathura Vengi(Amravati)

Influence Greek or Hellenistic No outside influence; Indigenous

influence also called Indo- Indigenous
Greek
Types of Grey/Bluish grey Spotted red sandstone White marbles
Sandstone sandstone

Religious Mainly Buddhist All 3 religions – Jainism, Mainly Buddhist

influence Buddhism, Hinduism

Patronized by Kushana dynasty Kushana Dynasty Satavahans and

Icchavakus

Areas North West frontier Mathura, Sonkh, Krishna-Godavari lower

Kankalitila (Mostly Jaina) valley

Features of Spiritual Buddha (Sad Delighted Buddha i.e. not Reflects narratives
Sculptures Buddha) represents spiritual theme based on life of
calmness, Bearded, • head and face Shaven Buddha and Jataka
Moustache • dress is tight; energetic stories.
• wearing less ornaments body • Stories of previous
• wavy hair (Greek) • face reflects grace births of Buddha - both
• large forehead (Greek) • seated in Padmasana. in human as well as
• Buddha is seated in • Right hand in animal form.
position of yogi AbhayMudra (Indicate • Sculptural
• Having large ears reassurance) raised composition is more
(Greek) above shoulder, Left complex and
• Eyes half closed hand on left thigh (reflect characterized by
• Protuberance on his muscularity). intense emotions,
head (signifies that • Protuberance on head bodies are shown with
Buddha knows all) three bents (i.e.
tribhanga)

• Later Development in Gandhara Scuplture:

• Gandhara Two Schools
1. Early – Use of Bluish Grey Stone
2. Later – Use of Mud and Stucco (Lime Plaster)
 GUPTA DYNASTY/Golden Age (3rd Century 250 A.D)
• Founder/1st Ruler – Sri Gupta(Vaishya Clan)
• 240 -280 A.D.
• Used the Title of -- Maharaja

• 2nd Ruler – Ghatotakacha(Son of Sri Gupta)

• 281AD – 319 A.D.

• 3rd Ruler – ChandraGupta 1

• Real founder of Gupta Empire
• Son of Ghatotakacha (319 – 335 A.D.)
• He enhanced his Power & Prestige by
Marrying Kumara devi (Princess of
Lachchavi Lan of Nepal).

• He acquired the Title of

“Maharajadhiraj & Dhiraja”.

• Followed Matrimonial Alliances

• Rule over Magadh, Saket & Prayag
• His empire included Bihar, Uttar Pradesh and Bengal.
•
• 4th Ruler – Samudra Gupta/ Dharm Pruchar Bandhu (335 – 375 A.D.)
• Greatest Ruler of Gupta Empire.(Prakramana)
• Napolean of India(by the historian V.A. Smith)
• He assumed the Title of “Kaviraj & Vikramanka”
• He intersted in Music & issued the coins
of Played vina.
• His campaigns are Mention in the Eran
Inscriptions (M.P)Allahabad Pillar.
 • His achievements are mentioned in the Prayag- Prasasti composed by
Harisena.
• He captured and annexed the Aryavrata rulers.
• He defeated 12 rulers of Dakshinapatha.
• These rulers were first captured and then
released by Samudragupta.
• Harisena and Vasubandhu adorned his court.
• Samudragupta had a disputed accession to
the throne.
• Virasena was the commander of Samdragupta
during his southern campaign.
• Samudragupta performed the Aswamedha Yajna and struck gold coins of
Yupa type.
• He granted permission to the Buddhist king of Ceylon Meghavarman to build
a Monastery at Bodh Gaya.
• The historian V.A. Smith complemented Samudragupta as the "Indian
Nepoleon'.
• Samudragupta was succeeded by Ramgupta but Chandragupta II killed him
and married his queen Dhruvadevi.

• 5th Ruler – Vikram Aditya/ Chandra Gupta 2 (376 – 415 A.D. )

• 1st Gupta to issue silver coins
• His court at Ujjain
• Got the title of “Vikramaditya” by defeating Rudrasimha-3, a Kshatrap king of
Ujjain.
• The Iron Pillar Inscription, fixed near Qutabminar in Delhi mentions a king
Chandra (Considered by many as a Chandra Gupta 2)
• His Court was adorned by celebrated
nine Gems (Navaratnas)
including Kalidasa.
• Chinese Pilgrim – “Fahien” visited
India during his reign.
• He entered into matrimonial alliance with
the Nagas by marrying princess
Kubernaga.
• He defeated the Saka king Rudrasimha III
and annexed his kingdom.
• Mehrauli iron pillar inscription mentions his
authority over North western India and a portion of Bengal.
• Virasena's Udaigiri cave inscription refers to his conquest of the whole world.
• He made Ujjain his second capital.
 • Veerasena Saba was the court poet and minister of Chandragupta II.
• Amarkhaddava was his army general.
• He issued silver and copper coins.
• His predecessors had issued only gold coins.
• The gold coins were called 'Dinara.

• 6th Ruler – Kumar Gupta 1 (415 – 455 A.D.)

• He founded ‘Nalanda University’(Bihar)
• He fought with “Hunas”
• In the last year of his reign, the Peace
& Prosperity of the Empire was
disturbed due to invasion of
Turko – Mongol tribe, Hunas.

• During the war with the Hunas he died.

• Title: Shakraditya
• His inscriptions are the Bilsad inscription, the Karandanda inscription, the
Mandsor Inscription the Damodarpur copper plate inscription.
• Towards the last year of his reign, the Gupta empire faced foreign invasions.

• 7th Ruler – Skanda Gupta (455 – 467 A.D.)

• He deafeted Hunas 2 times
• He repaired “Sudashan Lake”
 • He was a “Vaishnavite”
• After his death, the great days of Gupta
were Over. The Empire continued but
central control weakened, and Local
Governors became feudatory
kings with Hereditary Rights.
• The Junagarh inscription of his reign tells that his governor Parnadatta got the
Sudarshan lake repaired.
• Some of the successors of Skandagupta were Buddhagupta, Vainyagupta
Bhanugupta Narsimhagupta Baladutya, Kumaragupta-2 & Vishnugupta.

➢ VishnuGupta:
• Last known ruler of the Gupta Dynasty(540 AD – 550 AD)

Administrations of Gupta Period

• Mantri Parishad – Council of Ministers.
• Kings – kings
• Kumaramatya – High Ranking Officer (kingdom)
• Mahadandanayaka – high Rank Officer (Judicial & Military)
• Uparika – Governor
Titles of the Gupta Kings
Srigupta Adiraja, Maharaja

Ghatotkach Maharaja

Chandragupta-I Maharajadhiraja

Samudragupta Sarva-raj-ochhchetta, kaviraja

Chandragupta-II Vikramaditya

Kumargupta Mahendraditya, Shakraditya

Skandagupta Vikramaditya, Karmaditya

 Taxes Levied during the Gupta Dynasty
Bhag Kings share of produce

Bhoga General tribute

Hiranya Tax on special produce taken in

cash
Bedak bhog Irrigation tax

Bhatta Police tax

Charasana Grazing tax

Chat Security tax

Prataya Toll tax

Halivakar Tax on Ploughing

Kalipta/ Upkilpta Sales tax

Taradaya Navigation tax

Udaka bhag Water Tax

Bali An additional Oppressive tax on

People
Sarvarishti Forced Tax

Uparnik Tax taken from Border Areas

Uparikar Tax collected from all subjects

Rajju Tax for measurement of Land

 Gupta Temples
Temples Places

Vishnu temple Tigawa (Jabalpur)

Shiva temple Bhumara (Nagaud)

Parvati temple Nachna Kuthara

Dashavatar temple Deogarh (Jhansi)

Shiva temple Koh (Nagaud)

Bhitargaon temple Bhitargaon

Lakshman temple (brick made) Kanpur

Laxman temple Sirpur (Raipur)

Mukund Darra temple Kota

Dhamekh stupa Sarnath

Jarasandh's sitting Rajgrih (Bihar)

Gupta Art & Culture

• Vishnu Temple --- Deogarh(Near Jhansi)
• Brick Temple --- Bhitargaon
• Ajanta cave Paintings & Bagh Cave Paintings.
• The Great Boor – Varah (Sculpture of VISHNU GOD) outside cave of Uday Giri .
• Temple – Shikhar Style with GARBHA GRIHA.
 Gupta Art & Culture
• Rock Cut Cave:
• Ajanta Caves:
▪ It is located in Aurangabad district of Maharashtra state.
▪ Ajanta has twenty nine caves.
▪ Ajanta is the only surviving example
of the paintings of the first century
BCE and the fifth century CE.

▪ Fresco Mural Paintings inside the Cave

▪ Padampani, Mural Paintings of

Ajanta & Flying Apsara(Pics).

• Ellora Caves :
▪ Another important cave site located in Aurangabad district is Ellora.
▪ It is located a hundred kilometers from Ajanta and has thirty-two
Buddhist, Bramhanical and Jain caves.
▪ Cave no 16 is a rock cut temple, known as Kailash leni and it has been
carved out of a single rock, a unique achievement of the artisans.
▪ Pics Added

• Elephanta Caves:
 ▪ The Elephanta caves located near Mumbai, were originally a Buddhist
site which was later dominated by the Shaivite faith.
▪ It is contemporary with Ellora and its sculptures show slenderness in the
body, with stark light and dark effects.

• Bagh Caves:
▪ It is located near Indore in Madhya Pradesh.
▪ There are 9 sandstone Buddhist Caves with beautiful Frescos and
sculptured work.
▪ It is dated around sixth century CE.

• Junagarh Caves (Uparkot):

▪ It is ancient fortress. Its entrance, in the form of an archway is a fine specimen
of Hindu torana.
▪ Uparkot has many interesting Buddhist caves and was evidently the site of a
Buddhist monastery in ancient times.

• Nashik Caves:
▪ It is located to SW of Nashik, in Trimbak range of hills.
▪ There are 23 Buddhist caves belonging to Hinayana Period of Buddhist
architecture and dating back to the 1st Century CE.
▪ These are called as Panduleni meaning group of caves.

• Montepzir/Mandapeshwar Cave
▪ The caves are of particular interest as they are probably the only
Bramhanical caves to be converted into a Christian shrine.

• Sculpture
• One new school was added i.e. Sarnath school
of sculpture, which developed near Sarnath.

• example is Sultanganj Buddha (7.5ft in height)

• Temple Architecture
Gupta period marks the beginning of Indian temple architecture. Manuals were
written regarding how to form temples. The Gupta temples were of five main types:

1. Square building with flat roof shallow pillared porch; as Kankali Devi temple at
Tigawa and the Vishnu Varaha temples at Eran.
2. An elaboration of the first type with the
addition of an ambulatory (paradakshina)
around the sanctum sometimes a second
storey; examples the Shiva temple at
Bhumara(M.P.) and the lad-khan at Aihole.
Another noteworthy example is Pārbati
temple at Nachnakuthara (M.P.).

3. The square temple with a low and squat tower (shikhara) above; pillared
approach, a high platform at the base; notable examples are the Dasavatara
temple (Deogarh Jhansi) and the brick temple at Bhitargaon Kanpur. Famous
styles are . "Shikhara". "Nagara Style " temple.
4. Rectangular temple with an apsidal back and barrel-vaulted roof above such as
the Kapoteswara temple at Cezarla( Krishna district).
5. Circular temples with shallow rectangular projection at the four cardinal faces;
the only monument exemplifying the style is the Maniyar Math shrine at Rajgir,
Bihar.

• Styles of Temples
• Nagara School of Architecture: The style of temple architecture that became
popular in northern India is known as Nagara.
▪ Three subtypes of Nagara temple depending upon the shape of Shikhara –
1) Rekha Prasad or Latina – Simple Shikhara, most common type, square
at the base and its walls curve or slope inward to a point on the top. The
top is called 'latina' or the rekha-Prasad type of Shikhara.
 2) Phamsana – Phamsana buildings tend to be broader and shorter than
latina buildings. There roofs are
composed of several slabs that
gently rise to a single point over
the center of building, unlike the
latina ones which look like sharply
rising tall towers. Phamsana
buildings do not curve inwards,
instead they slope upwards on a straight incline. In many North Indian
temples Phamsana was used for mandapa and latina for Garbhgriha.

3) Valabhi type – Rectangular building with a roof that rises into a vaulted
chamber. They are usually called as wagon vaulted buildings. Example :
Nandi devi or Nav durga temple Jogeshwar.

• Three sub schools developed under Nagara style –

A. Odisha School: The main architectural features of Odisha temples

are classified in three orders, i.e. rekhapida, pidhadeul and khakra. Most
of the main temple sites are located in ancient Kalinga— modern Puri
District, including Bhubaneswar or ancient Tribhuvanesvara, Puri and
Konark.
B. Khujuraho/Chandel school: Under the Chandela kings of
Bundelkhand, a great school of architecture flourished in the 10th and
11th century. An example of this style is a group of temples at Khajuraho,
in Madhya Pradesh. The finest is the shaivite temple known as Kandariya
Mahadev, built around CE 1000.

C. Solanki School: The Chalukya (Solanki) kings of Gujarat patronized

this school of architecture that flourished from the 11th to 13th century. The
Vimala, Tejpala and Vastupala temples at Mount Abu exhibit this style.
 Pushyabhuti Dynasty
• Harsha Vardhan (606 AD – 647 AD)
• Belonged to Pushyabhuti family &
son of Prabhakar Vardhan.
• Originally belonged to Thaneshwar,
but shifted to Kannauj.
• Defeated by Pulakeshin –II, the great
Chalukya king, on the banks of
Narmada in 620 A.D.
• Chinese pilgrim, Hieun Tsang (prince
of travellers) visited during his reign.
• He established a large monastery
at Nalanda.
• Banabhatta, who adorned his court
wrote Harshacharita and Kadambari.
• Harsha himself wrote 3 plays-
Priyadarshika, Ratnavali and Nagananda.
Harsha Vardhan (606AD- 647 AD)
• Harshavardhan ascended the Pushyabhuti throne in 606 A.D.
• Harshavardhan was also known as Siladitya.
• Harsha was not successful in his first expedition against Gauda.
• In his second expedition Harsha conquered Magadha and Sasanka's empire.
• Gauda was divided between Harsha and Bhaskarvarman.
• The Aihole inscription mentions that Harsha met defeat at the hands of
Pulakesin II.
• Harsha's empire extended from the Punjab to northern Orissa and from
Himalayas to the banks of Narmada.
• Harsha showed equal respect to all religious sects.
• Harsha built rest houses, hospitals, and endowed numerous Brahamanical,
Buddhist and Jaina establishments.
• The Kannauj assembly was held in the honour of Hiuen-Tsang.
• Harsha used to celebrate religious festivals at the end of every five years at
Prayag.
• Harsha sent an emissary in 641 A.D. to the Chinese emperor.
• Harsha also received a Chinese emissary in return.
• Harsha died in 647 A.D.
 Officials in Harshavardhana's administration
Singhnada Chief of Armed Forces

Amatya Revenue and Finance Minister

Uparika Provincial Head

Dandapashik Police Officer

Brihadeshwara Head of Cavalry

Baladhikrita The Commander

Skandagupta/Katuka Head of Elephant Brigade

Ayuktaka Ordinary officer

Maha Sandhi Vigraha Officer to decide on war and peace

 South Indian Dynasties
➢ Chalukyas of Vatapi (Badami) (543 - 757 A.D.)
• The Vakatakas in the deccan were followed by the Chalukyas of Badami.
• The Chalukyas established their base at Badami (Vatapi) in Bijapur district of
Karnataka.
• The Chalukyas claimed their descent
either from Manu or Moon.

• Founder – Pulakesin-I.
• Pulakesin-I established a small kingdom
with Badami/ Vatapi in Bijapur District
as its capital.
• Pulakesin – II was their most famous king.
• He Was a contemporary of Harsha.
• Pulakesin II was able to check Harsha's design to conquer Deccan.
• Kirtivarman-1 expanded the kingdom by wars against the Kadambas of
Banavasi and the Nalas of Bastar.
• Aihole inscription is a eulogy written by his court poet Ravikirti.
• Pulakesin II sent an ambassador to Persian king Khusrau II in 625 A.D. and also
received one from him.
• The Chinese pilgrim Hiuen Tsang Visited his kingdom.
• Pallava ruler Narsimhavarman I invaded the Chalukya kingdom killed
Pulakesin II and captured Badami.
• Vishnuvardhan, son of Pulakesin II, founded the eastern branch of the
Chalukyas with its capital at Vengi .
➢ The Pallavas (560 – 803)
• Founder -- Simhavishnu. They set up their
capital at Kanchi (south of Chennai).
• Narsimhavarman was their greatest king.
• He founded the town of Mamalapuram
(Mahabalipuram) which he adorned with
beautiful rock-cut Raths or Seven Pagoras.
• Hieun Tsang visited Kanchi during his reign.
• Narsimhavarman -1 made Ratha Temple at
Mahabalipuram.
• Mahendravarman king (Contemporary
To Harsha & Pulakeshin) & he was a
Poet and a Muscian too.
• He belonged to jaina but later
Converted to Shaivism by Appar,
(Tamil Saints).
• Pulakeshin –II defeated the
Mahendravarman captured his
kingdom,But later Narsimhavarman
(Pallava King) defeated the
Pulakeshin –II & acquired his Kingdom back.

• The Pallavas played an important role after the fall of Satvahanas in 3rd
century until the rise of the Cholas.
• The origin of Pallavas is a debatable issue.
• Mahendravarman-I was defeated by Pulakesin-II.
• Narasimhavarman was the greatest king. He defeated Pulakesin II and
captured Badami/Vatapi. So, took the title of Vatapikonda.
• Narsimhavarman also defeated Cholas, Cheras and Pandyas, thus became
supreme in South India.
• Narsimhavarman was a great builder, having constructed Mamallapuram
and the various buildings here. During his reign Hieun Tsang visited Kanchi.
 • Narsimhavarman II constructed the shore temple of Mamallapuram and the
Kallasnath temple of Kanchi. He sent emissaries to China to encourage
maritime trade.
• The Chalukya Vikramadita-ll attacked the Pallava capital during the reign of
Paramesvar Varman.
• Nandivarman-II was a worshipper of Vishnu. He built Vaikuntaperumal temple
at Kanchi.
• The last Pallava ruler, Aparajita Pallava was defeated by Aditya Chola.
• Kanchi, Pallavas capital was a great centre of Sanskrit learning.
• Both Bharavi and Dandin, the authors of Kirtarjunlyam' and
'Dashkumarcharitam' respectively lived in the Pallava court.
• The scientific works of Varahamihira and the poetry of Kalidasa were well
known in the Pallava country.
• Most of the kings were accomplished scholars and Mahendravarman-1
himself wrote the famous burlesque 'Mattavilasa Prahasana."

➢ Gurjara Pratiharas (730 – 1036 AD)

• Founder – Harichandra ( Originated from Ujjain or mandsaur)
• The Pratiharas emerged from Gurjaratra or South West Rajasthan.
• They resisted Arab incrusions from Sindh into Rajasthan.
• Pratihara dynasty was founded by Nagabhatta-I.
• Pratihara power revived under Nagabhatta-II. He defeated Dharmapala
near Monghyr (Mudgir).
• Pratiharas traced their descent from Lakshamana (the solar race).
• Their capital was at Mahodaya (Kannauj).
• The real founder and the greatest king was Bhoja (836-885 A.D.).
• Bhoja is also called Mihir Bhoja. He defeated Devapala and got Kannauj
back.
• Bhoja was a devotee of Vishnu and adopted the title of Adivaraha.

IMPORTANT PRATIHARA RULERS

➢ Vatsaraja -- 773-793
➢ Nagabhata I -- 793-833
➢ Bhoja -- 836-885
➢ Mahipala -- 908-942
➢ Rashtrakutas (753 – 982 A.D.)
• Founder – Dantidurga in deccan.

• Their king Krishna – I is remembered for

constructing the famous rock-cut
Kailash temple at Ellora.

• Their king Krishna – III set up a pillar of

victory and a temple at Rameshwaram.

• Rashtrakutas are credited with the

building of cave shrine of Elephanta.
• Their capital was at Manyakhet or Malkhed
near modern Sholapur (earlier at Ellora).
• Dantidurga built the Dashavatara temple at Ellora.
• Krishna-I built the Kailasa or Shiva temple at Ellora in the 9th century.
• The great Apabhramsha poet Svayambhu and his son lived at the
Rashtrakuta court.
• Amoghvarsha rulled for 68 years.
• Amoghvarsha wrote 'Kaviraja-marga'. a book on Poetics Kannada. It was the
earliest Kannada book on poeties.
• Amoghavarsha first transferred capital from Ellora to Manyakhet or Malkhed.
• Indira III (915-927) defeated Mahipala (Pratihara) and sacked Kannauj in 915, Indra
was the most powerful ruler of his time.
• Rashtrakutas imported horses from Arabia, West-Asia and central Asia.
• In the Rashtrakuta kingdom, the directly administered areas, were divided into
Rashtras (provinces). Visaya and Bhukti.
• The last ruler Karka was overthrown by Tailap, the founder of Chalukyas of Kalyani.
 Important Rashtrakuta Rulers
1 Dantidurga 753-756
2 Krishna-I 756-773
3 Govinda-II 773-780
4 Dhruva 780- 792
5 Govinda-II 792 -814
6 Amoghavarsha 814 – 880
7 Krishna-II 880 – 915
8 Indra-III 915 – 927
9 Amoghavarsha 927 – 930
10 Govinda-IV 930 – 935
11 Amoghavarsha-II 935 – 940
12 Krishna-III 940 – 967
13 Khottiga 967 – 972
14 Karka 972 – 973

TRIPARTITE STRUGGLE (PALAS, PRATIHARAS AND RASHTRAKUTAS)

• A number of powerful empires arose in Northern India and the Deccan between
750 A.D.-1000 A.D.
• The Gurjara Pratiharas, the Palas and the Rastrakutas emerged almost at the same
time.
• These three powers fought for the supremacy over Kannauj.

➢The Palas of Bengal (Capital – Monghyr)

• Its founder was Gopala (750 AD).
• Their king, Dharampala founded
Vikramsila University & and revived
Nalanda University.

• Dharmapala(770-810 AD)
• Dharmapala Succeeded Gopala as ruler
in around 770 AD

• Dharmapala was the 2 ruler of Pala Empire.

nd

• He was the son of Gopala.

• He fought a no. of battles against the
Pratiharas and the Rashtrakutas.

• Dharmapala captured Kanauj & conducted a Grand Darbar.

 • He took the greatest imperial titles of the period, including
Paramabhattaraka, paramesvara & Maharajadhiraja.

• Palas established their rule in Bengal and Bihar.

• Dharmapala (770-810) was defeated by Dhruva (Rashtrakuta) and
Nagabhatt II (Pratihara).

• During Dharmapala, two brothers Indra & Chakra clashed for Kannauj.
Important Pala Rulers
• Gopala -- 750-770 A.D.
• Devapala -- 810-850 A.D.
• Dharmapala -- 770-810 A.D.
• Vigrahapala -- 850-854 A.D.

Note: 3 rival powers – Pratiharas, Palas and Rashtrakutas declined almost

simultaneously as there was extra pressure to maintain their armies as well as the rise of
feudatories.

➢ The Gangas (250 – 1004 A.D.)

• Their king Narsimhadeva constructed
the Sun Temple at Konark.

• Their king Anantvarman Ganga built the

famous Jagannath temple at Puri.

• Kesaris, who used to rule Orissa before Gangas

built the Lingaraja temple at Bhubaneswar.

THE KADAMBAS
• The Kadamba dynasty was founded by Mayur Sarman.
• The Kadambas ruled from Banvast from 345 A.D. to 365 A.D.
• Kakusthavarman (435-455 A.D.) was the most powerful ruler of the dynasty.
• Kakusthavarman established matrimonial relations with the Gangas and the
Guptas.
➢ The Rajputs (647 – 1200 A.D)
• They were divided into 4 clans

• Pratihara or Pariharas of Rajasthan.

• Chauhans of Rajasthan.

• Chalukyas or Solankis of Kathiarwar.

• Parmaras or Pawars of Malwa.

➢ The Imperial Cholas (846 – 1279 AD) (Medieval Cholas)
• Founder- Vijayalaya.
• Capital was Tanjore.
• The greatest Chola rulers were
Rajaraja – I (985 – 1014 ) and
his son Rajendra – I (1014 – 1044 ).
• Rajaraja – I constructed the Rajrajeshwari
temple (also called as Brihadeshwar
Shiva temple) at Thanjavur.
• His son Rajendra – I annexed the whole
of Sri Lanka. In the North, went as far as
Ganga and the dominions of the Pala
king Mahipala. He took the title of ‘Gangaikonda’ after that.
• Dancing figure of Shiva called Nataraja belong to this period only.
• Cholas temples has massive ‘Vimanas’ or towers and spacious courtyards.
The entrances had elaborate Gopurams (gateways).
• Local self government was there (concept of Panchayati Raj has been
borrowed from it).
• The Cholas were the feudatories of the Pallavas.
• The founder of Chola dynasty was Vijayalaya, who was at first a feudatory of
the Pallavas. He captured Tanjore in 850 A.D.
• The greatest Chola rulers were Rajaraja (985-1014 A.D.) and his son Rajendra I
(1014-1044 A.D.).
• Raja built a Salva, a temple of Rajarajeshwara at Tanjore.
• Rajendra -1 assumed the title of Gangaikondachola and built a city called
Gangalkondacholapuram.
• The Chola empire was divided into Mandalams or provinces and these in turn
were divided into Valanadu and Nadu.
• Chola rulers marked their victories by erecting a number of Shiva and Vishnu
temples.
• During the reign of Rajendra I a naval expedition was sent against the Sri
Vijaya empire.
• The Bay of Bengal was converted
into a 'Chola lake.
• The Chola rulers fought constantly
with the Chalukyas of Kalyani.
• Rajaraja I granted a village for the maintenance of Buddhist vihara at
Nagapattam.
• The king was the most important person in the Chola administration.
• The Cholas maintained a large army consisting of elephants, cavalry and
infantry.
• Rajaraja gave his daughter Kundaval to Vimaladitya (Eastern Chalukya of
Vengi) and restored Vengi to him.
• Rajaraja-I sent his son Rajendra-1 to capture Banaras and sack Manyakhet of
Western Chalukyas.
• During the reign of Rajaraja Maldives was captured.
• Rajaraja conferred the title of 'Mahadandanayaka upon Rajendra-1 for his
victory over Pandyas & Keralas.
• Rajaraja-I started the system of land survey called 'kadamb'.
• Adhirajendra was killed in a public revolt.
• Kulotunga-1 of Vengl united the kingdom of Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi and
Chola kingdom. His other name was Rajendra-II. He was given the title of
Sangam Tavirtta (he who abolished tolls).
• Rajendra II was crowned in the battle field of Koppam. He was given the title
of Prakesari.
• Vira Rajendra Rajakesari defeated Western Chalukyas king Someswara-1
Ahvamalla in the battle of Kudal Sangman (Kurnool district). He foiled all
efforts of Vijayabahu of Sri Lanka to extend his authority and drive away the
Cholas from Sri Lanka.
• After the decline of Cholas, their place was taken by the Hoysalas of
Dwarsamudra and Pandyas of Madurai.
• The gopuram style was developed under the Cholas. The system of canals in
south is a contribution of the Cholas.
• Rajendra-1 built Shiva temple at Gangaikondacholapuram.
• The Cholas were famous for the bronze statue of Nataraja.
• Kamban wrote Ramayana. Sivagasindamant was also produced.
• Temple architecture in south attained its climax under the Cholas.
• The style of architecture which came into vogue during this period is called
Dravida.
• 'Mandap' was the pillared hall.
• 'Garbhgriha' was the room of the chief-delty.
• Ceremonial dances were performed by Devadasis.
 Titles of the Chola Kings
King Titles

Parantaka-1 Maduraikonda

Rajaraj-1 Rajkesari, Arumoli , Cholormand, Mumadichola

Dev.
Rajendra-1 Gangaikondachola, Mudigundchola,
Panditchola.
Kulotunga-1 Kataikondachola, Malaindu & Kondachola.

Administrative Units of Chola Dynasty

Mandalam Province

Kottam Division

Nadu District

Kurtam Group of villages

CHOLA KINGS
1 Vijayalaya 846-887 A.D.
2 Aditya 871-907 A.D.
3 Parantaka-I 907-955 A.D.

4 Ganaraditya 955-956 A.D.

5 Arinjaya 956-957 A.D.
6 Parantaka-II 957-973 A.D.
7 Uttamachola 973-985 A.D.
8 Rajaraja-I 985-1014 A.D.
9 Rajendra-1 1014-1044 A.D.
10 Rajadhiraja 1044-1054 A.D.
11 Rajendra II 1054-1064 A.D.
12 Virarajendra 1064-1069 A.D.
13 Kulottunga-I 1070-1118 A.D.
14 Vikramachola 1118-1135 A.D.
15 Kulottunga-II 1135-1150 A.D.
16 Rajaraja-II 1150-1173 A.D.
 Temples Architecture in South India
➢Dravida Style
• South Indian temple architecture, also called Drāvida Style, architecture
invariably employed for Hindu temples in modern Tamil Nadu from the 7th to the
18th century.
• The superstructure or tower above the
sanctuary is of the kūtina type and
consists of an arrangement of gradually
receding stories in a pyramidal shape.
• The origins of the Drāvida style can be
observed in the Gupta period.
• The South Indian style is most fully realized
in the splendid Brhadīśvara temple at
Thanjāvūr, built about 1003–10 by Rājarāja
the Great, and the great temple at
Gangaikondacōlapuram, built about 1025 by his son Rājendra Cōla.
• Four stages of temple architecture had been observed in South India Mainly
during the Pallava's rule, around 6th century AD. Which are as follows:

▪ Stage–1 Mahendra Group :– It marked the beginning of Rock cut cave

architecture and word Mandap was used instead temple.

▪ Stage-II–Narsimha Group :– Major development during this period was

initiation of Decoration in rock cut cave structures and Mandap’s now
became ‘Ratha’s’ which is a refined cave famous for beauty. The biggest
Ratha was called as Dharamraj Rath and smallest one was called as
draupadi Rath. Dharamraj Rath is considered as precursor of Dravidian style
of temple making.

▪ Stage–III–Rajsimha Group :– At this stage the real structural development of

temple’s started and it moved outside the cave, earlier temples were part of
caves. Example: Shore temple at Mahabalipuram, (TN) Kailashnath temple at
Kanchipuram.
 ▪ Stage IV – Nandivarman Group: It is said to be the declining stage of south
Indian temple architecture and only small temples were constructed in this
period.

➢ Chola Sculpture: NATRAJ

• Shiva is associated with the end of the cosmic world with which this dancing
position is associated.
• In this chola sculpture he has been shown
balancing himself on his right leg and
suppressing the apasmara, the demon
of ignorance or forgetfulness, with the foot
of same leg. At the same time he raises his
left leg in bhujangtrasita stance, which
represents tirobhava that is kicking away
the veil of maya or illusion from the
devotee’s mind.

Sub Styles of Dravida Temples

➢Nayaka Style:
• The Nayakas rose on the fall of Vijayanagara empire.
• They continued, indeed furthered, the artistic
tradition of Dravida style.
• The most famous architectural landmark of this
period is the Meenakshi- Sundareswara temple
at Madurai.
• The great temple complex has actually two shrines; the first one dedicated to Shiva
as Sundareswara and the second one to his wife Meenakshi.

➢Vijaynagar Legacy:
• They introduced the concept of enlarged high enclosure walls and more
decoration on these high enclosure walls and Gopuram’s. Sculpture or motif of
supernatural horses was used very frequently.
• They also introduced the concept of secular buildings (Example-Lotus Mahal).
• Typically Vijaynagar period structures in the temple are the Amman Shrine (male
deity of temple) and Kalyan Mandapam for exhibition and worship.

Vesara Style/Chalukya Style/Karnataka Style

• This style has features of both Nagara and Dravidian style.
• It consists of two principle components like Dravidian style i.e.
(i) Vimana
(ii) Mandap.
• And departing from Dravidian style it does not have covered ambulatory around
sanctum.
• Example: Lad Khan temple at aihole, Temples at Badami, Virupaksha temple –
Pattadakal.

Foreign Travellers at the time of Ancient Period

 Travellers Visited India Contemporary Rulers Contribution.

Deimachos Came India in the reign of –

Period: (320-273 BC) Bindusara.
Who: Greek Ambassador

Megasthenes Ambassador of Seleucus Wrote an interesting book Indica.

Period: (302-298 B.C.) Nicator, who visited in the court
Who: Greek ethnographer of Chandragupta Maurya.
& ambassador.

Ptolemy – Wrote “Geography of India”

Period: 130 A.D. which gives the description of
Who: From Greece and Ancient India.
Geographer.

Fa-Hien Came to India in the reign of – Visited the birth place of

Chandragupta II Vikramaditya. Buddha, Lumbini.
Period: (405-411 A.D.)
– His Travelogue “Records of
Who: Chinese Buddhist Buddhist Kingdoms”.
Monk
– Wrote Fo-Kyo-Ki.

Hiuen-Tsang Visited India during the reign of – Came through Tashkent

Harshavardhana. and Swat Valley.
Period: (630-645 A.D.)
– Book is “Si-Yu-Ki or the
Who: Chinese Buddhist records of western world”.
Monk

I-tsing Visited India in connection with – His works are Biographies of

Buddhism. Eminent Monks.
Period: ( 671- 695 A.D.)
– Gives useful information
Who: Chinese traveller about the social, religious and
cultural life of the people of this
country.
Al-Masudi – Gives an extensive account of
India in his work “Muruj-ul-Zahab”.
Period: (957 A.D.)

Who: Arab Traveller

Al- Beruni or Abu Rehan Came along with Mahmud – First Muslim Scholar to study
Mahamud Ghazni during one of his Indian India also known as founder of
raids. Indology.
Period: (1024-1030 A.D.)
– Wrote “ Tahqiq-i-
Who: Muslim Scholar and Hind/Kitab-ul-Hind.
Polymath
Marco Polo Visited South India in 1294 A.D His work “The Book of Sir Marco
during the reign of Pandyan Polo” which gives an invaluable
Period: (1292-1294 AD) ruler of Madurai, Madverman, account of the economic history
Kulshekhara (1272-1311) of India.
Who: Venetian Traveller

Ibn Batuta Visited India during the reign of His book “ Rehla” (the travelogue)
Muhammad-Bin-Tughlaq.
Period: (1333-1347 A.D.)

Who: Morrish traveller

Shihabuddin al-Umari – He gives a vivid account of India

in his book “ Masalik albsar fi-
Period: (1348 A.D.) mamalik al-amsar”

Who: Came from

Damascus

Nicolo Conti Came during the rule of Given a graphic account of

Devraya I of Sangam Dynasty of Vijayanagaras capital.
Period: (1420-1421 A.D.) Vijayanagar empire.

Who: Venetian traveller

Abdur Razzaq – Came during the rule of Given a brief account of this
Devraya II of Sangam dynasty countryside, in his Matla us Saddin
Period: (1443-1444 A.D.) of Vijaynagar Empire. wa Majuma ul Baharain.

Who: Persian traveller, – Came in India at

Ambassador of Shahrukh Zamorin’s Calicut.
of Timurid dynasty.

Athanasius Nikitin Visited South India in 1470. -He describes the condition of the
Bahmani kingdom under
Period: (1470- 1474 A.D.) Muhammad III (1463-82).

Who: Russian merchant – His narrative “ The journey

beyond 3 seas”

Duarte Barbosa – He has given a brief description of

the government and the people
Period: (1500-1516 A.D.) of Vijayanagar Empire.

Who: Portuguese traveller

Domingo Paes Visited the court of Krishnadeva –

Raya of Vijayanagar Empire.
Period: (1520-1522 A.D.)

Who: Portuguese traveller

Fernao Nuniz Came during the rule of Wrote history of the empire from its
Achyutdeva Raya of Tuluv earliest times of the closing years
Period: (1535-1537 A.D.) dynasty of vijayanagar Empire. of Achyutdeva Raya’s reign.

Who: Portuguese
merchant

John Hughen Von – Given a valuable account of the

Linschotten social and economic life of South
India.
Period: (1583 A.D.)

Who: Dutch traveller

William Hawkins Came in India at the reign of –
Jahangir,the great Mughal
Period: (1608-1611 A.D.) Emperor. William finch came
with him.
Who: Ambassador of
James I, king of England.

Sir Thomas Roe Came in India at the reign of –

Jahangir,the great Mughal
Period: (1615-1619 A.D.) Emperor.

Who: Ambassador of
James I, king of England.

Edward Terry – Describe about Indian social

(Gujarat) behaviour.
Period: (1616 A.D.)

Who: Ambassador of
Thomas Roe.

Franciso Palsaert – Gave a vivid account of the

flourishing trade at Surat,
Period: (1620-1627 A.D.) Ahmadabad, Broach, Cambay,
Lahore, Multan etc.
Who: Dutch traveller
stayed at Agra.

Peter Mundy Came in the reign of the Gives valuable information about
Mughal Emperor, Shahjahan. the living standard of the
Period: (1630-34 A.D.) common people in the Mughal
Empire.
Who: Italian traveller

John Albert de Mandesto Reached Surat in 1638 A.D. –

Period: (1638 A.D.)

Who: German traveller

Jeen Baptiste Tavernier Visited India 6 times in the reign –
of Shahjahan and Aurangzeb.
Period: (1638-1663 A.D.)

Who: French traveller

Nicolao Manucci He got service at the court of –

Dara Shikoh.
Period: (1653-1708 A.D.)

Who: Italian traveller

Francois Bernier Danishamand Khan, a noble of –

Aurangzeb was his patron.
Period: (1656- 1717 A.D.)

Who: French physician

and Philosopher.

Jean de Thevenot – Given an account of cities like

Ahmadabad, Cambay,
Period: (1666 A.D.) Aurangabad and Golconda.

Who: French traveller

John Fryer - Given a vivid account of Surat

and Bombay.
Period: (1672-1681 A.D.)

Who: English traveller

Gemelli Careri – His remarks on the Mughal

emperor’s military organisation
Period: (1695 A.D.) and administration are important

Who: Italian traveller who

landed at Daman.
 THE SANGAM AGE
• The word Sangam is associated with the assembly of royal Tamil Scholars and Poets
flourished under the patronage of the Pandyan Kings at Madurai.
• Tolkapiyam belongs to second Sangam.
• Tokapiyam is a work on grammar.
• The Sangam literature was compiled in circa A.D. 300-600.
• Thirukural of Kural by Tiruvalluvar is sometimes called the 'fifth Veda' or 'Bible of the
Tamil land'.
• Silpaddikaram literally The jeweled Anklet' by Ilango Adigal is an epic, deals with
the love stories of Kovalan and Madhavi.
• Manimekhalai is written by Sattalai Sattanar, considered the 'Odysseus of Tamil
poetry'.
• Jivaga Chintamani, a third eple by the Jaina Tiruttakadevar.
• Roman king built a temple of Augustus at Muziris.
• Murugan was the God par excellence of the also known as Subramaniyam.
• Yavan Priya is a Sanskrit terms for pepper.
• Muslin, gems, pearls and spices were the important export items to Rome.
• The Sangam Age was marked by three political powers. These were Pandyas,
Cholas and Cheras.
• The Chola dominion was known as Tondaimandlam.
• Karikala was the greatest Chola king.
• He constructed 160 km of embankment along the Cauvery river.
• Nedunjeral Adan is the first known Chera king.
• He earned the title of Udiyanjeral.
• Senguttuvan was the greatest Chera king.
• He established the Pattini cult.
• Nedunjhelian was the most important Pandya king.
• He ordered the execution of Kovalan the husband of Kannagi.
• Megasthenes has pointed out that Pandyas were rules by a woman.
• Korkai and Saliyur were important sea ports of Pandyas.
• Earliest known Pandya king is Palyagasalai Mudukuduml.
• Chola king Elara conquered Sri Lanka and ruled over it for 50 years.
• Karikala defeated the joint forces of Cheras and Pandyas.
• Captains of army were invested with the title Enadi.
• The ruling class in Sangam Age was called Arasar.
• The lowest class in society was of Kadaistyar.
• Purananuru contain the poems of Kapilar, Avval and Kovur-kilar.
• In Silppadikaram there is a reference to Ceylonese king Gajabahu.
• In the battle of Talaiyalanganam Nedunjelian defeated Chera and Chola kings.
• Muziris was a great centre of cotton trade.
• Uraiyur was famous for pearls and muslins.
• Yavana ships used to arrive at Kaveripattinam.
• Kadamai and Kavalmaram are tutelary tree.
• 'Yal' was a stringed instrument like lute.
• Puliyars were the craftsmen.
• Tamil work Jivak Chintamani highlights the importance of Jaina philosophy.
• Jivak Chintamani was written by Tiruttakkadevar.

FIVE TINAIS
Area Occupation God

Forest land (Mullai) Lended cattle, sheep Mayon

Hill area (Kurinji) Hunting Seyon (Murugan)

Cultivable land (Marudam) Cultivators Vendan (Indra)

Coastal regions (Neidal) Fishing Varunan

Sandy region (Palal) Robbery Korraval

Panchtinai (five Tamil Inhabitants Occupation

regions/lands)

Kurinji (hilly backwoods or Kurvar, Vetar Hunting, Gathering

montane)
Palai (Pastoral tract) Eyinar, Maravar Cattle lifting, Highway
Robbery

Mullal (Pastoral land) Ayar, Idalyar Shifting Agriculture, Animal

husbandry

Marutam (Wetland) Neital Ulavar, Vellalar Paratavar, Plough Agriculture Fishing,

(costal) Valayar Salt extraction
 Important Officials in Sangam Administration
▪ Armaichchar -- Minister
▪ Purohitar -- Religious Affair
▪ Dutar -- Envoys
▪ Orrar -- Spies
▪ Senapatiyar -- Cheif of Armed Forces
▪ Vetar -- Food gatherers and Hunters
▪ Panar -- Wandering Balladmanger
▪ Paratavar -- Fisherman
▪ Umnar -- Salt producer

Social groups in Sangam Dynasty

▪ Ulavar -- Agriculturists
▪ Kuravar -- Shifting Agriculturists
▪ Idalyar -- Cattle holders
▪ Kallar -- Plunderer of cattle

Sangam Literature
▪ The word Sangam is associated with a college or assembly of Tamil scholars and poets
flourished under the royal patronage of the Pandyan kings.
▪ The whole Sangam age is called Golden or Augustan Age. According to Tamil sources, the
father of Tamil literature is 'Agastya.'

Sangams Venue Chairman Surviving Text

1st Ten- Madurai Agastya --
2nd Kapatapuran Alvai Agastya (Founder) Tolakappiyan
Tolakappiyan (Tamil Grammar)
(Later Chairman)

3rd North Madurai Nakkirar Ettutogati

Patinenki
lakanakku, pattu -
Pattu
 Important Sangam Works
▪ Tokapiyam by Tokapiyar (Tamil Grammar).
▪ Tirukunal or Kunal by Tiruvaluvar is sometimes called the 'Fifth Veda' or 'Bible of the
Tamil land'. It explains the doctrine of dharma, artha, kama and moksha.
▪ Aggatiyam comprises grammar of letters and life, in three parts written by saint
Aggatiyar.

Epics

➢ Silappadikarma the jewelled anklet: by Ilango Adigal is an epic, dealing with love
story of Kovalan and Madhavi also called 'Illiyad' of Tamil Poetry.

➢ Manimekalai is one of the two greatest epics and a sequel to Silappadikaram

written by Satallai Sattannam.

➢ Jivaka Chintamiui (Sivaga Sindamani) a third epic by a Jaina Tiruttakrdeva. It has

elements of Jainism.

➢ Bharatman written by Perudevanar.

Revenue Terminologies

Karai Land tax

Irai Tribute paid by feudatories and body collected

in war
Iravu Extra demand or forced gift
Ulgu Custom dutie
Variyar Tax collector
Variyan A well known unit of territory yielding tax

✓ The land was very fertile with proper irrigation facilities The chief local God was Murugan,,
also called as Subramaniya
ANCIENT INDIANS BOOKS & ITS AUTHORS
Books Author
Ashtadhyay Panini
Buddhacharita Asvaghosha
Charak Samhita Charak
Devi Chandraguptam Vishakadutta
Gita Govind Jayadeva
Harsha Charita Banabhatta
Kadambari Banabhatta
Kumar Sambhava Kalidas
Kumarpalcharita Hemchandra
Mahabhashya Patanjali
Mahavir Charita Bhavabhuti
Malvikagnimitram Kalidas
Meghduta Kalidas

Mitakshara Vijnaneshwara
Mrichhkatikam Sudraka
Mudra Rakshasha Vishakhdatta
Nagananda Harshavardhana
Natya Shashtra Bharata
Nitisara Kamandaki
Priyadarshika Harshavardhana
Ramcharita Sandhyakara Nandi

Ritu Samhara Kalidas

Sisupal Vadha Magha
Susruta Samhita Susruta
Swapna Vasavadatta Bhasa
Tilakmanjari Dhanpala
Vikram Deva Charita Bilhana
Vikramourvasi Kalidas
Manu Smriti Manu
Arthshastra Kautilya
Chhanda-Sutra Pingala
Buddhacharita Ashvaghosha
Sariputra Prakama Ashvaghosha
Saundaranand Ashvaghosha
Sisupalvadha Magha
Ratnavali Harshavardhana
Maltimadhav Bhavabhuti
Uttararamcharita Bhavabhuti
Gaudvaho Vakpati Raj
Daskumarcharita Dandin
Vashvadatta Subandhu
Kathasaritsagar Somdeva
Panchatantra Vishnu Sharma
Hitopdesha Narayan Pandit
Kamasutra Vatsayan
Mattavilasa Mahendra-

Prahasana varman I
Nitisara Kamandaka
Dayabhaga Jimutavahana
Nighantu Yaska
Mitakshara Vijneshvra
Brihat Kathamanjari Kshemendra

Mahaviracharita Bhavabhuti
 FAMOUS SCHOLARS AND THEIR PATRONS
Scholar Patron
Udayraja Mahmud Begrha (Gujarat)
Hemchandra Kumarpala (Chalukyas of Anhilwara)
Nagarjuna Kanishka

Amar Singh Chandragupta

Vikramaditya

Ravikirti Pulkesin-II
Vakpatiraj Yashovarman of Kannauj
Bhav Bhuti Yashovarman of Kannauj
Harishena Samudragupta
Rajshekhar Mahendrapala and Mahipala

Somadeva Prithviraja III

Chandarbardai Prithviraja III

Banabhatta Harshavardhana
Dandin Narsinghavarman (Pallava)

Bharvi Simhavishnu(Pallava)
Gunadhya Hala (Satvahana)
Mahaviracharya Amoghvarsha (Rashtrakuta)

Jinasen Amoghvarsha (Rashtrakuta)

Sakatyayan Amoghvarsha (Rashtrakuta)
Jayadeva Lakshman Sena (Bengal)
Bilhan Vikramaditya VI (Chalukya of Kalyani)

Vijnaneshwar Vikramaditya VI

Lakshmidhar Govind Chandra

Shri Harsha Jaychand
 Early Medieval Period
[Link]-lndia
 Gujjar-Pratihara
 Palas
 Rashtrakutas

[Link]-lndia
 Cholas
 Western Chalukyas

NORTH INDIA: RAJPUTANA PERIOD

 After the deathof Harsha, there was no political unity in north India for about five centuries.
 The country was split up into a number of states which were constantly fighting and
changing their frontiers.
 Rajputas emerged as a powerful force in North India and dominated the lndian political
scene for about 500 years.

Tripartite Struggle
The period from 750-1000 CE saw the rise of three important empires: Gurjara-Pratihara
(Western India), Palas (Eastern India) and Rashtrakutas (Deccan).

 The conflict among these three powers (basically for control over Kannauj area of Ganga
valley) is often described as a tripartite struggle.
 Kannauj was strategically and commercially very important. lt was located on the Ganga
trade route and was connected to the Silk route. Previously, Kannauj was the capital of
Harshavardhana Empire.
 Out of these three, the Rashtrakutas emerged as the most powerful and their empire lasted
for the most time.
 Rashrakutas also acted as the bridge between north and south India in economic and
cultural areas

The Four Agnikul Rajput clans were:

1. The Pratiharas
2. The Chahamanas/Chauhans of Ajmer.
3. The Chandellas of Bundelkhand.
4. The Paramaras of Malwa.
 Gurjara-Pratihara Empire (Western India, 730-1036 AD):
 Known as Gurjara-Pratihara, as they originated from Gurjaras, who were primarily
pastoralists and fighters.
 Dynasty was founded by Harichandra, in and around Jodhpur, south western Rajasthan.
 Pratihara were instrumental in containing Arab armies moving east of the Indus River.
 Gurjara-Pratihara are known for their sculptures, carved panels and open pavilion style
temples.
 The greatest development of their style of temple building was at Khajuraho - UNESCO
World Heritage Site.

●Sanskrit Poet & Dramatist Rajasekhara lived in the court of Mahendrapala 1- son of Mihir
Bhoja.

 Finally in 11 th century CH, they were wiped off from the political map by the Ghaznavids
and their rule was succeeded by Chahamanas or Chauhans in Rajputana, Chalukyas or
Solankis in Gujarat and the Paramaras or Pawars in Malwa.

 Foreign traveller AI-Masudi had visited the Pratihara empire.

Important Rulers Nagabhata-1 (730-760 AD):

• Most famous Pratiharas kings, known for containing Arab armies .
• Defeated by Rashtrakuta king Dhruva.

 Vatsaraja (780 – 805 AD)

• Made Kannauj in western U.P as his capital.
• Expansionist policy brought him into conflict with Dharmapala, the Pala king and Rashtrakuta
king Dhruv, thus began "tripartite struggle" and continued for about another 350 years.
• Vatsraja defeated the Pala ruler Dharmapala and Dantidurga, the Rashtrakuta king for
control of Kannauj.
 Nagabhata-II (805 -833 AD)
• He conquered Kannauj and the Indo-Gangetic Plain as far as Bihar from the Palas, and again
checked the Muslims in the west.
• He rebuilt the Shiva temple at Somnath in Gujarat, which had been demolished in an Arab raid
from Sindh.

 Bhoja-1/ Mihira Bhoja (836-885 AD)

• Greatest ruler of Pratiharas, got victories over Palas and Rashtrakutas.
• Proved to be the most successful and popular ruler of Pratiharas.
• Capital at Kannauj, which is also known as Mahodaya.
• Devotee of Vishnu and adopted the title of 'Adivaraha.'
• He was called King Baura by another Arab traveller, Al-Masudi.
  Mahendrapala (885 -910 AD)
• Under Bhoja and his successor Mahendrapala I, the Pratihara empire reached its peak of
prosperity and power.
• The Rashtrakuta king Krishna III invaded north India in about 963 CE and defeated the Pratihara
ruler.

 Rajyapala (960-1018 AD)

 Raid of Mahmud Ghazni on Kannauj; Rajyapala fled from the battle field.
• Took the title Maharaja dhiraja of Aryavarta (Great King of Kings of Northern India). His court
was adorned by Rajashekhar, who was an eminent Sanskrit poet, dramatist and critic who wrote:
Karpuramanjari, Kavya Mimansa, Vidya Salabhanjika, Bhrinjika, Bala Ramayana, Prapanch
Pandav, Balabharathi, Bhusan Kosh.

 Yashpal (1024-1036 AD)

 Last ruler of this dynasty
 By 1090 CE, the Gadhavalas conquered Kannauj.

 Other AGNIKULA Rajput clans

 They ruled Bundelkhand region.
 Had two capital - Mahoba and Khajuraho
 Yashovarman made them an independent power.
 Ruled between the 9th and early 13th century.
 Weakened by invasions by Muslim dynasties.

 Paramaras
• They ruled over Malwa region, with Dhara as capital.
• The early rulers were vassals of Rashtrakutas.
• Siyaka captured Manyakheta, capital of Rashtrakutas.
• Harsola copper plate inscription in Gujarat is attested to Siyaka.
• Paramara Bhoja: Important King of this dynasty, known as patron of arts, literature and sciences.

Solanki Dynasty
 Ruled Gujarat for 300 years with the capital at Annihilwada, Solanki Dynasty
 Bhima I, in his reign Md Ghazni in 1025CE invaded Somnath temple.
 Kumarapala, in his court lived a popular Jain scholar Hemachandra.
 Bhima II, in the Year 1178, Md Ghori invaded Gujarat
 Chauhan
 Ajmer, as their capital.
Prithviraj Chauhan:
 He fought two battles at Tarain/ Staneshwar.
 In the firstbattle in 1191 he defeated Md Ghori.
 In the second battle 1192 he was defeated and "Qutbuddin Aibak" was appointed as
governor.
 Later Aibak established the Delhi Sultanate.

 Socio-Religious
 In India, Feudalism similar to western type is found in Rajput societies.
 Women immolated themselves on burning pyre- Johar. ,
 Female infanticide and earlymarriage of girls were practised.
 lt failed to absorb foreign elements.
 Vaishnavism and Shaivism were patronised by the rulers.

 Literature 1
 Buddhism declined and Jainism to some extent was present.
 In the court of Mahipala I, Sanskrit Scholar Rajasekhara lived.
 He wrote Karpuramanjari, Kavyamimamsa, Bhuvankosha and Haravilasa.
 Paramara Bhoja wrote 24 Sanskrit Kavyas and took the title of Kaviraja.
 His books were: Ayurveda Sarvasya, Samarangana Sutradhara (on architecture),
Champu-ramayana,Yukti kalpapatru (On statecraft).
 Bhoja built a Sanskrit college Bhojashala.
 Hemachandra, in the court of Kumarapala wrote Books: Kumarapalacharita, Naminatha,
Parisistha Parvan, Abhidhamma Chintamani.
 He took the title Kalikala Sarvagna.

 Art and Architecture

 The fort structure reached perfection under the Rajputs. The palaces of Jaipur and Udaipur
and the forts of Chittor, Mandu, Jodhpur and Gwalior are fine specimens of Rajputs
architecture.
 Dilwara temples at Mount Abu, the Vimla Vasahi and the Luna Vasahi were built by the
Solankis of Gujarat.
 Khajuraho temples were built by Chandellas rulers (UNESCO World Heritage site)
 Dilwara Jain temples in Mt Abu built by Solanki rulers.
 Rani ki Vav (UNESCO World Heritage site), a multi-storeyed well built by queen
Udayamathi (Bhima I wife).
  The palaces of Jaipur and Udaipur and forts of Chittor, Mandu, Jodhpur and Gwalior.
 The Rajputs paintings are divided into the Rajput School of Art and the Pahari School of
Art. The Rajasthani School flourished in Mewar, Bikaner, Jaipur, Jodhpur and Jaisalmer
and specialised in depicting scenes from Krishna Lila, Nayika Veda and Ritu Charita
 The Pahari School was patronised by the rulers of Himalayan states especially in the
regions of Basoli, Mandi, Jammu, Kangra and Garhwal.

Limitations of the rajputs:

• The Rajput society was feudal in its organisational set up. lt was divided into various states.
Each state was ruled by one or more hereditary ruling houses. They fought with each other and
exhausted themselves in the process.
• They lacked political vision and foresight and displayed lack of national consciousness. They
preferred personal freedom over political unity.
• There was no written Iaw for the land and most of the Rajputs ruled on the basis of local customs
and tradition.
• All the above causes made it easy for the Muslim invaders and when they invaded India, the
Indian society collapsed due to internal weakness.

Significance of rajputs:
•The Rajputs were the main defenders of the Hindu religion and culture from the Muslim
aggression. The bravery and courage at the time of adversity of Rajputs had inspired the
generation and is still inspiring.
• They were great warriors and laid down their lives for the honour of their family, clan and their
regional leaders.
• The Rajput women enjoyed considerable freedom and respect in the society. They were known
for their chastity and devotion to their husband. To save their honour, they committed jauhar with
pride.

The palas of Bengal: (750-1150 AD)

• Around the 8th century CE, Gopala laid the foundation of Pala dynasty.
• As the names of all the succeeding kings ended with 'Pala' which meant protector in the ancient
language of Prakrit, this dynasty came to be known as the 'Pala' dynasty.
• Capital: Muddagiri/ Munger (Bihar).
• Pala kingdom: Bengal and Bihar, included the major cities of Pataliputra, Vikrampura, Ramvati
(Varendra), Monghyr (Munger), Tamralipti and Jaggadala.
• Palas were followers of Mahayana Buddhism and Tantric schools of Buddhism.
• The Sailendra dynasty (Buddhist) which ruled over Malaya, Java, Sumatra sent many
embassies to the Pala court.
• Pala period is considered as the golden period in history of Bengal.
• Islam first appeared in Bengal during Pala rule, as a result of increased trade between Bengal
and the Middle East.
• Arab merchant Sulaiman had visited the Pala kingdom.
• The Palas' power was destroyed by the Sena dynasty under Vijayasena.
 The Rashtrakutas (Deccan):( 712-973 AD)
• Rashtrakutas meaning the chief of a rashtra, they considered as the feudatory of the Chalukyas.
Capital: Manyakheta or Malkhed near Solapur.
• They achieved spectacular military successes in the north and south and in the tripartite struggle
they mostly defeated the Palas and the Pratiharas.
• Rashtrakuta fought constantly against the eastern Chalukyas of Vengi and Pallavas of
Kanchi and Pandya of Madurai.
• Krishna III was the last great ruler of Rashtrakutas. In 972 CE, Capital city was burnt to ashes by
the united opponents. This marks the end of Rashtrakutas. They were tolerant in their religious
views and patronised Shaivism,Vaishnavism and Jainism.
• Rashtrakuta rule lasted in the Deccan for almost 200 years till the end of the 10th century.

 Dantidurga (753-756 AD)

 Feudatory of the Chalukyan king, Kirtivarman II.
 Founded Rashtrakutas kingdom in 753 CE.
 Name 'Dantidurga' (meaning he whose elephant is his fortress) also signifies his military
defeats and accomplishments.

 Krishna-1 (756-774 AD)

 The empire included present day Karnataka and Konkan under his control.
 Gave the final blow to Pallavas.
 The rock-cut Kailasanath (Shiva) temple (monolithic, dedicated to Lord Shiva) at
Ellora caves was built during his reign.

 Dhruva (780-793 AD)

He led successful expeditions to Kannauj, defeated the NNagabhata II (Pratiharas) and
Dharmapala (Pala).

 Amoghavarsha-I (814-878 AD)

 Called as "Ashoka of the South" and also compared to Gupta king Vikramaditya.
• Built a new capital city at Manyakheta (Modern Malkhed).
• Assumed the title "Veeranarayana".
 Defeated Eastern Chalukyas, maintained friendly relations with neighbours.
 He wrote Kavirajamarga (Kannada) and the Prasnottara Ratna Malika (Sanskrit).
 He was a follower of Jainism.
 After his death, all his opponents united against his successor and in 972 CE sacked the
Rashtrakuta capital Malkhed and burnt it to ashes. This marks the end of the Rashtrakutas.

Administratlon
The system of administration in all three dynasties was based upon the ideas and practices of the
Gupta empire. King was head of administration and commander in chief of the armed forces. He
also dispensed.
Socio-Religious
Law and order in the towns and in areas in their vicinity was the responsibility of Kosthapal or
Kotwal.
• Nad-Gavundas or Desa-Gramakutas were the hereditary revenue officers.
Society was divided into various castes and based on profession.
• Guilds occupied an important position in society.
• They were tolerant to various faiths.
• Amoghavarsha endorsed Jainism.

Literature
Patronised Sanskrit and popularised Kannada.
• Amoghavarsha, took a title "Kaviraja" and wrote two books:
• Kavirajamarga: grammar, first book written in Kannada.
• Ratnaloka: Sanskrit book written on Jainism.
• He patronised Sanskrit Jain scholars:
•Jinasena: wrote Parsvabhudya and Adipurana which are on Adinatha.
• Mahaviracharya: wrote Ganita sara sangraba, a book on mathematics,
• Shaktayana wrote Amogavrithi, a grammar book in Sanskrit.
• Halayudha wrote Kavirahasya.
• Viracharya wrote Ganitasaram.
• Trivikrama Bhatta wrote Nalachampu.
• Pampa wrote Vikramasenavijaya.
• Ponna wrote Santipurana.

Art and Architecture

 Instrumental in establishing Kamata Dravida style.
 Rock cut cave Kailasa temple in Ellora.
 Caves at Ellora and Elephanta.
 Kashi Vishvanatha temple and the Jain Narayana temple at Pattadakal in modern
Karnataka - both are UNESCO World Heritage Sites.
 The great Apabhramsha poet Svayambhu and his son lived in Rashtrakuta court.
 South lndia
The cholas: (850-1279 AD)
• Known as Imperial Cholas of Tanjore.
• The founder of Chola dynasty was Vijayalaya who was at first a feudatory of Pallavas.
• The greatest kings of Cholas were Rajaraja & his son Rajendra l.
• The use of Agrahatta (Persian wheel) also facilitated the already established smooth irrigation
networks of tanks, canals, wells and sluices.

Important rulers:

 Rajaraja-I (985- 1014 AD)

• Greatest Chola Ruler, who helped raise chola empire as largest dominion in South India.
• He took titles- Mummidi Chola, Jayankonda & Shivpadshekhara.
• He defeated Chera, Pandya & conquered Maldives lslands.
• Naval expedition against the Sailendra Empire (Malaya Peninsula).
•Expanded trade with china.
• In 1010 CE, constructed the Rajarajeshwara or Brihadeswara temple, dedicated to shiva at
Thanjavur.
• Rajarajeshwara or Brihadeeswara temple is a part of "Greatest Living Chola Temples &
entered the UNESCO World Heritage site list in 1987. This temple is the finest example of
Dravidian architecture.
• Developed a revenue system where land was surveyed and then revenue was assessed. So, he
was referred to as Ulakalanada Perumal (the great who measured the earth).

 Rajendra I (1014- 1044 AD)

• Son of Rajaraja 1, defeated & conquered whole Sri Lanka.
• Made the Chola navy the strongest in the area and 'Bay of Bengal' was converted into a 'Chola
Lake'.
• He assumed the title of "Gangaikondachola" & built a city- "Gangaikondacholapuram".
• He was a great patron of learning and known as Pandita - chola.
• Encouraged local self-government.
• Rajendra III was the last king. Later, Pandyas conquered the Chola empire.

Political System
Empire was founded by Vijayalaya, feudatory of Pallavas.
• He captured Tanjore in 850 AD.
• Rajaraja I (985-1014 A.D)
•Formative period of "chola imperialism"
• He destroyed the Chera navy at Trivandrum.
• He conquered Maldives Islands.
• Bought South- East Asia under his control.
• He over ran Vengi of Andhra Pradesh.
 Rajadhi Raja I (1044-1052 A.D):
• He earned the title "Jayamkonda chola".
• He captured Kalyani, western chalukya capital and took the title Kalyanpur Makonda

Administration
 King was the central power and assisted by a council of ministers.
o The Chola empire had a strong standing army.
o The empire was divided into mandalams (provinces), valanadu (districts).
 The officials were generally given revenue bearing lands.
 Cholas were known for village administration (Uttaramerur inscriptions of Paranthaka
provides for this).
o Two assemblies – Ur Sabha or Mahasabha.
 Ur was a general assembly of the village.
 Mahasabha was a gathering of adult men in Brahmana villages (agraharas) . Election
system was present.
 Economy Built a network of roads. Expansions in agrarian economy, use of Agrahatta
(Persian wheel) for smooth irrigation.
 Tanks for lrrigation purposes were built.
 Elaborate survey ofland is done to assess the govt. share Society
o Revenue sources: land tax, tolls on trade, taxes, professions etc, plunder.
 It was organised based on the Varnasrama model.
o Sub castes were proliferated - Kaikalla, Chetti, Cheek etc.
o The Devadasi system was prevalent in the society.
o Emergence of trading caste: Garveras (Northern merchants migrated southwards),
Gaudas/ Gavundas (originally cultivators).

Religion
 Thiruvalangadu copper plates. Karanthai plates and Anbil plates describe religious
conditions of cholas.
 Chola kings were Shaivites.
 Paranthaka I Chola covered shiva temple with gold at Chidambaram.
 Rajendra I constructed shiva temple in Ceylon.
 They were tolerant towards other religions.
 Vaishnavism also flourished during the period.
 Saint Ramanujan was a contemporary of chola kings.
 Temples acted as important centres of cultural life.
 Build great capitals: Tanjore, Gangaikondacholapuram, Kanchi etc. Large households
and large palaces.
 Chola kings built lofty temples & inscribed long inscriptions on the wall narrating their
achievements. They also depict the socio-economic conditions of that period.
 The Dravidian type of temple architecture reached its climax under the Cholas.
 Dravidian temple architecture: Garbbagriha - multiple stories in tbe chief-deity room.
Art and Architecture
 These stories varied from 5 to 7 and are known as Vimana.
 Mandapa with a pillared hall.
 Pillars are elaborately curved. Courtyards surrounding the structure.
 Gopurams- Iofty gateways
 Examples: Kailasanath Temple of Kanchipuram was built in the 8th
[Link] temple (Tanjore), Airavatesvara temple & temple at
Gangaikondacholapuram, Nataraja temple at Chidambaram are famous.
 Brihadeshwara temple at Tanjore was built by Rajaraja which was dedicated to Shiva.
 The Chola period is also remarkable for its sculptures and bronzes. The best example of
this can be seen in Dancing figure of Nataraja.
 Bharatanatyam & kathakali are two types of dances performed during the Chola period.

Literature
 Sivakasintamani written by Thiruthakkadevar and Kundalakesi belongs to the 10th
century.
 The Ramayana composed by Kamban and the Periyapuranam or Thiruthondar
Puranam by Sekkilar are the two master-pieces of this age.
 The Telugu version of Mahabharata was started by Nanniah & completed by Tikkana.
 Jayankondar's Kalingattupparani describes the Kalinga war fought by kulottunga I.
 Moovarula written by Ottakuthar depicts the life of three Chola kings.
 Nalavenba was written by Pugalendi.
 The works on Tamil grammar like Kalladam by Kalladanar, Yapperungalamby
Amirthasagarar, a Jain, Nannul by Pavanandhi and Virasoliyam by Buddhamitra were
written during Chola rule.
 Pampa, Ponna, & Ranna are considered 3 gems of Kannada literature lived in the 10th
century.

lmportant Terms & Meaning

• Kaikkolaperumpadai - Royal troops.

• Velaikkarar - Personal troops to defend kings.
• Kadagram - military cantonment.
• Puravuvanithinaikkalam- Revenue dept.
• Peruvazhis - Trunk roads.
 Western chalukyas
 kalyani: (973-1200AD)
• Followed the traditions of Rashtrakutas and Vatapi Chalukyas.
• Ruled Karnataka region and surrounding areas.

 Tailapa II (973-997 A.D)

 Feudatory of Rashtrakutas, Defeated Krisbna 111.
 Credited with victories over Chedi, Orissa, Nepal and Kuntala.

 Somesvara 1 (1042-68 A.D)

 Took the titles - Ahava Malla and Trailokyamalla.
 He built the city of Kalyan.
 Bilhana's Vikramankadevacharita deals with Somesvara l.
 Last ruler Tailapa III was defeated by Kalachuris

 Administration
• Hereditary Monarchical form of government.
• Used titles Samasthabhuvanasrayaand Vijayaditya.
• Their insignia was a boar signifying varabavatara.
• Limited number of council of ministers to advise the King.
• Ministers post was hereditary.
• Administration had feudal elements.
• Territory was divided into Rashtra, Vtsbaya, Nadu, Kampana and Thana.
• Vishayapatis, Gramalwtakas, Ayuktakas and Niyalwtakas were the officials.

Economy
• Agriculture and trade & commerce were backbones of the economy.
• State provided irrigational facilities.
• Cultivated land was categorised into Dry land,wet land and Garden land.
• Private ownership along with joint ownership of land existed.
• Guilds were active and had autonomy.

Society
• Social life was based on the Varnasrama model.
• Caste was universal and hereditary.
• The Relationship between caste and occupation was less rigid.
• Women of higher status played a majar role in social and administrative life.
• Akkamahadevi, a chalukyan princess also led the armies in battle.

Religion
• Shaivism and Vaishnavism were patronised.
• Shakti was worshipped as Kollapura Mahalakshmi.
• Karthikeya was worshipped - Kudidatani in Bellary.
• Basavesvara's Veerashaivism was also very popular.
• Jainism was also practised and received royal patronage too.
Art and Architecture
• Their temple architecture is known as "Karnata Dravida".
• lt is an extension of Badami chalukyan style.
• Temples of lttagi were the finest examples of Art and architecture.
• Ornamentation on the outer walls of the shrine and presence of figure sculptures of heroes and
loving couples (Mithuna) were unique features of Kalyani Chalukyas.

Eastern chalukyas
• This dynasty was founded by Pulakeshin Il's brother Vishnuvardhana and they established
themselves at Vengi in Andhra Pradesh, but later shifted their capital to Rajamahendravarman
(modern Rajahmundry).
• Vijayaditya III (848-892 AD) was credited with victories over the Pallavas, the Pandyas and the
Rashtrakutas. Their power was weakened in the 10th century AD and they became the allies of
the Cholas. Kulotbunga Chola annexed this kingdom in 1076 AD.

 The Western Gangas

• The Western Ganga dynasty ruled from the 11th to the early 15th centuries AD in Orissa. Their
capital was Kalinganagara. This dynasty was founded by Anantavannan Chodaganga (1076-1150
AD) who assumed the title of Trikalingadhipati in 1076 AD. He was credited for building Jagannath
temple at Puri in Orissa.
• Narsimhadeva (1238-1264 AD) was another famous ruler of this dynasty, who was credited for
building the Sun temple at Konark. This dynasty came to an end later it was succeeded by
chalukyas of vengi.
The Sailendra dynasty (Malaya, Java and Sumatra), which was Buddhist in faith, sent many
embassies to the Pala court and sought permission to build a monastery at Nalanda University.
• The Palas has close trade contacts with South-East Asia and Tibet.
 Iran/ Afghan Invasion
 First Invader in India - Sikander
 First Muslim Invader in India – Mhd. Bin Qasim (712 AD)
 Who was Khalifa of Iran? – Al-Hajaj
 Which book tells about Sindh Attack- Chachnama
(translated by Ali Babar Qufi)

Mahmud of Ghazni
 Reign Period (998-1030)
 Invasion in India (1001-1027AD)
 Attacked 17 times
 1001 – Punjab Attack
 1005- Bhatia Attack
 1006- Multan Attack
 1018- Mathura Temples
 1025-Somnath Temple
 1027- Attack Against Jaat Community
 1030-Ghazni Died

FAMOUS WRITER AT THAT TIME-

1. Albaruni (wrote – Kitab-ul-Hind Or Tarikh-al-
Hind, during the reign of Ghazni)
2. Farubi
3. Firdausi(wrote – Shahnama)
4. Utvi
5. Sisteni

Muhammed Ghori
 1175-Battle of Multan(Ghori defeated Moolraj II).
 1178- Battle of Mt. Abu (Bhim Dev II won).
 1191- Battle of Tarain 1st (Prithviraj
Chauhan won).
 1192-Battle of Tarain 2nd
(Ghori defeated Prithviraj Chauhan).
 1194-Battle of Chandawar(Ghori defeated Jai Chand).
  Battte of Chandawar (l194AD):
•After Tarain, Ghori returned to Ghazni leaving the conquered territories under his trusted slave
Qutbuddin Aibak.
• During the next two years, Turks overran parts of upper doab without any opposition from
Gahadavalas. In 1194AD, Ghori returned to India again and attacked Kanauj defeating
Jaichandra, in the Battle of Chandawar (near Kannauj).
• After this invasion, Qutbuddin Aibak was made the viceroy by Ghori.
• Two successive battles of Tarain and battle of Chandawar laid the foundation of Turkish rule
in north India.
• Then Ghori moved to Banaras and destroyed many temples there. He also captured the forts of
Bayana and Gwalior, which guarded the southern bank of Delhi.
• Aibak conquered Kalinjar, Mahoba and Khajuraho from the Chandella rulers of the area.
Conquests of Gujarat Bundelkhand, Bengal and Bihar(1195-1202 AD) • Qutbuddin Aibak was
defeated by BhimaII (Solanki king). But later Aibak defeated Bhima II, plundering and rava ging a
number of towns.
• His next target was Bundelkhand which was ruled by the Chandella Rajputs. He defeated them
and conquered Bundelkhand.
• During this time, Muhammad Bakhtiyar Khilji, another general of Muhammad Ghuri, attacked
Bihar in 1197 AD and Bengal in 1202 AD. He destroyed the universities of Nalanda and
Vikramsila. Khilji was appointed the governor of Bengal and Bihar.

 Revolt of Khoars (1205 AD):

In 1205 AD, Ghori again came to India and this time the Khokhars stood against him. But he
defeated them.
In 1206 AD, when Ghori was returning to Ghazni, he was killed by Khokhars in Dhamyak district
near Jhelum river (now in Pakistan).
 Al-Masudi (957 AD)
• His real name was Abu Rehan Mahmud who came along with Mahmud of Ghazni and wrote
Kitab al Hind and Tahqiq-i-Hind.
 Al-Beruni (1024-1030 AD)
• He came to India along with Mahmud of Ghazni. He was the lntercivilizational connect between
India and the rest of the world
 Firdausi lbn Battuta (1333-1347 AD)
 He translated the Greek work of Euclid into Sanskrit. He transmitted Aryabattiyam (by
Aryabhatta) to the west Persian Poet, known as Homer of the East wrote Shahnama.
 He was from Morocco.
 He was the Venetian traveller who gave an account of Vijayanagar kingdom.
  Abdur Razzaq (1443-1444 AD)
• A Persian traveller who stayed in the court of the Zamorin at Calicut. His account dealt with
the Vijayanagar kingdom, especially of the city.
• A Portuguese traveller who visited the court of Krishnadeva Raya of the Vijayanagar
kingdom.
• He traced his genealogy back to the royal house of Ghazni.
• His account Tarikh-i-Firuz Shahi dealt from the reign of Balban to the 6th year of the reign
of Firuz Shah Tughlaq.
• His other major work, the Fatwa-i- Jahandari, translated as the Principles of Government is
depicted in the form of a series of lectures on state- craft delivered by Mahmud of Ghazni.
• Abdal Malik Isami Shams-i-Siraj Afif
• Yahya bin Ahmad Sirhindi Ferishta
• His account Futuh-us-Salatin was composed under the patronage of Bahman Shah
(founder of the Bahmani kingdom).
• His account Tarikh-i-Firuz Shahi is supposed to be continuation of Barani's which gives a
detail account of the reign of Sultan Firuz Shah Tughlaq before it was given a death blow by
the armies of Timur.
• His account Tarikh-i-Mubarak Shahi dealt with the reign of Firuz Shah Tughlaq (1388-
1434 AD).
• A Persian historian who wrote Tarikh-i-Ferishta
• Aibak conquered Kalinjar, Mahoba and Khajuraho from the Chandella rulers of the area.

Conquests of Gujarat, Bundelkhand, Bengal and Bihar(1195-1202 AD)

• Qutbuddin Aibak was defeated by Bhima II (Solanki king). But later Aibak defeated Bhima II,
plundering and rava ging a number of towns.
• His next target was Bundelkhand which was ruled by the Chandella Rajputs. He defeated them
and conquered Bundelkhand.
• During this time, Muhammad Bakhtiyar Khilji, another general of Muhammad Ghuri, attacked
Bihar in 1197 AD and Bengal in 1202 AD. He destroyed the universities of Nalanda and
Vikramsila. Khilji was appointed the governor of Bengal and Bihar.
 Prithviraj Chauhan
 Real Name –Prithviraj III / Rai Pithora
 Dynasty- Chahamana
 Ruled -Sapadalabha
 Father/Mother – Someshwar Chauhan / Karpouri
 Painter - Anirudh
 Poet friend –Chandbardai (wrote PrithvirajRaso).
1191- Battle of Tarain I -Prithviraj Won
1192- Battle of Tarain II- Ghori Won
1194- Battle of Chadawar- Ghori Defeated Jai Chand

DELHI SULTANATE

Ghori purchased a slave- Qutub-ud-din Aibak(Turkish)

He came to Delhi with 2 Saints

Qutub-ud-din-Kaki Moin-ud-din Chishti

(Stayed in Delhi) (Stayed in Ajmer)
(Qutubminar Built by (Adhai Din ka jhonpra Built by
Aibak in his memory) Aibak in his memory)

5 Dynasties of Delhi Sultanate Qutub-ud-din Aibak

Slave Dynasty-1206-1290
Khilji Dynasty – 1290-1320
Tughlaq Dynasty- 1320-1414
Sayyid Dynasty- 1414-1450
Lodhi Dynasty- 1451-1526
 SLAVE DYNASTY(1206-1290 AD)
 Founder - Qutub-ud-din Aibak
 First to Introduce Turkish Culture in Delhi
 He never accepted “Sultan” title
 Title accepted = Malik/SipahSalar/Lakh Baksh
 Capital- Lahore
 Building – Qutub Minar
 Quwwat-ul-Islam (India’s Ist Mosque)
 Adhai Din Ka Jhopra
 Cheramanjuma is 1st Mosque, but due to no
workship there, it is not considered India’s 1st Mosque
1210-Died (During Playing Chaugan)

Aram Shah (1210AD):

 Considered the most incapable ruler.
 Thus Iltumish (Son-in-law of Aibak) was invited to Delhi. He then deposed Aram Shah and
became Sultan.

Iltutmish (1211-1236A.D.)
 Real Founder of Delhi Sultanate
 Defeated Aram Shah
 Capital Delhi
 Established Chehalgani/Chalisa
 Completed Qutubminar
 Launched Iqta System
 Defeated Mongols (Nasir Uddin Qwacha
defeated changez Khan)
 Introduced 2 coins :1. Tanka (silver) 2. Jital (copper)
 Built Sultan Garhi (Qutub Complex)
 Son- RuknuddinFiruz
 Daughter – Razia Sultan

ILBARI DYNASTY
 He nominated Raziya as his successor. Thus, he initiated hereditary succession to Delhi
Sultanate.
 Razia Sultan (1236-1240 AD)
 First and last Woman muslim ruler in India.
 Husband- Alturia(Ruler of Bathinda)
 Commander – Jamal-ud-din Yakoot
 She didn’t accept ‘Parda’
 She opt Quba and Qula

BlazerCap
 1240-1265 -3 sultan came :
1. Moizuddin Behram Shah (1240-42)
2. Allaudin Massood (1242-1246)
3. Nasiruddin Mahmood (1246-65)

Ghiyas-ud-din Balban(1265-87)
 Killed Chehalgani
 Introduced Nauroz Culture (Persian
Festival) And Persian Culture in his
Court
 Introduced Sazdaand Paibos
 He opted Bloodand Iron way.
 He was also known as Ulugh Khan.
 He called himself Nasir-amir-ul-momin
(Caliph’s right hand man)
 According to him, the sultan was God’s shadow on earth
(Zil-i-ilahi) & recipient of divine grace(Nibyabat-i-Khudai).
 He separated Diwan-i-wizarat (Finance department) From
The Diwan-i-Arz( Military Department).
 Slave Dynasty extinguished due to Mongol Invasions.
 KHILJI DYNASTY (1290-1320AD)
Alauddin Khilji (1296-1316)
 Founder- Jalaluddin Firoz Khilji (1290-1296 AD)
Title accepted by Alauddin- Alexander Second
Or Sikander-i-Sani
 Alauddin Khilji(Won 8 battles)
 Real Name – Ali Gurushasp
 Most effective Sultan
 Reformed his Army (Recruitment/Salary)
 Biswa System
 Daag&Huliya System
 Introduced Market Control System
 Fixed the taxes on 50%
 Malik Kafur or Malik Mani was captured
By Nusrat Khan in Gujarat. He was purchased
In 1000 Dinars, so he is called ‘HazaarDinari’
 Malik Kafur was gifted to Alauddin by Nusrat
Khan.
 Alauddin was the 1st ruler of Delhi Sultanate who did not
Ask for Manshur from the caliph but called himself the deputy of Caliph.
 He was appointed as Amir-i-Tuzuk (Master of Ceremonies) and Ariz-i-Mumalik (Minister of Law)by
JalaluddinKhilji.
 To keep hold on nobles - He prohibited holding festivals, marriage without permission of him,
banned wines & intoxicants to avoid social gathering, reorganised spy services (Barids).
 He was the first sultan who separated religion from politics. He proclaimed Kingship known as
Kinship.
 Ziauddin Barani wrote the book: Tarikh-i-FiruzShahi. He wrote about 6 Sultans.
 Patronised poets like Amir Khusrau and Mir Hasan Dehlavi. (Asked in SSC CGL 2018)
 He gave Amir Khusrau the title of Tuti-i-Hind (Parrot of India).
 Amir Khusrau's book Khazain-ul-Futuh speaks about Alauddin's conquests.
 First ruler to fix land revenue in cash. It enabled him to pay his soldiers in cash.
 1st Delhi Sultan to order for measurement land before fixing land revenue.
 Abolished Kismat-i-Khuti (Headman's cess), confiscated religious endowments and free lands
(Inaam and Waqf).
 He created the post of Mustakhraj to collect revenue.
 Zabawit or detailed regulations were made to fix the cost of all commodities eg. Food Grains,
Cloths, Horses, Slaves & Cattles.
 Markets controlled by 2 Officers- Diwan-i-Riyasat & Shahana-i-Mandi
 Horses were sold directly to the Military Department (Diwan-i-Arz).
 He also received daily Reports of markets from Barids (intelligence officer) and Munhiyans (secret
spies).
Allaudin’s Battles
 1292-Malwa
 1296-Devgiri
 1297- Gujarat
 1301-Ranthambore
 1303- Chittorgarh
 1305-Malwa Again
 1308-Silvana
 1311- Jalore
Bajirao I won 39 battles(1720-40)

Buildings
 Hauz Khas
 ChorMinar
 New town Siri
 Siri Fort (made it his capital)
 Alai Minar
 Alai Darwaza
 Maszid
 JammaiyatKhana

Taxation System of Delhi Sultanate

1. USHRAF-5% - 10% from Muslims
2. Kharaz- 1/3 to ½ from non Muslims
3. Khams- 1/5 of looted money will be of Sultan
4. Zakat- 2-2.5% religious tax on muslims
5. Zazia- 10% religious tax on Non- Muslims
6. Lagan- Extra 2.5% from Muslims and 5% from Non Muslims
 Two Taxes by Alauddin Khilji: Gharai &Charai

Departments of Delhi Sultanate

 Deevan-e- Vazirat(Commander)
 Deevan-e- Rasalat(External Affairs)
 Deevan-e-Arz(Defence)
 Deevan-e-Insha/Ashraf(Media/News)
 Deevan-e-Amir Kohi(Agriculture – By Mhd. Bin Tughlaq)
 Deevan-e- Mustakhraz(Revenue – Alau-ud-din Khilji)
 Deevan-e-Khairat(By Firozshah Tughlaq)
 Deevan-e-Ishtiaq(Pension Dept)
 Deevan-e-Bandgan(Jail)
 Deevan-e-Kazamalik(Justice Dept.)
 Deevan-e-Vakoof(Expense Dept.)
 TUGHLAQ DYNASTY (1320-1412AD)
 Founder :Ghiyas-ud-din Tughlaq
 Title :Accepted Title of Ghazi Malik
 Introduced Postal Services
 Introduced Irrigation System
 He expanded Delhi Sultanate to Bengal
 Jauna Khan (Mhd. Bin Tughlaq) killed his father
 The Tughlaqs were also known as the Quaraunah Turks as the father of Ghazi Malik was a
Qaraunah Turk in orgin.
 Built a strong fort called Tuglaqabad near Delhi.
 Amir Khusrau’s famous work Tughlaq Nama deals with the rise of Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq.

Muhammed Bin Tughlaq (1325-1351)

 Most Literate Sultan
 Also Called as Pagal Raja(due to Failure
of implementation of Policies)
 Changed Name of Devgiri to Daultabad
 Launched Copper coins but failed
 Launched Token Currency but failed
 Ibn-Batuta came to his court from Morocco
(Book- Rehla in which he described
everything about Mhd. Bin Tughlaq)
 He built fort of Adiabad & the city of Jahanpanah.
 He launched the Khorasan Project & Quarachill expedition to counter the threat of Chinese
incursions but failed.

Firoz Shah Tughlaq (1351-1388)

 Liberal Sultan
 Imposed ‘Haq-e-Sharb’( tax on irrigation facility)
 Established various departments
1. Diwan-e-Khairat
2. Diwan-e-Bandgam
3. Diwan-e-ilaaz
4. 1st Sultan who imposed Jaziya over Brahmins
5. Autobiography –Futuhat-e-Firozshahi
 He brought ShilaLekh of Ashoka from Lumbini to India
 Renovated Qutub Minar, Sultan Garhi & Suraj Kund.

He built many cities :

a. Firozabad b. Jaunpur- Siraz-e-Hind
c. Fatehabad d. Hissar e. Firozpur
  Erased wall paintings in his palace.
 Firoz Shah Tughlaq introduced 2 new coins- 1) Adha (50% Jital) and
2) Bikh (25% Jital).
 He developed royal factories called Karkhanas in which thousands of slaves were employed.
 Imposed four taxes:
 1) Kharaj (land tax),
 2) Khams (1/5 of the looted property during wars),
 3) Jizya (religious tax on the Hindus)
 4) Zakat (2½ per cent of the income of the Muslims which was spent for the welfare of Muslims).
 He led two unsuccessful expeditions to Bengal. Bengal became free from the control of Delhi
Sultanate.

Nasiruddin Mehmood Shah (1390-1412AD)

 Last Ruler of Tughlaq Dynasty
 Taimur Lang attacked over
Delhi Sultanate in 1398 AD

Sayyid Dynasty (1414-1450AD)

 Khizr Khan (1414-1421AD)-Accepted No Title
(due to fear of Taimur who appointed him as Governor.)
 Accepted small Titles- Rayat-i-Ala or Masnad-i-Aali.
 Muizuddin Mubarak Shah (1421-1434AD) – Estb. “Mubarakbad in Delhi
 Muhammad Shah(1434-1445AD) – gave
“Khan-e-Khanam”title to Bahlol Lodhi
 AlauddinAlam Shah (1445-1450)

Lodhi Dynasty (1451-1526AD)

Bahlol Lodhi (1451-1489AD)
 1st Afghani Sultan in Delhi Sultanate
 Did Demonetisation and Launched
Bahloli Coin.
 He expanded Delhi Sultanate to Gwalior and some Parts of Deccan

Sikander Lodhi (1489-1517AD)

 Title – “Shahi”
 Introduced Land Unit ‘Gaz-e-Sikandari’
 Estblished Agra City in 1504 AD
 Opted Agra as Capital in 1506AD
 His poetry name was“Gulrukhi”.
 Fond of ‘Shehnayi’ musical instrument.
 He was a contemporary of Md. Begarha of Gujrat & Rana
 Sanga of Mewar.
 He abolished the Octroi Duty on Grains.
 He reimposed the Jaziya on Hindus.
 He built Moth ki Masjid in Delhi(Double Dome Structure)

Ibrahim Lodhi (1517-1526)

 Last ruler of Lodhi Dynasty
 1526 AD-FirstBattle of Panipat - Lost from Babur
1556 AD- 2ndBattle of Panipat-Akbar vs Hemu-- Hemu Lost.
1761 AD-3rdBattle of Panipat-Ahmed shah Durrani
(Abdali) vs Maratha Empire. Abdali won this battle.

DELHI SULTANATE
 New musical instruments such as Sarangi and Rabab were introduced during this period.
 Amir Khusrau introduced many new ragas such as Ghora and Sanam
 Amir Khusrau invented Sitar.
 Indian classical work Ragadarpan was translated into Persian during the reign of Firoz Shah
Tughlaq.
 Pir Baba Budhan Shah, a Sufi saint was one of the great musicians of this period.
 "Raja Man Singh Tomar of Gwalior was a great lover of music. He encouraged the composition of a
great musical work called Man Kautuhal.
 MUGHAL EMPIRE
 Babur (1526-1530) Humayun (1530-40/1555-56)

 Akbar (1556-1605) Jahangir(1605-1627)

 Shahjahan(1628-1658) Aurangzeb(1658-1707)

INTRODUCTION
 Babur: founder of the Mughal Empire in India was related to Timur from his father's
side and to Chengiz Khan through his mother.
 Babur succeeded his father as the ruler of Farghana (Uzbekistan), but soon lost his
kingdom.
 Financial difficulties, apprehension of the Uzbek attack on Kabul and invitation of Rana
Sanga to invade India forced Babur to look towards India.
BABUR (1526-1530)
 Birth in Ferghana – Kabul
 Wife-Maham Begum, Aisha Sultan
 1st attack –Bhera
 Autobiography –Baburnama (Turkish)

BATTLES
 PANIPAT – 1526, Defeated Ibrahim Lodhi
 KHANWA– 1527, Defeated Rana Sanga
 CHANDERI - 1528, Defeated Medini Rai
 GHAGRA–1529, Defeated Army of Bengal
and Bihar
 DEATH-1530, Tomb- 1st Agra, then Kabul

 Related to Timur from his father's side & Chengiz through mother.
 Financial difficulties, Apprehension of the Uzbek attack on Kabul and invitation of Rana Sanga to
invade India forced Babar to look towards India.
 Reasons for Babur's victory: Alternatively resting one wing of Army, Services of two ottoman
master gunners - Ustad Ali & Mustafa, Use of Gunpowder, scientific use of cavalry & artillery tactics
- tulughma and the araba, effective use of Cannons.
 Battle of Khanwa (1527):Babur defeated Rana Sangha and assumed the title of Ghazi.
 Battle of Ghagra (1529):Babur defeated Mahmud Lodhi-Bihar Nusrat Shah-Bengal
 He left the title 'Mirza'in Kabul & had assumed the title of 'Padshah' after becoming head of
Timurid Dynasty when Uzbeks attacked on all Timurid Kingdoms.
 Babur introduced Charbagh and symmetrically laid out gardens.
 Babur wrote Tuzuk-i-Baburi (Babarnama) & Masnavi in Turkish.
Significance of Babur's Advent into India:
 Kabul and Gandhar became integral parts of the Mughal Empire.
 Security from External invasions for almost 200 yrs.
 Babur popularised gunpowder, cavalry and artillery in India. (Gunpowder used earlier in
India, but Babur popularised its use).
 Strengthened India's foreign trade.
 Proclaimed himself as Emperor of Hindustan.
 Arrival of Babur into India led to the establishment of the Timurld dynasty in the region.
 Babur introduced a new mode of warfare in India
 Defeating Sangha & Lodi he smashed the balance of power and laid the foundation for all
India empire.
 He had assumed the title of Padshah.
 Babur introduced Charbagh and symmetrically laid out gardens.
 Built mosques at Panipat and Sambhal in Rohilkhand.
 Babur wrote Tuzuk-I-Baburi (Babarnama) & Masnavi.
 Babur was a great scholar in Arabic & Persian languages
 Humayun (1530-40/1555-56)
BATTLES
 Devra-(1531)- Humayun defeated Mahmud Lodi
 Chausa–(1539)- Sher Shah Suri won it.
 Kannauj/Belgram– (1540) - Sher Shah
Suri won it.
 Sirhind– (1555) Defeated Sikander Shah Suri
 His widow Hamida Banu Begum Humayun’s built
Tomb(UNESCO Site)
 Mosques: Jamali mosque and mosque of Isa Khan at Delhi.
 Humayun's sister, Gul Badan Begum, wrote Humayun- Nama.
 The foundation for the Mughal painting was laid by Humayun when he was staying in Persia.
 He brought with him two painters - Mir Sayyid Ali and Abdal Samad to India, who became famous
during Akbar's reign.
 He had to deal with the rapid growth of power of the Afghans and Bahadur shah of Gujarat.
 At the battle of Chausa (1539) & battle of Kanauj (1540), Sher Shah defeated Humayun and forced
him to flee India.

 For sometimes he took shelter at the Iranian king. In 1555, following the breakup of Suri
Empire he recaptured Delhi but died next year.
 Humayun built a new city at Delhi which he named Dinpanah.

His widow Hamida Banu Begum built Humayun's tomb (UNESCO site).
Buildings by Humayun-
 Sher-e-Mandal (Library)
 DeenPanah City on bank of River Yamuna.

Sher-e-Mandal
Sher Shah Suri (1540-45)
 Real Name-Fared Khan
 Title –Sher Shah was accepted by him after
Battle of Chausa
 Introduced Rupaya
1Re= 178 grane Silver
 Malik Mhd. Jaisi wrotePadmavatin same time
 He died in Battle of Kalinjer.
 Tomb of his is situated in Sasaram, Bihar.
Buildings by Shershah :
 Old Fort (Qila-e-Kuhana)
 GT Road – Sadak-e-Azam-Uttarpath
 Founder of Sur dynasty and second Afghan Empire (after Ibrahim Lodhi).

 Purana Qila (Old Fort) and its mosque, Mausoleum at Sasaram were constructed during
this period.
 Malik Muhammad Jayasi wrote the famous Hindi work Padmavat during his reign.
 He continued the central administration developed during the Sultanate period.
 Sher Shah's empire was divided into Sarkars.
 Chief Shiqdar (law and order) & Chief Munsif (judge) were the Incharge of the administration in
each sarkar.
 Each sarkar was divided into several parganas. Shiqdar (military officer), Amin (land revenue),
Fotedar (treasurer), Karkuns (accountants) were in charge of the administration of each pargana.
 Mauza (village)was the lowest level of administration.
 There were also many administrative units called iqtas
 He introduced a schedule of crop rates.
 He Improved land revenue by adopting Zabti-i-Har-Sal (land assessment every year).
 All cultivable lands were classified into three classes. good, middle and bad. The state's share was
one third of the average produce and it was paid in cash or crop. Land was measured using
Sikandari Gaz.
 Introduced Patta (amount each peasant had to pay) and Qabooliyat (deed of agreement).
 Introduced new Silver coins called Dam.
 He built the Shahi (Royal) road from the Indus Valley to the Sonar Valley in Bengal, connecting
Calcutta and Peshawar.
 He also built Sarais (lodging) which also served as post office.
 Every Sarai was under the control of a Shahana (custodian).
 He followed the branding of horses from Alauddin Khalji and maintained his personal royal force
called Khasa Kail.
Important officials
 Diwan-i-Wizarat/Wazir Revenue and Finance.
 Diwan-i-Ariz - in charge of the Army.
 Diwan-i-Risalat-Foreign Minister.
 Diwan-i-Insha-Minister for Communications.
 Barid- Intelligence.
AKBAR (1556-1605)
 Born on 15th Oct 1542 in Amarkot
 Father / Mother –Humayun / Hamida Banu
 Wife –Ruqaiya Begum, Jodha Bai (Heer Kunwari or Harka Bai)
 Official Language of Mughal Empire-Persian
 Official Language of Delhi Sultanate-Turkish
 Abdul Rahim Khan-e-Khana translated Baburnama (Turkish) to Tuzuk-i-Babri (in Persian)
 Autobiography of Akbar in 2 parts-1) Aain-i-Akbari2)Akbarnama
 Tomb of Akbar – in Sikandra, (UP)-built by Jahangir in 1605-1613
 MANSAB SYSTEM was introduced by (TODAR MAL) : MIN SALARY=10 ; MAX SALARY=12000
 Court of Akbar was divided into 2 parts-(1) Diwan-i-Aam(2) Diwan-i-Khas

Battles
1556- 2nd Battle of Panipat - Akbar defeated Hemu(Sur's wazir).
Between 1556-60, Akbar ruled under Bairam Khan's regency. Bairam became the Wakil
of the kingdom with the title of Khan-i-Khanam.
1561-Malwa (Baz Bahadur)
1567-Battle of Thanesar
1569-Siege of Ranthambore and Bundelkhand
1573-Gujarat (Muzzafar Shah)—Akbar built Bulanddarwaza at Fatehpur Sikri to
commemorate his victory.
1575-Battle of Tukaroi
1576-Haldighati (Maharana Pratap)
1586- Kashmir

Treaty
1560-62– Haram Govt by Maham-anga
1562- Treaty of Aamer (King Bharmal)
1563- Abolished Pilgrim Tax
1564- Abolished Jazia Tax
1575- IbadatKhana
1578-IbadatKhana (Parliament of Religion)
1579-Mazharnama (Infallibility Decree was drafted
By sheikh Mubrak & Abul Faizal)
1581- Kabul (Mirza Hakim)
1582-Din-e-Ilahi
1592- Sindh
1599-Ahmed Nagar
1601- Asirgarh
1605- Death
 AKBAR (1556-1605)
 Empire was divided into Subas (provinces), governed by a subadar who carried out both political
and military functions.
 Each Suba had officials: Diwan, Bakshi, Sadr, Qazi etc
 Another division of the empire: Jagir (allotted to nobles & members of royal family), Khalisa (tract
reserved for royal exchequer), Inam (given to religious leaders, half of it was uncultivated).
 Pargana & Sarkar were subdivisions of provinces.
 Fauzdar:Charge of law & order,
 Amalguzar:land assessment and revenue collection. Both were chief officers of Sarkar.
 Battle of Haldighati (1576): Akbar defeated Rana Pratap following most of the Rajput
rulers accepted Akbar's suzerainty.
 The Mughal army was led by Man Singh.
 Akbar defeated Gujarat ruler Muzaffar Shah. To commemorate this victory, he built
Buland Darwaza at Fatehpur Sikri.
 Akbar gradually enlarged the Mughal Empire to include much of the Indian subcontinent.

Land Revenue Administration

 With the help of Raja Todar Mal, Akbar experimented on the land revenue administration; it was
the Zabti or Bandobast system.
 Dahsala System: The revenue was fixed on the average yield of land measured on the basis of
previous ten years. It was an improved version of Zabti.
 Battai/Ghalla-Bakshi system:Produce divided between state & peasants in fixed proportion.
Peasants were given a choice between Battal & Dahsala.
 Categorization of land:Polaj (cultivated every year), Parati (once in two years), Chachar (once in
three or four years) and Banjar (once in five or more years).
 Qanungos were hereditary holders of land and Karoris were officers appointed all over North India.
They had the responsibility of collecting dams (rupees)
 Standard Measurement Unit- ilahi-Gaj Measurement Unit- Bigha, Mahal & Dastur
 Rope used for Land Measurement- Tenab

Mansabdari System
 3 scale gradation of Mansab System:
 Mansabdar (500 zat/below it)
 Amirs or Amir-al-Kabir (between 500-2500zat)
 Amir-i-Umda or Amir-al-Umara(above 2500zat)
 The ranks were divided into two: Zat and Sawar
 Zat denotes the Rank and salary of a person. It indicates the no. of soldiers under the Mansabdar
 Sawar rank indicated the number of Sawars had to be maintained by person. Every Sawar had to maintain at
least two horses.
 The Mansab rank was not hereditary & Mansabdar were paid by assigning jagir.
 Religious Policy
 He advocated the idea of Sulh-i Kul or universal peace, an idea of tolerance which did not discriminate
between the people of different religions.
 Abul Fazl helped Akbar in framing a vision of governance around this idea of Sulh-i-Kul.
 Jharoka Darshan was introduced by Akbar.
 Muhammad Hussain was Akbar's favorite Calligrapher. He was proficient in Nastaliq- the fluid style with long
horizontal strokes. Akbar honored him with Zarin-i-Kalam (golden pen).
 Akbar gave the title of Mian to Tansen (Ramtanu Pandey).
 Introduced gold coins called Ashrafi (mohurs).
 He also began dating his coins as per a new Illahi era, which replaced the earlier Hijri era.
 Akbar introduced the practice of inscribing Persian poetry praising the ruler on coins.
 Mirza Aziz Koka: also known as Kotaltash, was the foster brother of Akbar.
 Faizi:Translated Lilavati into Persian & under his supervision Mahabharata was translated into Persian
language.
 The Razmnama is the Persian translation of the Mahabharata
 Raja Todar Mal: Finance Minister. Akbar bestowed on him the title of Diwan-i-Ashraf
 Abolished jizya, pilgrimage and forcible conversion of prisoners of wars.
 He built ibadat khana (House of Worship) at Fatehpur sikri for religious discussion.
 In 1582, he promulgated a new religion called Din-e-llahi or Divine Faith. It believes in one God. It
contained the good points of all religions. It had only fifteen followers including Birbal. Akbar did
not compel anyone to his new faith.
 Akbar honored him with Zarin-i-Kalam (golden pen).

Art
 Haznama, consisting of 1200 paintings, belonged to his reign.
 Jaswant & Daswan were famous painters in his court.
 Persian poets in his court: Abu Fazl and his brother Abul Faizi, Tarikh Alfi, Utbi and Nazir
 Hindi poets in his court. Tulsidas wrote Ramcharitmanas.
 Akbar commissioned the translation of many Sanskrit works into Persian. A MaktabKhana or translation
bureau was also established at Fatehpur Sikri for this purpose.
 The Akbar period was popularly known as the renaissance of Persian literature.
 Akbar shifted his capital from Agra to Fatehpur Sikri but due to water scarcity he shifted capital to Lahore in
1585 but after the solution of water scarcity he again shifted capital to Agra.
 The Razmnama is the Persian translation of the Mahabharata.

Administration  Empire was divided into subas (provinces), governed by a

subadar who carried out both political and military functions.
 Each suba had officials: diwan, bakshi, sadr, gazi etc.
 Another division of the empire: Jagir (allotted to nobles &
members of royal family), Khalisa (tract reserved for royal
exchequer), Inam (given to religious leaders, half of it was
uncultivated).
Local Govt  Pargana & Sarkar were subdivisions of provinces.
 Fauzdar: Charge of law & order, Amalguzar: land assessment and
revenue collection were chief officers of Sarkar.
 Introduced gold coins called Ashrafi (mohurs).
 He also began dating his coins as per a new Illahi era, which
Coinage replaced the earlier Hijri era.
 Akbar introduced the practice of inscribing Persian poetry
praising the ruler on coins.
 Abul Fazl: wrote Ain-i-Akbari and Akbar Nama.
 Abdul Rahim Khan-I-Khana: Great poet, Translated Baburnama
into Turkish.
 Birbal: a Hindu advisor and main commander (mukhya senapati) of
the army in the court. Akbar gave him the title Raja Birbal.
 Mirza Aziz Koka: also known as Kota ltash, was the foster brother
of Akbar built by Mirza Aziz Koka as a mausoleum for himself, at
the time of Jahangir's reign.
Akbar's  Faizi: Translated Lilavati into Persian & under his supervision
Navratnas Mahabharata was translated into Persian language.
 Raja Man Singh: was a mansabdar.
 Raja Todar Mal: Finance Minister. Akbar bestowed on him the title
of Diwan-i-Ashraf.
 Fakir Aziao-Din: one of the Chief advisors of Akbar.
 Tansen: Musician, Hindu of Gwalior: He served to King
Ramachandra, who gave him the title of Tansen. Akbar gave him
the title of Mian.

 Palace-cum-fort complex at Fatehpur Sikri (City of Victory): Many

buildings in Gujarati and Bengali styles are found in this complex.
The Gujarati style was probably built for his Rajput wives.
 Akbar built Diwan -i-am (hall of public audience), Diwan-i-Khas
(private hall).
 The most magnificent building in it is the Jama Masjid and the
gateway to it called Buland Darwaza or the Lofty Gate, Shaik
Salem chisti dargah.
 Other important buildings at Fatepur Sikri are Jodha Bai's
Architecture palace and Panch Mahal with five storeys.
 During Akbar's reign, Humayun's tomb was built in Delhi and it
had a massive dome of marble. It may be considered the precursor
of the Taj Mahal.
 Akbar's tomb at Sikandra near Agra was completed by
Jahangir.
 He built Agra Fort in red sandstone and also Jahangiri Mahal in
it according to Hindu design.
 NINE JEWELS OF AKBAR’s COURT
 Birbal (Advisor) Tansen(Musician) Todarmal (Finance Minister)

 Maan Singh I (Chief Commander) Abul Fazal (Poet) Abdul Rahim Khan-e-Khana(Poet)

 Faizi(Poet) Fakir Aziao-Din (Religious Minister) Mulla-do-Pyaza(Advisor)

 Buildings built by Akbar
 Agra Fort Fatehpur Sikri Allahabad Fort

 BulandDarwaza Jodhabai Mahal IbadatKhana

Jahangir(1605-1627)
 Childhood Name –Salim (Shekhu Baba)
 Assasination of -Guru Arjan Dev Ji
 WIVES
1. 1585 – Manbai
2. 1587- Jagat Gosai (Jodha Title)
3. 1611- Mehrunnisa(Nur Jahan)
Note: Mehrunisa was the daughter of Mirza Ghiyas
Beg,‘Itimad-ud-Daula’title given to him by Jahangir.
‘Itimad-ud-Daula’ means Pillar of State
Jahangir banned Tobacco.
 British Visited Machilipatnam during his reign, Captain Hawkins and Thomas Roe visited his court.
Thomas Roe got the Farman for setting up an English factory at Surat. Farman was sealed by Shah
Jahan.
 Jahangir erected Zanjir--Adal at Agra fort for the seekers of royal justice:
 Introduction of the Du-Aspah-Sih-Aspah system. It was modified to Mansabdari.
 When Akbar died, Prince Salim succeeded with the title Jahangir (Conqueror of World) in 1605.
 British Visited Machilipatnam during his reign. Captain Hawkins and Thomas Roe visited his court.
Thomas Roe got the Farman for setting up an English factory at Surat. Farman was sealed by Shah
Jahan.
  His wife Nurjahan had influence over the state affairs.
 Jahangir erected Zanjir-i-adal at Agra fort for the seekers of royal justice.
 Autobiography: Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri in Persian.
 Introduction of the du-aspah-sih-aspah system. It was modified to Mansabdari.
Nobles were allowed to maintain a large number of troops without raising their got
ranks.
Art and Architecture
 Started decorating walls with floral designs made of semi-precious stones (Pietra Dura) during his reign.
 Built Moti Masjid at Lahore. Laid Shalimar and Nishant gardens in Kashmir.
 The use of Halo or Divine lights behind the king's head started under him.
 Work by Jahangir
 Painting on full glory.
 Chain of Justice – Title:King of Justice
 1608 – [Link] came to his court
 1615- Sir Thomas Roe came to his court
Auto-Biography :Tuzuk-e-Jahangir (Persian)
Tomb of Jahangir in- Lahore

SHAHJAHAN (1628-1658)
 Childhood Name –Khurram
 Wife –ArjumandBano (Mumtaj Mahal)
 Monuments at its full Glory
 Built a city named as “Shahjahanabad”
 Battle against Portuguese in Bengal
 Aurangzeb arrested him in “Agra Fort”
 Shahjahan Died in 1666
 Arzumand Bano Died in 1631.
 The court, army & household moved from Agra to the newly
Completed imperial capital, Shahjahanabad (on the bank of Yamuna river.)

 Succeeded Jahangir and ascended the throne in 1628.

 Three years after accession, his beloved wife Mumtaj Mahal died in 1631.
 His Deccan policy was more successful. He defeated the forces of Ahmadnagar and
annexed it. Both Bijapur and Golconda signed a treaty with the emperor.
 He defeated the Portuguese in 1632.
 The court, army and household moved from Agra to the newly completed imperial capital,
Shahjahanabad. It was a new addition to the old residential city of Delhi, with the Red
Fort, the Jama Masjid, Chandni Chowk etc.
 During his reign a war of succession among his sons broke out.
 Battle of Dharmat, Battle of Samugarh, Battle of Khajwa, and Battle of Deorai took
place & Finally Aurangzeb emerged victorious.
  Salutation: Under Shah Jahan, it was Chahar Taslim and Zaminbos (kissing the ground).
 His court historian Abdul Hamid Lahori wrote Badshahnama.

 Badshahanama was written by Abdul Hamid

 His son Dara Shikoh translated Bhagavad Gita and Upanishads into Persian language.
 Shah Jahan Nama is written by Inayat Khan.
 He built Sheesh Mahal and Musamman Burj at Agra.
 The Pietra Dura method (Highly Polished Coloured stones) was used on a large scale in the
Taj Mahal by Shah Jahan.

 Lahori who lived in his court.

Architecture developments
 Built Taj Mahal in 1632-33 to perpetuate memories of his wife, Mumtaj Mahal.
 Moti Masjid (entirely of white marble), Sheesh Mahal and Musamman Burj at Agra.
 Red Fort with its Rang Mahal, Diwan-i-Am and Diwan- i-Khas at Delhi.
 Jama Masjid in Delhi (red stone), Shalimar Bagh in Lahore and city of Shahjahanabad.
 The pietra dura method was used on a large scale in the Taj Mahal by Shah Jahan.

MONUMENTS
 Takht-e-Taus- 22nd March 1635 (Was looted byNadir Shah to Turkey)
 Nagina Maszid– 1635 AD
 Taj Mahal – 1631-1653 AD (50000 Workers,
1000 Elephants, took 22 years; Made by
Ustad Ahmed Lahori and Ustad Isha Khan)
 Red Fort-1638 AD
 Jama Maszid- 1644 AD
 Moti Maszid-1648 AD
Aurangzeb also made Moti Maszid but in Lal Qila

AURANGZEB (1658-1707)
Title –ZindaPeer, Shahi Darvesh
Wife- Dilras Banu, Rabia-ul-Daurani
 1658- After Capturing Shahjahan,
coronation ceremony
 1658-59– Battle of Dharmat/Deorai-
Defeated Dara Shikoh
 1659- Coronation Ceremony in Red Fort
after defeating Dara Shikoh
 1659- Abolished Nauroz Festival
 1669- He abolished Jharokha Darshan and terminated all musician
  1670- Abolished Tuladan System
 1679- Re-imposed Jaziya Tax & pilgrim Tax.
 The Masir-I-Alamgiri book written by Mustaid Khan throws light on Aurangzeb's rule.
 He assumed the title Alamgir, World Conqueror. He was also called Zinda Pir.
 He won Bijapur (1686) & Golconda (1687) and extended the Mughal Empire further south
 He faced a tough fight from Shivaji Maharaj-Maratha king who had carved out an independent
state.
 Discontinued Official departments of history.
 He issued Zawabit-i-Alamgiri (decrees of Aurangzeb or Secular Law) and appointed Muhtasibs to
enforce moral codes given under it.
 Drinking was prohibited & cultivation and use of bhang and other drugs were banned.
 He abolished inland transit duties called Pandhari.

 Although he was proficient in playing Veena, Aurangzeb forbade music in the court.
 He discontinued the practice of Jarokha darshan.
 He also discontinued the celebration of Dasara & Navroz and royal astronomers and
astrologers were also dismissed from service.
 Aurangzeb built (Near Red fort, Delhi). Bibi Ka Maqbara (replica of Ta) at Aurangabad,
Moti Masjid
 He executed the ninth Sikh Guru Teg Bahadur.
 It had also resulted in the rebellions of the Jats of Mathura and the Satnamis of Mewar.
 In the Mansabdari System he created an additional rank Mashrut (conditional)
 Miraz Mohammad Qasim wrote Alamgirnama.

 Initially Aurangzeb banned the construction of new Hindu temples and repair of old
temples. Then he began a policy of destroying Hindu temples.
 In 1679, he reimposed Jizya and pilgrim tax.
 He was also not tolerant of other Muslim sects. The celebration of Muharram was
stopped.
 Aurangzeb appointed Rajputs to high positions, and under him the Marathas accounted
for a sizable number within the body of officers.
 He was also not tolerant of other Muslim sects. The celebration of Muharram was stopped
 His religious policy was responsible forturning the Rajputs, the Marathas and Sikhs into the
enemies of the Mughal Empire.
 Therefore, Aurangzeb was held responsiblefor the decline of the Mughal.

First time Jaziya introduced by Mhd. Bin Qasim.

But sometimes in option they don’t give name of
Qasim and then tick Ferozshah Tughlaq
SUCCESSORS OF AURANGZEB
Important Rulers Important Events

Muazzam  He was More tolerant towards Hindu.

(Bahadur Shah I  He never abolished Jizya but didn't collect the tax strictly.
(1707-1712)  He Granted Marathas Sardeshmukhi of Deccan, but failed to grant
Chauth.
 Mughal historians like Khafi khan gave him the title of Shah-i-
Bekhabar.
Jahandar Shah  He Introduced Ijarah (Revenue Farming).
(1712-1713)  He Became emperor with help of Zulfikhar Khan (later became PM).
 He tried to establish friendly relations with Maratha and Rajputs and
hence, abolished Jizya, granted Sardeshmukhi and Chauth of
Deccan to Shahu and accorded title of Mirza Raja Sawai to Jai
Singh of Amber and title of Maharaja to Ajit Singh.

Farrukh Siyar  Puppet of Sayyid Brothers - Abdula Khan & Hussain Ali (known as
(1713-1719) kingmakers).
 Policy of religious tolerance - abolished Jizya & pilgrimage tax.
 He Gave Farman to the British in 1717.
 He was Dethroned by Sayyid Brothers.

Rafi-ud-Daraiat  Ruled for the shortest period of time among the Mughals.
Muhammad Shah  Autonomous states emerged under his reign.
Rangeela  Nizam-ul-Mulk:Deccan.
(1719-1748)  Saadat Khan: Awadh.
 Murshid Quli Khan: Bengal, Bihar and Orissa.
 Nadir Shah invaded India and looted Delhi. He also took away the
famous Kohinoor Diamond.
 Became king with help of Sayyid Brothers later he killed them with
help of Nizam-ul-Mulk.
 Nadir Shah was defeated in the Battle of Karnal.
 Ahmad Shah Abdali also raided Delhi for the first time during his
reign.
Ahmad Shah  Mohd. Shah Rangeela's only son.
(1748-1754)  He was an incompetent ruler. Left the state affairs in the hands of
Udham Bai. She was given the title of Qibla-i-Alam.

Alamgir II  Battle of Plassey (1757) was fought during his reign.

(1754-1759)
 Shah Alam II/  Third Battle of Panipat fought between Marathas and Ahmad Shah
Aligauhar (1759- Abdali during his reign.
1806)  Participated in the Battle of Buxar (1764) along with Mir Qasim and
Shuja-ud-Daula against the British East India Company. He was
defeated and was forced to sign the Treaty of Allahabad (1765)
under which Diwani of Bengal was granted to Company.
 Diwani of Bengal, Bihar and Orissa.
 Became pensioner of the English.

Akbar II(1806-1837)  Gave Ram Mohan Roy the title of Raja.

 Introduced Hindu-Muslim unity festival Phool Walon ki Sair.

Bahadur Shah II  Last Mughal Emperor.

(1837-1857)  Known as an Urdu Poet using Zafar as his pen name.
 Participated in the revolt of 1857 after which he was deported to
Rangoon and died.

Buildings: Moti Maszid (Red Fort) Bibi ka Maqbara/Black Tajmahal/Taj of Deccan

by Azamshah (in Aurangabad) in 1668-69

Tomb- 1707- Aurangzeb Died at Aurangabad

now known as Sambhajinagar

REASONS FOR DECLINE OF THE MUGHALS

 Lack of stability after Aurangzeb.
 Most of the emperors became puppets in the hands of powerful Nobles who often ran
administration on their behalf.
 Weak military and political administration as exposed by Nadir Shah and Ahmad Abdali's
invasion.
 Emergence of autonomous states and hence weakening of central power.
 Orthodox policy of Aurangzeb: His attitude toward Marathas, Rajputs, and Jats made them
his enemy, also his religious policies too alienated the Hindus.
JAGIRDARI SYSTEM
 It is the system of assignment of revenue of a particular territory to the nobles for their
services to the state.
 It was an integral part of the Mansabdari system.
 Zamindars had hereditary rights over the produce of the land and claimed a direct share
in the peasants' produce which varied from 10% to 25% in different parts of the country.
Types of Jagirs

Tankha Jagirs  Given in lieu of salary and were transferable every three to four years.

Mashrut Jagirs  Were given on certain conditions.

Watan Jagirs  Were assigned to zamindar or rajas in their local dominions. Were
hereditary and non transferable.

Altamaha Jagirs  Given to Muslim nobles in their family towns or place of birth.

Important Terms and Meaning

 Diwan-i-Ala/Wazir: Head of revenue department.
 Mir Bakshl: Head of military department.
 Mir saman: in charge of the imperial households.
 Barids: Intelligence officers.
 Wagia Navis - Reporters.
 Qazi: Head of judicial department.
 Sadr-ul-sadr: incharge of charitable & religious endowments.
 Mutasaddi: Governor of port.
 Mugaddam: Head of village.
 Patwari: Accountant officer.
 Tainat-i-Rakab: Reserved force
 Taccavi: loans provided for agriculture expansion.
 Merwars: Postal runners.
 Banik: Local Traders.
 Bitikchis: Clerks.
 Chehra: Descriptive roll of every soldier.
 Ahadis: the "gentlemen troopers," who drew higher pay than ordinary servicemen under
the mansabdari system.
 Khudkasht: Peasants who owned the land they tilled.
 Khasa Kail: Personal royal force maintained by Sher Shah
 Qaboollyat system: deep agreement between the peasant and the government.
 Guerrilla Warfare: Irregular, small scale violent militant groups, operating in a hostile
territory.
  Kharkhanas: These were areas where expensive craft products were produced.
 Dasturs: The schedules containing money

SHAHJI BHONSLE
 He was the descendant of the Sisodias of Mewar who was married to Jlja Bal. She gave
birth to Shivajl in Shiver near Junnar in 1630.
 He served under Malik Ambar (1548-1626) who was earlier a slave and the Abyssinian
minister under Ahmed Shah of Ahmadnagar. After the death of Ambar, Bhonsle played a
vital role in politics.
 Jijabai and her minor son were left under the care of Dadaji Kondadeo who administered
the jagirs of Shahji Bhonsle at Poona.
Additional Information:
 Shahji acted as a kingmaker in Ahmadnagar and defied the Mughals. He yielded the
territories under his dominion by a treaty signed in 1636 and joined services of sultan of
Bijapur, turning his energies towards Karnataka.

SHIVAJI MAHARAJ (1627-1680 AD)

 Born at Shivneri fort.
 Father: Shahaji Bhosle initially served as Nizam ruler of Ahmednagar. Later he joined
Bijapur.
 Mother of Shivaji: Jija Bai
 He inherited the jagir of Poona from his father in 1637.
 At the age of 16 he captured the Torna fort, followed by many more forts.
 He created an independent Maratha kingdom with Raigad as its capital.
 He captured Javali from Chandrarao More in 1656. At the Battle of Pratapgarh (1659) he
killed Afzal Khan (Adil shah's general).
 Battle of Pavankhind (1660): Maratha force led by Baji Prabhu Deshpande held back the
larger enemy to buy time for Shivaji to escape.
 Shivaji was defeated by Shaista Khan (sent by Aurangzeb). Later he made a bold attack
on Shaista Khan's military camp at Poona in 1663 and wounded him.
 Treaty of Purandar (1665)
o Signed between Raja Jai Singh (under Aurangzeb) and Shivaji.
o Shivaji ceded some forts to Mughals & visited Agra to meet Aurangzeb.
 He defeated Mughals in the Battle of Salher (1672). He was crowned & assumed the
title Maharaja Chhatrapati in 1674 at Raigad fort.
 He died in 1680 at the age of 52.
Shivaji's  He divided the territory into three provinces. Provinces were
Administration divided into Prants which were subdivided into Parganas or Tarafs.
 Shivaji had a well organised Army & Navy. The regular army was
called Paga, while the loose auxiliaries called Silahdars & were
supervised by Havildars.
 Salary in cash was paid to the regular soldier, though
sometimes the chiefs received revenue grants (Saranjam).
 He was assisted by a council of ministers called Ashtapradhan
Mandal. Each minister was directly responsible to Shivaji (No
collective responsibility).

Ashtapradhan  Peshwa (Mukhya Pradhan): Finance & general administration. Later

Mandal became prime minister.
 Senapati (Sar-i-Naubat): Military commander.
 Majumdar (Amatya): Accountant General.
 Wagenavis (Mantri): Intelligence, posts and household affairs.
 Sachiv (Surnavis): Correspondence.
 Dabir (Sumant): Foreign minister & Master of ceremonies.
 Nyayadhish: Justice.
 Panditrao (Sadar): High Priest, managing internal religious matters.

Revenne  The revenue system of Shivaji was based on that of Malik Amber
of Ahmednagar.
 Land was measured using a measuring rod called Kathi.
 Discouraged revenue farming,
 Chauth (1/4th of land revenue) paid to Marathas to avoid Maratha
raids.
 Sardeshmukhi was an additional levy of ten percent, that is 1/10 of
standard land revenue on those lands on which the Marathas
claimed hereditary rights.
 Reduced the power of existing Deshmukhs and Kulkarnis.
 Appointed own revenue officer called Karkuns.

SAMBHAJI (1680-1689 AD)

 Sambhaji was the son of Shivaji Maharaj and as per Treaty of Purandar, he was a
Mansabdar of Mughals.
 His rule was largely shaped by the ongoing wars between the Maratha kingdom and
Mughal Empire as well as other neighbouring powers such as Siddis, Mysore and the
Portuguese in Goa.
 In 1687, at the Battle of Wai he defeated Mughal forces.
 In 1689, Sambhaji was captured, tortured and executed by the Mughals.
 He was succeeded by his brother Rajaram I.
 Maratha Confederacy
BAJI RAO I (1720-1740 AD)
 Succeeded Balaji Vishwanath.
 Maratha power reached its zenith under him.
 Was one of the greatest exponents of guerrilla tactics after Shivaji.
 Initiated the system of confederacy. Thus, many families became prominent and
established their authority.
 He captured Salsette and Bassein from the Portuguese in the Battle of Vasai (1733).
He defeated Nizam-ul-Mulk in 1737 & concluded the Treaty of Durai Sarai.
 His several expeditions in the north weakened the Mughal and made Marathas supreme
power in India.
 He said about the Mughal: "Let us strike at the trunk of the withering tree and the
branches will fall off themselves".
 Signed agreement with Ahmad Shah (Mughal emperor) - Peshwas assured to protect
the Mughal from internal and external enemies in return for the Chauth of the north-west
provinces, total revenue of Agra & Ajmer provinces.
 Defeat at the 3rd Battle of Panipat 1761 by Ahmad Shah Abdali checked the expansion
of Marathas and fragmented the empire.
 He and his son Vishwas Rao died in the Panipat battle.
 Successor: Madhav Rao, Narayan Rao, Sawai Madhav Rao and Baji Rao II.

BALAJI BAJI RAO (NANA SAHIB I) (1740-1761 AD)

 Defeated Nawab of Bengal Alivardi Khan in 1751 and 1/3rd of the Indian Subcontinent
came under the Maratha empire.

ANGLO MARATHA WARS

 There were three wars fought between the Maratha Empire and the British East India
Company over territory.
 The Third Anglo-Martha war led to the end of the Maratha Empire. All the Maratha
powers surrendered to the British.
 The Peshwa was eventually captured and placed on a small estate at Bithur, near Kanpur.
 The Maharaja of Satara was restored as the ruler of his territory as a princely state. Most of
his territory was annexed and became part of the Bombay Presidency.
 In 1848, this territory was also annexed under the doctrine of lapse policy of Lord
Dalhousie.

First Anglo-Maratha  Struggle of Power between Sawai Madhav Rao and Raghunath
War Rao was supported by the British and resulted in the First
(1775-1782 AD) Anglo-Maratha War.
 The treaty of Salbai in May, 1782 - British acknowledged
Madhavrao as the Peshwa of the Maratha Empire and ended the
Anglo-Maratha War.
 Treaty of Surat, 1775.
 Treaty of Purandar, 1776.
Second  The second war was caused by the peshwa Baji Rao II defeat
Anglo-Maratha War by the Holkar (one of the leading Maratha clans) and his
(1803-05 AD) acceptance of the subsidiary alliance (Treaty of Bassein) in
1802.
 Unhappy Maratha confederacy challenged the British power but
got defeated.
Third  Distressed By low income Pindaris made up of many castes and
Anglo-Maratha War started plundering neighbouring territories, including those of
(1817-1818 AD) companies.
 Lord Hasting (Governor General) charged Marathas with
giving shelter to the Pindaris and hence fought the war.
 Maratha warlords fought separately instead of forming a
common front and they
 surrendered one bv one

POPULAR MARATHA CHIEFTAINS

Kingdoms Territory
Scindia Gwalior
Holkar Indore
Pawar Dhar
Gaekwad Baroda
Bhosale Nagpur
Peshwa Poona

Bhonsles of  Raghoji Bhonsle (1727-55 AD) was the most important ruler of
Nagpur this clan. He is often credited for extending the Maratha influence
in Bihar and Bengal.

Gaekwads of  The Gaikwad family rose into prominence during the 1720s.
Baroda  They established their capital at Baroda (Vadodara, Gujarat).
 Malhar Rao Holkar established his power at Indore (Madhya
Holkars of Indore Pradesh).
 It was under Malhar Rao reign that Holkar's power reached its
zenith.
 The Sindhias were among the most powerful and influential
families of the Marathas.
Sindhias of  Mahadji Sindhia established his control over the Mughal
Gwalior emperor Shah Alam II in 1784.
 He secured the appointment of the Peshwa as the Emperor's
Deputy Naib-i-Munai on the condition that Mahadji would act on
behalf of the Peshwa.
Arrival of Foreigners in India-
1498 Vasco De Gamma Came 1st time In India at Calicut, Kerela.

1502- (a)2nd visit of Vasco De Gamma to India.

(b) Portuguese set up trading station at Calicut, Cochin & Cannorein 1502.

1600 Britishers came on Red Dragon Ship

IMPORTANT FOREIGN TRAVELLERS/ENVOYS

Important Foreign Travellers/Envoys

Al-Masudi (957 AD) Arab traveller.
 His real name was Abu Rehan Mahmud who came along with
Mahmud of Ghazni and wrote Kitab al Hind and Tahgiq-i-Hind.
 He came to India along with Mahmud of Ghazni. He was the
inter-civilizational connect between India and the rest of the
world because:
Al-Beruni (1024-1030 AD)
 He translated the Greek work of Euclid into Sanskrit.
 He transmitted Aryabattiyam by Aryabhatta to the west.

Firdausi  Persian Poet. known as Homer of the East wrote Shahnama

Ibn Battuta (1333-1347 AD)  He was from Morocco.

Nicold-de-Conti (1420-1421  He was the Venetian traveller who gave an account of

AD) Vijayanagar kingdom.

Abdur Razzaq (1443-1444 AD)  A Persian traveller who stayed in the court of the Zamorin at
Calicut. His account dealt with the Vijayanagar kingdom,
especially of the city.
Domingos Paes (1520-1522  A Portuguese traveller who visited the court of Krishnadeva
AD) Raya of the Vijayanagar kingdom.

Minhaj-us- Siraj Juzjani  He traced his genealogy back to the royal house of Ghazni.

 His account Tarikh-i-Firuz Shahi dealt from the reign of Balban

to the 6th year of the reign of Firuz Shah Tughlaq.
 His other major work, the Fatwa-i- Jahandari, translated as the
Ziauddin Barani
Principles of Government is depicted in the form of a series of
lectures on state- craft delivered by Mahmud of Ghazni
Abdal Malik Isami  His account Futuh-us-Salatin was composed under the
patronage of Bahman Shah (founder of the Bahmani kingdom).

Yahya bin Ahmad Sirhindi  His account Tarikh-i-Mubarak Shahi dealt with the reign of
Firuz Shah Tughlaq (1388-1434 AD).

Ferishta  A Persian historian who wrote Tarikh-i-Ferishta

 The history of Assam is the history of the confluence of the

Tibeto-Burman (Sino-Tibetan), Indo-Aryan, and Austroastatic
cultures, as well as the confluence of people from the east, west
and the north.
 The Ahoms were a Mongoloid tribe from north Burma (present day
Myanmar) who had succeeded in establishing a powerful kingdom
in the 13th century, and had become Hinduised in course of time.
Ahoms Of ASSAM In fact, the name Assam is derived from them.
 They suppressed the old political system of Bhutyans (landlords).
 Ahom state was dependent on forced labour called Paiks.
 Almost all male adult served in the king's army during war.
 Buranjis is the historical chronicle of Ahoms.
 Ahom society was divided into Khel or clan.

 Gond lived in the vast forestland mentioned as concawana.

 Akbarnama mentions the Gond kingdom in Garh Katanga.
Gonds  The kingdom was divided into:
• Garh
• Chaurasi (unit of 84 village below Garh)
• Bahot (division of Chaurasi in 12 villages)
 The famous queen Durgawati belongs to this dynasty.
 Gajapati dynasty was established by Kapllendra Deva in 1435
CE, after the fall of the last eastern Ganga king, Bhanudeva IV.
 Gajapati etymologically means a king with an army of elephants.
Orissa  Narsinghdeo of this dynasty constructed Konark Temple.
 In the middle of the 15th CE there was the rise of Gajapati rulers;
they ruled Orissa until the end of the Lodhi period.
Mewar  Mewar or Udaipur Kingdom was originally called Medhpaat and
over time, the name Medhpath became Mewar. Interestingly, the
rulers of Mewar used the title "Maharana' (Prime Minister or
Custodian) instead of the typical title Maharaja (King).
 Rana Kumbha (1433-1468 AD) was the most famous ruler.
 Rana Kumbha wrote books like Sangeet Priya, Sudha
Prabandh, Rasik Priya, Kam Raja Ratisara etc.
 He erected a Victory Tower (Kirti Stambh) at Chittor, a mark of
victory of his conquests.
 He also consolidated the fortification of Chittor and constructed a
road running through its seven doors.
 He was acclaimed as Sangeet Shiromani and wrote an
outstanding treatise on Indian music titled Sangeet-Raj as well as
 other works like Sangeet Mimansa, Sangeet Ratnakar, and
Suprabhath.

 In Rajatarangini ( history of Kashmir written by Kalhana in the

mid- 12th century) it is stated that the valley of Kashmir was
formerly a lake.
 Zainul Abedeen was the greatest ruler of Kashmir. He was also
known as Bud Shah (the Great Sultan) and as Akbar of Kashmir
who was benevolent, liberal, and an enlightened ruler.
 He contributed to the agricultural development of Kashmir by
constructing dams and canals and initiated the maintenance of the
agricultural records.
Kashmir  He also constructed Zaina Lanka, the artificial island on the
Wullur Lake.
 Many Sankrit works like Rajtarangini, Mahabharat were
translated into Persian under him.
 In 1586 CE, Akbar conquered Kashmir and made it a part of the
Mughal Empire.

 Malik Sarwar laid the foundation of the Shargi dynasty.

 Malik Muhammed jaisi the writer of "Padmavat" was the court
Poet
The Sharagi of  Jaunpur evolved a distinct architecture that is known as the
Jaunpuri Shargi style of architecture. Jaunpur was known as the Shiraz of
India.
 Most notable examples of Sharqi style of architecture in Jaunpur
are the Atala Masjid, the Lal Darwaja Masjid, and the Jama
Masjid.
 The state of Malwa was situated on the Central highland plateau
between the rivers Narmada and Tapi. It commanded the trunk
route between Gujarat and northern India.
 From the beginning, the kingdoms of Gujarat and Malwa were
bitter rivals and were generally found in opposite camps on almost
Malwa
each occasion.
 Dilawar Khan (governor of the Malwa province during the
decline of Delhi Sultanate) threw off his allegiance to Delhi after
the invasion of Timur. He shifted his capital from Dhar to Mandu
  Bengal was a significant regional kingdom under the Palas in the
8th century and the Senas in the 12th century. The long distance,
uncomfortable climate and poor means of communications made it
difficult for the Delhi Sultanate to control this province. Therefore, it
was easy for Bengal to assert its independence.
 Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq partitioned Bengal into three
Bengal independent administrative divisions: Lakhnauti, Satgaon and
Sonargaon.
 In 1342, Ilyas Khan united Bengal and became its ruler under the
title of Shamsuddin Ilyas Khan founding the Ilyas Shah
dynasty.

 Gujarat was one of the richest provinces of the Delhi Sultanate on

account of the excellence of its handicrafts, its flourishing seaports
and the richness of its soil.
 Zafar Khan (1407-1411) was the son of Sadharan who was a
Rajput and later converted to Islam. Zafar Khan proclaimed
himself an independent ruler after Timur's invasion and
Gujarat assumed the title of Muzaffar Shah. He founded the dynasty of
Muzaffarid.
 Ahmad Shah-I and Fateh Khan (Mahmud Begarha) were the
two important rulers of this kingdom.


Vijayanagara Empire
INTRODUCTION
 The Vijayanagar kingdom constituted four dynasties - Sangama (1336-1485 CE), Saluva
(1485-1505 CE), Tuluva (1503-1570 CE) and Aravidu (till the end of the 17th century).
 It was founded in 1336 CE by Harihara and Bukka (with the blessings of Guru
Vidyaranya of the Sangama dynasty who originally served under the Kakatiya rulers of
Warangal.
 Vijayanagara kingdom was a kind of cooperative commonwealth at first.
 Early Vijayanagar rulers were followers of Shaivism. Virupaksha was their family God.
Later they came under the influence of Vaishnavism. However, Siva continued to be
worshioned.
 There was constant conflict between Vijayanagar Empire and Bahamani kingdom over
Raichur doab (fertile region between Krishna and Tungabhadra), Tungabhadra doab
(fertile areas of Krishna-Godavari delta) & Marathwada.
 In the south its main rivals were the Sultans of Madurai.
 During the reign of Rama Raya, the combined forces of Bijapur, Ahmednagar, Golkonda
and Bidar defeated him at the Battle of Talikota in 1565 which marked an end of the
Vijayanagar Empire.
 The last ruler of Vijayanagar was Sri Ranga III.
 The copper-plate inscriptions such as the Srirangam copper-plates of Devaraya II
provide the genealogy and achievements of Vijayanagar rulers.
 Dynasty Information
 Sangama was the first dynasty to rule over the Vijayanagara
empire. The founders of the empire, Harihar I and Bukka Raya
sangama belonged to this dynasty. It ruled from 1336 AD to 1485 AD.
(1336-1485 AD)  Brothers founded a new city of Vidyanagar or Vijayanagara
(meaning city of victory) on the south bank of river Tungabhadra.

 The Saluva dynasty, founded by Narasimha, succeeded the

Saluva Sangama dynasty as the second dynasty of the empire. It ruled
(1485-1505 AD) from 1485 to 1505 AD. They ruled over almost the whole of South
India.
Tuluva  Tuluva, founded by Vir Narsimha, was the third dynasty, which
(1505-1570 AD) ruled Vijayanagar Empire. It ruled from the Tuluva dynasty.
 The most famous king of Vijayanagar Empire, Krishna Deva Raya
belonged to this dynasty.
Aravidu  Aravidu, founded by Tirumala, was the fourth and last Hindu
(1570-1650 AD) dynasty to rule Vijayanagar kingdom in South India.

IMPORTANT RULERS OF VIJAYANAGARA EMPIRE

 The most famous king from the Sangama dynasty.

Proudhadevaraya  Titles: 'Elephant Hunter', 'Dakshinapathada Chakravarthi.
(Devaraya-II)  Extended Vijayanagara from Gulbarga to Sri Lanka &
Telangana to Kerala.
 His commander: Lakkanna Dandesha.

 The most famous king was the Vijayanagara Empire (from

Tuluva dynasty).
 He is also known as Andhra Bhoja.
 Waged war against Bahamani kingdom & kept them under check.
 Liberated Mohammad Shah & assumed the title "Yavanapriya
Prathishta Pranacharya".
 The author of Manu Charitramu was the greatest among
Ashtadiggajas.
 His empire extended from the river Krishna in the north to River
Cauvery in the south; the Arabian Sea in the west to Bay of Bengal
in the east.
Krishna Devaraya  He had a cordial relationship with Portuguese.
(1509-1529 AD)  He authored Amuktamalyada (Telugu work on polity) and
Jambavati Kalyanam (Sanskrit drama).
 Krishna Deva Raya was a great builder as well. He built the
Hazara Rama temple and the Vittalaswami temple.
 Patronised Telugu, Kannada, Sanskrit, and Tamil scholars & poets.
 He had 8 eminent scholars Ashtadiggajas at his royal court.
 He built a new city called Nagalapuram in memory of his mother
Nagaladevi.
  A group of eight scholars adorned Krishnadevaraya's court and
they were:
o Allasani Peddanna - the author of Manucharitam, he
was also known as Andhra Kavita Pitamaha.
o Nandi Thimmana - the author of Parijatapaharanam.
Ashtadiggajas of
o Madayyagari Mallana.
Krishna o Dhuriati.
Devaraya o Ayyalaraju Ramabhadrudu.
o Pingali Surana.
o Ramaraja Bhushana.
o Tenali Ramakrishna.

ASPECTS OF THE VIJAYANAGARA EMPIRE

 The king enjoyed absolute authority in executive, judicial &

legislative matters.
 The succession to the throne was hereditary.
 Administrative units divided: Mandalams, Nadus, Sthalas and finally
into Gramas.
 Important characteristics of the Vijayanagar administration was
the amara- nayaka system.
 Nayankara System: The top-grade officers of the army were known
as Nayaks/Poligars.
 They were granted land in lieu of their services which were called
Administration Amaram.
 Mandaleshwar or Nayaka was the governor of Mandalam.
 He had considerable autonomy- had the right to issue coins of
small denominations and right to impose new tax or remit old
ones.
 Sources of income: land revenue, tributes, and gifts from vassals
and feudal chiefs, customs at ports, & taxes on various
professions.
 Land revenue was fixed at generally one sixth of the produce.
 'Manyams' were tax free lands.
 A body of 12 functionaries known as Ayangars, conducted village
affairs.
 The Sangama rulers were chiefly Saivaites and Virupaksha was
their family deity.
Socio-Economic  Allasani Peddana, in his Manucharitam, mentions the four castes
Conditions that existed in the Vijayanagar society: Viprulu or Brahmins, Rajulu
or Rachavaru Matikaratalu or Vaishyas, Nalavajativaru or Sudras
 Women occupied a high position and took an active part in the
political, social and literary life of the empire.
 The practice of dancing girls attached to temples was also in vogue.
 Women even went to battles.
 It was the only empire in Medieval India which employed women in
state services.
 The plight of the widow was pitiable, but they could remarry.
 Position of  The prevalence of Sati or Sahagamana in the Vijayanagar Empire is
Women proved from both inscriptions and foreign accounts of the period.
 Untouchability existed and various classes such as Kambalattars,
dombaris, jogis and maravars were treated as untouchables.
 Slavery was quite common and Nicolo de Conti says that those
who failed to repay debts became the property of the creditor.
Cultural  Chief characteristics of the Vijayanagara architecture were the
Contributions construction of tall Raya Gopurams or gateways and the
Kalyanamandapam with carved pillars in the temple premises.
 The sculptures on the pillars were carved with distinctive
features.
 The horse was the most common animal found in these pillars.
 Most important temples built: Vittalaswamy and Hazara
Ramaswamy temples, the Stone chariot at Hampi.
 The Varadharaja and Ekambaranatha temples at Kanchipuram.
 Different languages such as Sanskrit, Telugu, Kannada and Tamil
flourished in the regions.
Army and Military  The conflict between Vijayanagar Empire and the Bahmani
Organisation kingdom lasted for many years.
 Vijayanagar army was very well-organised and efficient. It consisted
of the cavalry, infantry, artillery, and elephants.
 Port of Malabar was the centre of this trade and trade in other luxury
commodities
 Vijayanagar state also was familiar with the use of firearms and
employed Turkish and Portuguese experts to train the soldiers in
the latest weapons of warfare.
.
THE NAYAK SYSTEM

 The term Nayak was used in many Telugu and Kannada spoken areas from the13th
century in context to a military leader: This system was similar to the iqta system followed
in Delhi Sultanate. Inscriptions refer to this system as nayakkattanam in Tamil,
nayaktanam in Kannada and nayankaramu in Telugu. This system also finds its mention
in the accounts of Nuniz and Paes and in Telugu work, Rayavachakamu.
 Most of these Nayaks were the Kannadiga and Telugu warriors. These chiefs controlled
production within their territories by creating pettai (commercial centres). The most
famous Nayak during Krishnadevaraya was Chellapa.
 Nayaks were also known as Palaiyagar or Palegar who had to maintain a fixed number
of soldiers, horses and elephants at the service of the state.
 After the Battle of Talikota, these Nayak chiefs became more or less independent of
Vijayanagar kingdom. The 17th century was marked as a century of these bigger Nayak
kingdoms like: Madurai, Ikkeri and Tanjore.
LAND REVENUE ADMINISTRATION
 The land revenue was the main source of income for the government. There was a
separate land revenue department. To assess revenue, the entire land was classified into
four parts like wet land, dry land, orchards and woods.
 The government also levied other taxes like the grazing tax, the marriage tax, the
customs duty, tax on gardening and taxes on manufacture of various articles and
even military contributions in times of distress.
 The rate of taxation was rather high, but the taxes were never extorted. The mode of
payment of these taxes was both in cash and kind.

Tax
 The king of Vijaynagar charged a little more than one sixth of the revenue.
 According to an inscription, various rates of taxes were as follows:
1. 1/3rd of rice (pluruvai) during winter.
2. 1/4th of sesame, ragi and horsegram.
3. 1/6th of millet and other crops.

FOREIGN TRAVELLER DURING VIJAYANAGARA EMPIRE

Ruler Foreign Traveller

Harihara-I Abu Abdullah/Ibn Battuta (Morocco)
Nicolò de Conti (Italy)
Devaraya-II Abdur Razzaq (Persia)
Virupaksha Raya-II Athanasius Nikitin (Russia)
Ludovico de Varthema (Italy)
Krishna Deva Raya Duarte Barbosa (Portugal)
Dominigo Paes (Portugal)
Achvuta Deva Kava Fernao Nuniz (Portugal)
Rudramma Devi Marco Polo (Italy)

Bahmani Kingdom
INTRODUCTION
 The Bahmani Sultanate was a Persianised Muslim state of the Deccan in South India
and one of the major medieval Indian kingdoms.
 Though the region was ruled by a Muslim it was not an exclusive 'Muslim State'. Hindus
were also part of it as well.
 Nobles of the Bahmani kingdom were categorised in two categories: Afaquis and
Deccanis.
 Deccans were nobles of native origin while Afaquis had foreign origin.
 It was founded by Alauddin Hasan Bahman Shah (In 1347), also known as Hasan
Gangu, revolting against the Delhi Sultanate of Muhammad bin Tughlaq.
 There was total 14 Bahaman Sultans.
  After reshuffling of capital from Daulatabad to Delhi by Muhammad bin Tughlag, Zafar
Khan conquered Daulatabad in 1345 from where he shifted his capital to Gulbarga in
1347 for security reasons. He was also known as Ala-ud-din Bahman Shah who became
the founder of this kingdom, which extended over the entire Deccan.
 The history of Bahmani kingdom is divided into two parts:
o 1st phase: Gulbarga as the capital (1347-1422)
o 2nd phase: Bidar as the capital (1422-1538 AD)
 The Bahamani kingdom acted as a cultural link between the South & the North.
 Kingdom stretched from north to south from the Wainganga river to Krishna and east to
west from Bhongir to Daulatbad.
 Bahmani Empire was always at war with Vijayanagara Empire for control over Deccan.
 Firoz Shah invaded Vijayanagar and defeated Krishna Deva Raya I.

Additional Information:
 Three distinct and resourceful areas were the reasons for a continuous conflict
between the Vijyanagara rulers and Bahmani Sultans :
• The Tungabhadra Doab.
• The Krishna Godavari Delta.
• The Marathwada country.

 Ahmad Shah Wali later shifted Capital from Gulbarga to Bidar.

 Muhammad Shah III became the sultan at the age of 9 after the death of his brother Nizam
Shah and Mahmud Gawan served as Prime Minister.
 Bahmani Empire reached its zenith during the time of Mahmud Gawan.
 Kalimullah was the last king of the Bahmani dynasty.

Administration under Mohammed I

He appointed a council of 8 ministers:
 Vakil-us-Saltana/lieutenant of the kingdom: The immediate subordinate of the sovereign.
 Waziri-Kull: Supervisor of work of all ministers.
 Amir-i-Jumla: Minister of finance.
 Wazir-i-Ashraf: Minister of foreign affairs and master of ceremonies.
 Nazir: Assistant minister of finance.
 Peshwa: Associated with the lieutenant of the kingdom.
 Kotwal: Chief of police and city magistrate of the capital.
 Sadr-i-iahan: Chief justice and minister of religious affairs and endowments.
Mahmud Gawan  He was Iranian by birth and was a trader. He was granted
the title of Malik-ul-Tujjar (Chiefs of Merchants) by
Humayun Shah.
 For almost 20 years he dominated the state affairs of the
Bahmani. Under his leadership Bahamani kingdom saw
resurgence.
 He divided the kingdom into eight provinces called Tarafs.
Each Tara was governed by the Tarafdar.
 The salary was paid in cash or by assigning a Jagir.
 A tract of land called Khalisa was set apart for expenses of
the Sultan.
 Introduced use of Gunpowder in war against Vijayanagara
Kings.
 He built a college at Bidar in Persian Style architecture.
 Executed in 1481 by Muhammad Shah, Deccan nobles
plotted against him.

 After Gawan's Execution, Bahmani kingdom disintegrated into Flve KIngdoms (Known
as Deccan Sultanates):
Nizam Shahis of  Founder: Ahmad Nizam Shah.
Ahmednagar  It was conquered & annexed by Shah Jahan in 1633.
(1490-1633 AD)
Adil Shahis of Bijapur  Founder: Yusuf Adil Shah.
(1490-1686 AD)  Gol Gumbaz was built by Muhammad Adil Shah.
 Bijapur was conquered & annexed by Aurangzeb in 1687.
 Founder: Muhammad Quli Qutub shah.
 He built the famous Golconda fort and made it capital.
Qutub Shahis of Golconda  Muhammad Quli Qutub Shah founded the city
(1518-1687 AD) Hyderabad (originally known as
 Bhagyanagar) and also built Charminar.
 It was annexed by Aurangzeb in 1687.
Imad Shahis of Berar  Founder: Fatullah khan Imad ul Mulk.
(1490-1574 AD)  Capital: Daulatabad.
 Annexed by rulers of Ahmednagar.
Barid Shahis of Bidar  Founder: Ali Barid.
(1528-1619 AD)  Annexed by Bijapur rulers.

Glossary
Turquoise: It is a semi-precious stone (sky blue in colour). Turquoise throne is one of
the bejewelled royal seats of Persian kings described in Firdausi's ShahNama.
Pradhani (Vijayanagar): Prime Minister.
Padikaval: Selling of Policing rights.
Talara: Watchman.
Wazir-i-kul (Bahmani): Prime Minister.
Wazir Ashraf: Who controlled foreign affairs and royal court.
 KEY TERMS AND THEIR MEANINGS
Pradhani Prime minister
Raysani Recorded oral order of king
Karnikam Accountant
Kadamal, Irai, Vrai Kinds of taxes
Athavan Land revenue department

Sufi Movement
INTRODUCTION
 In the beginning of 12th century AD, some religious people in Persia turned to asceticism
due to the increasing materialism of the Caliphate. They came to be called the 'Sufis'.
 In India, Sufi movement began in 1300 A.D & came to South India in the 15th century.
 Sufism is the mystical arm of Islam. Sufis represent the inner side of the Islam creed
(Tasawwuf).
 Sufism (tasawwuf) is the name given to mysticism in Islam.
 Sufi means wool: People who wear long woolen clothes are called sufis.
 It was a liberal reform movement within [Link] stressed the elements of love and
devotion as an effective means of the realisation of God.
 It is based on the Pir-Murid (Teacher-student) relationship.
 Sufism sprang from the doctrine of Wahdat-ul-wajood (unity of being) propounded by Ibn-
ul-Arabi (1165-1240 AD).
 Early Sufi saints - Rabia, Mansur bin hallal.
 Sufi orders are broadly divided in two:
 Ba-sara - Those followed Islamic law.
 Be-shara- who did follow Islamic law.
 In Sufism, self-discipline was considered an essential condition to gain knowledge of God.
While orthodox Muslims emphasise external conduct, the Sufis lay stress on inner purity.
 Sufism entered India between 11th and 12th centuries.
Al-Hujwari was first Sufis who settled in India and died in 1089 AD who is popularly
known as Data Ganj
 Naksh (Distributor of unlimited treasure).
 Multan and Punjab were the early centres and later on, it spread to Kashmir, Bihar,
Bengal and the Deccan.
ESSENTIAL CHARACTERISTICS

 Fana: Spiritual merger of devotee with Allah.

 Insan-e-kamil: Perfect human with all good virtues.
 Zikr-tauba: remembrance of god all the time(zikr).
 Wahdatul-wajood: one god for the entire universe; unity of god and being.
 Sama: spiritual dance and music to promote their concepts, though music is un-Islamic.
STAGES OF SUFISM
Stage Period Character
1st Stage: Khanqa 10th century Also called the age of Golden Mysticism
When Sufism was being institutionalised and
2nd Stage: Tariga 11-14th century traditions and symbols started being attached to
it.
3rd Stage: Tarifa 15th century The stage when Sufism became a popular
onwards movement.

FEATURES OF SUFISM
 The Sufis rejected the elaborate rituals and codes of behaviour demanded by Muslim
religious scholars.
 They believed that God is Mashuq and Sufis are the Ashiqs.
 Sufism was divided into 12 orders (Silsila) and each under a mystic Sufi saint of
which four most popular ones were Chistis, Suhrawardis, Qadiriyahs and
Naqshbandis.
 Silsila is the continuous link between Murshid (teacher) and Murid (student). They lived in
Khanqah-hospice of worship.
 Names of Silsila were based on the names of founding figures E.g. Qadri Silsila based
on the name of Shaikh Abdul Qadri & Place of origin E.g. Chishti (place in Afghanistan).
 Sufism took roots in both rural and urban areas and exercised a deep social, political and
cultural influence on the masses.
 Sufism believes that devotion is more important than fast (Roza) or prayer (Namaz).
 Sufism discards the caste system.
 Sufism has adapted extensively from the Vedanta school of the Hindu philosophy.
 The cardinal doctrines of Sufism include: Complete surrender to the will of God;
Annihilation of the self; Becoming a perfect person.
 These three cardinal principles altogether make the Doctrine of Fana which means
annihilation of human attributes through Union with God.
 In Sufism, a perfect being is also called a Wali (saint), a word that literally means sincere
friend.
SUFISM AND MUSIC
 Sufism encourages music as a way of deepening one's relation with God, remembering
God by zikr (reciting name) sama ( performance of mystical music).
 Sufis too composed poems and a rich literature in prose, including anecdotes and fables,
The most notable writer of this period was Amir Khusrau the follower of Nizamuddin
Auliya.
 Sufi saints are credited with the invention of sitar and tabla.
 It contributed to the evolution of classical music.
 Khayal style owes a lot to sufism.
 Amir Khusro was a disciple of Nizamuddin Auliya.
He gives a unique form to sama.
 Khusrau is sometimes referred to as the Parrot of India. His songs are sung in several
dargahs across the country. Khusrau is regarded as the Father of Qawwali.
SILSILAS/ORDERS OF SUFIS
 Founder: Khwaja Abdul Chisti.
 Originated in Persia and Central Asia.
 Moinuddin Chishti introduced the Chisti order in India.
 Baba Farid (Fariddudin Ganjshakar) was a disciple of Moinuddin & his
Chisti poems included in
Guru Granth Sahib.
 Nizamuddin Auliya was called sidh/perfect due to yogi breathing
exercises.
 Sama was mostly associated with Chisti.
 Belong to Ba-sharia.
 Founder: Shaikh Shihabuddin Suhrawardi.
 Main centre was Multan.
 Saints of this order were also rich and held important government positions.
Suhrawardi  Associated with Delhi Sultanate.
 A famous saint is Bahauddin Zakaria.
 Belong to Ba-sharia.
 Founder: Baha-ud-Din Naqshband Bukhari
Nakshabandi  Khwaja pir mohammad introduced Nakshabadi order in India during
Akbar reign.
 Orthodox Sect.
Qadri Silsilah  The Qadri/Qadiriyya silsilah was famous in Punjab and was founded by
Shaikh Abdul Qadir Jilani of Baghdad.
South India
The cholas: (850-1279 AD):
 Known as Imperial Cholas of Tanjore.
 The founder of Chola dynasty was Vijayalaya who was at first a feudatory of Pallavas.
 The greatest kings of Cholas were Rajaraja & his son
Rajendra I.
 The use of Agrahatta (Persian wheel) also facilitated the already established smooth irrigation
networks of tanks, canals, wells and sluices.

Important rulers:

Rajaraja-l  Greatest Chola Ruler, who helped raise chola empire as largest dominion
(985- 1014 AD) in South India.
 He took titles - Mummidi Chola, Jayankonda & Shivpadshekhara.
 He defeated Chera, Pandya & conquered Maldives Islands.
 Naval expedition against the Sailendra Empire (Malaya Peninsula).
 Expanded trade with china.
 In 1010 CE, constructed the Rajarajeshwara or Brihadeshwara temple,
dedicated to shiva at Thanjavur.
 Rajarajeshwara or Brihadeshwara temple is a part of "Greatest Living
Chola Temples", & entered the UNESCO World Heritage site list in 1987.
This temple is the finest example of Dravidian architecture.
  Developed a revenue system where land was surveyed and then revenue
was assessed. So he was referred to as Ulakalanada Peruma (the great
who measured the earth).

Raiendra-I  Son of Rajaraja I, defeated & conquered whole Sri Lanka.

(1014- 1044 AD)  Made the Chola navy the strongest in the area and 'Bay of Bengal' was
converted into a 'Chola Lake'.
 He assumed the title of "Gangaikondachola" & built a city-
"Gangaikondacholapuram".
 He was a great patron of learning and known as Pandita - chola.
 Encouraged local self-government.
 Rajendra III was the last king. Later ,Pandyas conquered the Chola empire.
Political System  Empire was founded by Vijayalaya, feudatory of Pallavas.
 He captured Tanjore in 850 A.D.
 Rajaraja I (985-1014 A.D)
 Formative period of "chola imperialism"
 He destroyed the Chera navy at Trivandrum.
 He conquered Maldives Islands.
 Bought South- East Asia under his control.
 He overran Vengi of Andhra Pradesh.
 Rajendra I (1014-1044 A.D).
 He followed the annexation policy of his father.
 He defeated pala ruler Mahipala in 1022 A.D and assumed title
Gangaikonda chola
 Build a city near the mouth of Kaveri- Gangaikondachola.
 He sent two diplomatic missions to China for political as well as commercial
purposes.
 Rajadhi Raja I (1044-1052 A.D):
 He earned the title "Jayamkonda chola".
 He captured Kalyani, western chalukya capital and took the title
Kalyanpur Makonda.
Administration  King was the central power and assisted by a council of ministers.
 The Chola empire had a strong standing army.
 The empire was divided into mandalams (provinces), valanadu (districts).
 The officials were generally given revenue bearing lands.
 Cholas were known for village administration (Uttaramerur inscriptions of
Paranthaka provides for this.
 Two assemblies - Ur, Sabha or Mahasabha.
 Ur was a general assembly of the village.
 Mahasabha was a gathering of adult men in Brahmana villages
(agraharas)
  Election system was present.

Economy  Built a network of roads.

 Expansions in agrarian economy, use of Agrahatta (Persian wheel) for smooth
irrigation.
 Tanks for irrigation purposes were built.
 Elaborate survey of land is done to assess the govt. share.
 Revenue sources: land tax, tolls on trade, taxes, professions etc, plunder.
Society  It was organised based on the Varnasrama model.
 Sub castes were proliferated - Kaikalla, Chetti, Cheek etc.
 Division of sub castes into Valangai and Idangai.
 The Devadasi system was prevalent in the society.
 Emergence of trading caste: Garveras (Northern merchants migrated
southwards), Gaudas/Gavundas (originally cultivators).
Religion  Thiruvalangadu copper plates. Karanthai plates and Anbil plates describe
religious conditions of cholas.
 Chola kings were Shaivites.
 Paranthaka I Chola covered shiva temple with gold at Chidambaram.
 Rajendra I constructed shiva temple in Ceylon.
 They were tolerant towards other religions.
 Vaishnavism also flourished during the period.
 Saint Ramanujan was a contemporary of chola kings.
 Temples acted as important centres of cultural life.
 Build great capitals: Tanjore, Gangaikondacholapuram, Kanchi etc.
 Large households and large palaces.
 Chola kings built lofty temples & inscribed long inscriptions on the wall
narrating their achievements. They also depict the socio-economic conditions of
that period.
 The Dravidian type of temple architecture reached its climax under the
Cholas.
 Dravidian temple architecture:
• Garbhagriha - multiple stories in the chief-deity room.
Art and o These stories varied from 5 to 7 and are known as Vimana.
Architecture o Mandapa with a pillared hall.
o Pillars are elaborately curved.
o Courtyards surrounding the structure.
o Gopurams- lofty gateways
 Examples: Kailasanath Temple of Kanchipuram was built in the 8th century.
Brihadeshwara temple (Tanjore), Airavatesvara temple & temple at
Gangaikondacholapuram, Nataraja temple at Chidambaram are famous.
 Brihadeshwara temple at Tanjore was built by Rajaraja which was dedicated
to Shiva.
 The Chola period is also remarkable for its sculptures and bronzes. The best
example of this can be seen in Dancing figure of Nataraja.
 Bharatanatyam & kathakali are two types of dances performed during the
Chola period.
Literature  Sivakasintamani written by Thiruthakkadevar and Kundalakesi belongs to
the 10th century.
 The Ramayana composed by Kamban and the Periyapuranam or
Thiruthondar Puranam by Sekkilar are the two master-pieces of this age.
 The Telugu version of Mahabharata was started by Nanniah & completed
by Tikkana.
 Jayankondar's Kalingattupparani describes the Kalinga war fought by
Kulottunga I.
 Moovarula written by Ottakuthar depicts the life of three Chola kings.
 Nalavenba was written by Pugalendi.
 The works on Tamil grammar like Kalladam by Kalladanar, Yapperungalam
by Amirthasagarar, a Jain, Nannul by Pavanandhi and Virasoliyam by
Buddhamitra were written during Chola rule.
 Pampa, Ponna, & Ranna are considered 3 gems of Kannada literature lived
in the 10th century.
Important Terms  Kaikkolaperumpadai - Royal troops.
& Meaning  Velaikkarar - Personal troops to defend kings.
 Kadagram - military cantonment.
 Puravuvanithinaikkalam - Revenue dept.
 Peruvazhis - Trunk roads.

Administration  Hereditary Monarchical form of government.

 Used titles Samasthabhuvanasraya and Vijayaditya.
 Their insignia was a boar signifying varahavatara.
 Limited number of council of ministers to advise the King.
 Ministers post was hereditary.
 Administration had feudal elements.
 Territory was divided into Rashtra, Vtshaya, Nadu, Kampana and Thana.
 Vishayapatis, Gramakutakas, Ayuktakas and Niyakutakas were the
officials.
Economy  Agriculture and trade & commerce were backbones of the economy.
  State provided irrigational facilities.
 Cultivated land was categorised into Dry land, wet land and Garden land.
 Private ownership along with joint ownership of land existed.
 Guilds were active and had autonomy.
Society  Social life was based on the Varnasrama model.
 Caste was universal and hereditary.
 The Relationship between caste and occupation was less rigid.
 Women of higher status played a major role in social and administrative life.
 Akkamahadevi, a chalukyan princess also led the armies in battle.
Religion  Shaivism and Vaishnavism were patronised.
 Shakti was worshipped as Kollapura Mahalakshmi.
 Karthikeya was worshipped - Kudidatani in Bellary.
 Basavesvara's Veerashaivism was also very popular.
 Jainism was also practised and received royal patronage too.
Art and  Their temple architecture is known as "Karnata Dravida".
Architecture  It is an extension of Badami chalukyan style
 Temples of Ittagi were the finest examples of Art and architecture.
 Ornamentation on the outer walls of the shrine and presence of figure
sculptures of heroes and loving couples (Mithuna) were unique features
of Kalyani Chalukyas.

Bhakti Movement
INTRODUCTION
 It was a religious reform movement during medieval times which emphasised single-
minded intense devotion to God.
 Bhakti movement was based on the doctrine that the relationship between god and
man is through love and worship rather than through performing any ritual or religious
ceremonies.
 The origin of Bhakti is traced in Vedas, but its real development took place after the 7th
century.
 It was initiated by Shaiva Nayanars & Vaishnavite Alwars in south India, later spread to all
regions.
 Emotional Side of Vaishnavism represented by:
Alvars through collective songs - Prabhandam.
 Intellectual side of Vaishnavism represented by
 Acharyas.
Navanars Alvars
 Devotees of Shiva.  Devotees of Vishnu.
 Thirumarai - Compilation of  Divya Prabandha- Compilation of the
hymns of Nayanana by the hymns of the Alvars saints - poets.
highest priest of Raja Raja Chola  Important saints: Andal (only female Alwar
I, Nambiyandar Nambi. saint who is referred to as the 'Meera of the
 The details of the lives and of the South'), Thirumazhisai Alvar, Thiruppaan
saints are described in the work Alvar, Nammalwar, Kulasekara.
"Tevaram' which is also called the
Dravida Veda.
  Important Saints: Tiru Neelakanta,
Meiporul, Viral Minda, Amaraneedi,
Karaikkal Ammaiyar (woman).

 The Bhakti saints were divided into two schools depending on the way they imagined God.
Nirgun Sagun
 Believe invisible formless god,  Believe God with form & attributes.
without attributes.  Saguna bhakti's poetry was Prema-shrayi, or
 Nirguna bhakta's poetry was with roots in love.
Jnana-shrayi or had • roots in  Saguna Saints: Tulsidas, Surdas, Meerabai
knowledge.
 Nirgun Saints: Guru Nanak,
Ravidas, Kabir
FEATURES OF BHAKTI MOVEMENT
 Unity of God or one God though known by different names.
 Condemnation of rituals, ceremonies and blind faith.
 Rejection of idol worship.
 Surrender of oneself to God.
 Emphasised both Nirguna and Saguna bhakti.
 Salvation through Bhakti.
 Open-mindedness about religious matters.
 Rejected castes distinctions & believed in equality of all humans.
 Rebelled against the upper caste's domination and the Sanskrit language.
 Use of local or regional languages for Preaching.
 Creation of literature in the local language.

CAUSES OF THE EMERGENCE OF BHAKTI MOVEMENT

 Influence of Vaishnavism
 Evil practices of the Hindus
 Fear of spread of Islam
 Influence of Sufi sects
 Emergence of great reformers.

VEDANTA SAINTS AND THEIR CONTRIBUTION

Vedanta Saints Contribution
 Birth- Kerala, Death- Uttarakhand (Kedarnath).
 Guru - Govinda Bhagavath pada.
 Integrated the essence of Buddhism in Hindu thought and
interpreted the ancient Vedic religion.
Shankaracharya  Consolidated the doctrine of Advaita Vedant (Non-Dualism)
God & created world is one and individual soul is not
(788 - 820 AD)
different from Brahman.
 Organiser of the Dashanami monastic order and unified the
Shanmata tradition of worship
  Birth - Tamilandu.
 Guru - yadav preksha.
Ramanujarcharya  Propagator of Vishishtadvaita Vedanta or qualified
(1017-1137 AD) monism - There exists a plurality and distinction between
Atman (soul) & Brahman (metaphysical, ultimate reality).
 Exponents of the Sri Vaishnavism tradition within Hinduism.
 Literary works: Vedartha Sangraham, Sri Bhashyam, Gita
Bhashyam.

 He was the contemporary of Ramanuja.

Nimbarka  He propounded the philosophy of bheda-abheda meaning
God, the soul and the world were identical yet distinct.

 He was a critic of Adi Shankara's Advaita Vedanta and

Ramanuja's Vishishtadvaita Vedanta teachings.
Madhvacharya  He preached Dvaita or dualism, where divinity was separate
(1238-1319 from the human conscience soul.
 Liberation: only through the grace of God.
 Book: Anuvyakhyana.
 Criticised the ritual and other aspects of conventional religion
and the social order, using simple, logical arguments.
 They advocated renunciation of the world.
Nathpanthis,  To them, the path to salvation lay in meditation on the
Siddhas, and formless god.
 To achieve this they advocated intense training of the mind
Yogis
and body through practices like yoga asanas, breathing
exercises and meditation.
 These groups became particularly popular among low
castes.

BHAKTI MOVEMENT SAINTS AND THEIR CONTRIBUTIONS

Saints Contribution
 He was a follower of Ramanuja.
 Founder of Sant-Parampara (literally, the tradition of bhakti
saints) in north India.
 Substitute the worship of Rama in place of Krishna.
 He has 12 disciples - Avadhutas.
 Disciple(s): Kabir (a muslim weaver), Ravidas (cobbler),
Ramanada
Bhagat Pipa, Sukhanand, sena (barber) & sudhana.
(14-15th century)
 Literary works: Gyan-lila and Yog-chintamani (Hindi),
Vaisnava Mata Bhajan Bhaskara and Ramarcanapaddhati
(Sanskrit).
 His verse is mentioned in Guru Granth Sahib.
 Disciple of Ramananda.
 He was the first to reconcile Hinduism and Islam.
Kabir Das  He was a Nirguna saint and openly criticised the orthodox ideas
(1440-1510 AD) of major religions like Hinduism and Islam.
 Denounced idol-worship, fastings, pilgrimages and religious
superstitious beliefs, bathing in holy rivers, formal worship like
nama.
 His poems are called Banis (utterances) or Dohe. His works are
compiled in the famous book: Bijak.
 Kabir says: Ram Rahim is the same.
 Birth: Talwandi Village & Death Kartarpur (Both are in Pakistan).
 Founder of Sikh religion & the first Guru of ten Sikh Gurus.
Initially worked as an Accountant.
 Preached middle path & need of Guru for liberation.
 He composed hymnes and sang along with the help of an
instrument called Rabab played by his attendant Mardana.
 Travelled across Asia including Mecca & Baghdad and spread
the message of lk Onkar -(One God).
Guru Nanak Dev  Opposes idol worship, pilgrimage and caste system, and
(1469-1538 AD) emphasised purity of character and conduct.
 Called God as Waheguru that is shapeless, timeless,
omnipresent and invisible (Nirgun
 Bhakti).
 He started Guru-Ka-langer (Community Kitchen).
 He promoted Tauhid-e-wazidi.
Purandar Das  One of the chief founding-proponents of South Indian classical
(1483-1564 AD) music (Carnatic Music).
 He is often quoted as Karnataka Sangeeta Pitamaha.
Dadu Dayal  Disciple of Kabir.
(1544-1603 AD)  He was a supporter of Hindu-Muslim unity.
 His followers were called Dadu Panthis.
Chaitanya  Founder of modern Vaishnavism in Bengal.
Mahaprabhu (1486-  He was a Saguna and popularised Kirtans (religious songs) as a
1533 AD) form of worshipping God.
 Popularised the chanting of Hare Rama, Hare Krishna.
 He made famous the practice of worshipping Radha and
Krishna together. He gave the Achintya Bheda-Abheda
philosophy.
 Didn't reject scriptures or idol worship called god as Hari.
 He wrote Siksastakam, a text in Sanskrit, where he elaborated his
philosophy.
 He is the inspiration behind the world renowned ISKCON
(International Society for Krishna Consciousness) that was
founded in the 20th century.
 Spread the Bhakti cult in Assam.
 Translated Ramayana & Mahabharata into Assamese
 He started the Ekasarana movement (Neo-Vaishnavite
movement). He believed in the worship of Ekasarana (One God)
Sankaradeva (1499 in the form of Krishna.
 He is also called Krishna by different names like Hari, Narayan
1569 AD)
and Rama.
  His most famous work is Kirtana Ghosha, written in a simple
language understood by the masses.
 He wrote in Assamese and Brajavali (mixture of Maithili and
Assamese).
 Exponent of Krishna cult.
Vallabhacharya  Founded philosophy of Shuddhadvaita (Pure Non dualism) and
(1479-1531 AD) his philosophy is known as Pushti Marg.
 He worshipped Krishna under the title Srinathji.
 He was a famous saint from Chhattisgarh and he established
the Satnami Community
Guru Ghasidas  mere
(1756-1836 AD)  He strongly believed in equality and criticised the oppressive
caste system.
 He was a monotheist and was against idol worship.
 Disciple of Vallabhacharya.
Surdas  He wrote Sursagar and Sursurvali.
(1483-1563 AD)  Showed intense devotion to Radha and Krishna.
 Regarded as the outstanding devotional poet in Brajbhasha.
Mirabai  Staunch devotee of Lord Krishna.
(1498-1546 AD)  Composed number of songs and poems in honour of Krishna.
 She composed bhajans (short religious songs) which are sung
even today.
Haridas  A great musician saint who sang the glories of Lord Vishnu.
(1478-1573 AD)
 Depicted Rama as the incarnation.
Tulsidas  Wrote Ramcharitmanas.
(1532-1623 AD)  He was Varkari.

 He was a devotee of Vithoba (Vishnu).

Namdeva  Opposed Caste system.
(1270-1350 AD)  Only Nirguna saint in Maharashtra.
 He belongs to Varkari tradition.
 He was the founder of the Bhakti Movement in Maharashtra in
Dnyaneshwar the 13th century.
(1275-1296 AD)  Wrote Dnyaneswari, a commentary on the Bhagavad-Gita.
 His other work is Amrutanubhav on Yoga and philosophy.
 He was a worshipper of Vithoba (Vitthala) who is considered a
manifestation of Vishnu.
 He was a follower of Nath Yogi Tradition. He also drew
inspiration from the Upanishads and Bhagavad Gita.

Eknath  Wrote commentary on verses of the Bhagavad-Gita.

(1533-1599)  Devotee of Vithoba. He criticised the Caste distinctions.
 Contemporary of Maratha king Shivaji.
 Devotee of Vithal.
Tukaram  He founded the Varkari sect.
(1598-1650)  Man behind Maratha Nationalism.
  His teachings are contained in Abhangas.
Ram Das  Author of Dasbodh.
(1608-1681)  His teachings inspired Shivaji to establish an independent
kingdom in Maharashtra.
VIRASHAIVISM/SHARANA MOVEMENT
 The Virashaiva movement began in Karnataka in the mid- twelfth century.
 It was initiated by Basavanna and other virashaivas like Allama Prabhu and
Akkamahadevi.
 They fought for the equality of all human beings and against the Brahmanical ideas of
caste and poor treatment of women.
 They were also against religious rituals and idol worship.
 Challenged caste system, questioned the theory of rebirth.
 Encouraged post puberty marriage & widow remarriage.
 Basavanna spread social awareness through his poetry, popularly known as Vachanaas.
 He established Anubhava Mantapa (1st democratic parliament of the world) - academy
of mystics, saints and philosophers of the Lingayath's faith.

Varkari Tradition
 Varkari is a religious movement (sampradaya) within the bhakti spiritual
tradition of Hinduism. It is geographically associated with the Indian states
of Maharashtra and northern Karnataka. In the Marathi language of
Maharashtra, Vari means 'pilgrimage' and a pilgrim is called a Varkari.
Vernacular Literature
Hindi Kabir, Surdas, Tulsidas, etc.

Marathi Jnanadeva, Namdev, Eknath, etc.

Bengali Chaitanya Mahaprabhu and Chandidas
Rajasthani (Braj) Meerabai, Bihari. etc.
Puniabi Guru Nanak
Assamese Sankaradeva

IMPACT OF BHAKTI MOVEMENT

 The Bhakti saints were social reformers also. The evil practice of Sati and caste rigidities
received some setbacks.
 Women were encouraged to join kirtans. Mirabai, Laila (Kashmir) and Andal composed
verses that are popular even today.
 In place of Sanskrit, Bhakti saints preached through the medium of local languages which
could be understood very easily. Surdas used the Brij dialect. Tulsi Das composed his
works in Awadhi.
 Sankaradeva popularised Assamese, Chaitanya spreading their message in Bengali,
Mirabai in Hindi and Rajasthani.
 Kirtan at a Hindu Temple, Qawwali at a Dargah (by Muslims), and singing of Gurbani at
a Gurdwara are all derived from the Bhakti movement of medieval India.
 It popularised the idea of equality & brotherhood.
 Modern History with TimeLine
Arrival of Foreigners in India-
• 1498 Vasco De Gamma Came 1st time In India at Calicut, Kerela.

• 1502-(a) 2nd visit of Vasco De Gamma to India.

(b) Portuguese set up trading station at Calicut, Cochin & Cannore in 1502.

• In 1600, Britishers came on Red Dragon Ship

Advent of Europeans
1) Vasco da Gama landed at Calicut in 1498 A.D.

2) Vasco Da Gama returned to Portugal in 1499 with cargo

worth 60 times of his expenses.

3) 2nd trip of Vasco da Gama to India was in 1502

4) Portuguese set up trading stations at Calicut, Cochin,

and Cannore in 1502.

5) Cartaz system (passes given to ships) was

introduced by Portugese.

6) Cochin was the early capital of Portuguese in India. Later

Goa replaced it.
7) In 1503 Alfanso de Albuquerque arrived in India as Cochin commander of a squadron.

8) Vasco da Gama bombarded Calicut on the Zamorin's refusal to expel Musim traders.

9) In 1503, Raja of Cochin let Vasco build first fort.

10) De Almeida was the first Portuguese Governor (1505-

1509) in India.

11) Albuquerque was appointed second Governor of

Portuguese in India in 1509.

12) Albuquerque captured Goa in 1510 from Bijapur.

13) Albuquerque encouraged his country men to marry Indian women. He persecuted the Muslims. At the
time of Albuquerque's death in 1515 Portuguese was the strongest naval power in India.
14) Nino da Cunha (Governor 1529-38) transferred his capital from Cochin to Goa in 1530.

15) In 1530 Nino da Cunha acquired Diu & Bassein from Bahadur Shah of Gujrat. Martin Alfanso de
Souza (Governor 1542-45) arrived in India with the famous Jesuit .

16) Francisco de Almeida created fortresses at Kilwa, Anjadiva, Mannaur and Cochin.

17) Portuguese lost Hoogli in 1631 during the reign of Shahjahan

18) In 1661, the Portuguese king gave Bombay to Charles-II of England for marrying his sister.

19) The Marathas captured Salsatte and Bassion in 1739.

20) In March 1602, the Dutch east India company was formed.

21) The name of the company was 'Uereenigde Oost Indische Companie (also known as Dutch
United East India Company).
22) It was the first multinational company to issue stocks. Till 1690 Pulicat was their main centre in India,
thereafter Nagapattam replaced it. Their final collapse with their defeat by the English in the Battle of
Badera in 1759.

Advent of Britishers
1) The English east India Company was formed by a group of merchants known as "The Merchant
Adventurers' in 1599".
2) Captain Hawkins arrived at Jahangir court in 1509 and was given a mansab of 400.

3) Sir Thomas Roe was an ambassador of James I to Jahangir's court

4) In 1661 AD the Portuguese gave Bombay as a part of dowry to their princess, on her marriage with
Charles- Il of Britain.
5) In 1668, Bombay was transferred to East-India company by James II for 10 Rs per year.
 6) In 1687, Bombay became seal of the western Presidency, it replaced Surat.
7) In 1661 Shah Jahan's Nishan granted free trade in Bengal for Rs. 3000 pa, East-India Company was
regulated by Court of Directors.
8) Queen Elizabeth was the largest share holder of Company
9) Charter of 1832 empowered the company to control and punish its employees in India.
10) Bombay was fortified by Charles Boon in 1720.
11) Company's mint was located in Bombay.
12) Charles Eyre was the first President (Governor) of Fort William.
13) General Aungier was the first governor of Bombay (1669-1677).
14) Masulipatnam (1611) was first English settlement on East-coast.
15) The immediate aim of the company was the acquisition of spices
and peppers.
16) In 1717 Farrukh Siyar confirmed the privileges (farman)
of 1691 and extended them to Gujarat & Deccan also.

Advent of French in India

1) Establishment of the first French factory at Surat by Francois Caron in 1668.

2) Establishments of a factory at Masulipatnam by Marcara in 1669.

3) In 1673, acquisition of village of Valikondapuram (Pondichery) and Bellanger de Lespinay by

Francois Martin from Muslim governor, Sher Khan Lodi.
4) Francois Martin was the first governor of Pondicherry. He established a trading centre in 1674
at Pondicherry.
5) Arrival of Dupleix, a French Governor in India in 1742 and the beginning of the Anglo-French conflict
(Carnatic Francois Martin Wars), resulting in defeat of French power in India.
6) French were finally defeated in the Battle of Wandiwash (in 1760) by English and they lost almost
all Indian settlements (by the treaty of Paris in 1763) to English.

➢ Wars which established British Supremacy in India-

1) The Carnatic Wars

2) Battle of Plassey

3) Battle of Buxar

4) Anglo-Maratha Wars

5) Anglo-Sikh Wars

6) Anglo-Mysore
 THE CARNATIC WARS
1) These were the Anglo-French conflicts. These wars continued for 20 years from 1744 to 1763.

➢ First War (1744-1748):

• French captured Madras

• French defeated Nawab of Hyderabad at St. Thome.

• Treaty of Aix-La-Chapelle, (1748) ended the War of Austrian Succession.

➢ Second War (1749-1754):

• Dupleix aligned with Muzaffar Jung (Hyderabad) and Chanda Sahib (Carnatic).

• Robert Clive emerged victorius.

• Godeheau signed the treaty of Pondicherry in 1755 with the English.

➢ Third War (1758-1763):

• French, Count de Lally captured Fort St. David'.

• French were defeated at Wandiwash (1760) under General Eyre Coote

Pondicherry was returned to French by the Treaty of Paris(1763).

YEAR BATTLE ABOUT

1612 Battle of Swally British Vs Portuguese

1759 Battle of Bedara British Vs Dutch

1760 Battle of British Vs French

Wandiwash

1795 Battle of Kharda Maratha Vs Nizams

 Last Mughals Rulers

1707-1712- Bahadur Shah I

1712-13- Jahadar Shah
1713-1719- Farrukh Siyar
1719-48- Muhammad Shah
1748-54-Ahmad Shah
Abadali

1754-59- Alamgir II

1759-1806- Shah Alam II

1806-37- Akbar II
1837-57- Bahadur Shah II

FOOLISH KINGS OF HISTORY

*Puppets to Britishers: Jahadar Shah He is also called as Murkh Lampat Raaja
(Gave Relaxation in Toll duties to Britishers)
*Muhammed Shah (Rangeela Raaja), Gave unlimited Land to Britishers, Allowed them to print
their own currency)
* Muhammed bin Tughlaq (Pagal Raaja)

Conquest of Bengal
➢ Nawab Sirajuddaulah was against the misuse of Dastaks.
➢ 20 June 1756- Fort William (Calcutta) captured.
➢ The Black Hole Episode took place at Calcutta.
➢ Feb. 1757- Robert Clive recovered Calcutta. Nawab was forced to sign the treaty of Alinagar.
➢ 23 June 1757- Battle of Plassey. Clive defeated Sirajuddaula with the help of Mir Jaffar.
➢ Mir Jaffar, Manikchand, Aminchand & Jagat Seth betrayed Nawab.
➢ Mir Jaffar became new Nawab.
➢ 1760- Mir Jaffar was replaced by Mir Qasim.
1764- Battle of Buxar
Mir Qasim formed a confederacy with Shujauddaulah (Nawab of Awadh) & Shah Alam II.
Major Munro defeated them Treaty of ALLAHABAD
1772- Warren Hasting ended the Dual system of Govt. which was introduced by Robert Clive.
 IMPORTANT BATTLES
• Anglo Mysore War 1– 1766-1769, Hyder Ali

o (Father of Tipu Sultan) won.

• Anglo Mysore War 2– 1780-84 Hyder Ali Died in 1782 and Tipu Sultan was there for the
(Treaty of Manglore (1784))

• Anglo Mysore War 3– 1790-92 (Treaty of Travan Core)

• Anglo Mysore War 4 – 1798-99 (British Won and Tipu Sultan Died)

• Battle of Plassey – 1757, Siraj-ud-daula defeated by Britishers with the help of Mir Jafar.

• Battle of Buxar- 1764, British defeated Mir Qasim, Shuja-ud-daula & Shah Alam II.

• Anglo Maratha War –

1st (1775-1782)

2nd (1803-1806)

3rd (1817-1818)

• Anglo Sikh War- 1845-1849

Governor & Viceroys Timeline

• 1833 to 1858 - Post of Governor General was created by Charter Act of 1833
• 1858 to 1948 - Post of Viceroy was created by Govt. of India Act of 1858 after the Revolt of 1857.
Gov.-Gen. was merely for Administrative Works.
• The first Governor-General of Bengal was Warren Hastings (1772-1785)
• The first Governor-General of India William Bentick (1833-35) (He was also Governor-General of
Bengal in (1828-33)
• The first Viceroy India Lord Canning (1858-62)
• The last Viceroy India Lord Louise Mountbatten (1947-48)
• The last Governor-General of India C. Rajagopalachari (1948-50)
• Doctrine of lapse was introduced by Lord Dalhousie
• Sati Pratha was abolished by William Bentick & Raja Ram Mohan Roy (1829)
• Widow remarriage act was passed by Lord Canning & Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar.
• Partition of Bengal by Lord Curzon (1905)
• Hunter Commission was appointed by Lord Ripon, (1882)
 Governor-General of Bengal
➢ Warren Hastings (1772-1785)
• Abolished Dual System of Administration.

• Founded the Asiatic Society of Bengal with William Jones in 1784.

➢ Lord Cornwallis (1786-93)

• Created Post of District Judge

• Introduced Zamindari System (Permanent Settlement System) in Bengal.

• Father of Civil Services in India

• Fought 3rd Anglo-Mysore War

➢ John Shore (1793-1798)

• Introduced First Charter Act.

➢ Lord Wellesley (1798-1805)

• Started Subsidiary Alliance system. 1st alliance with Nizam of Hyderabad.

• Madras Presidency was formed during his tenure.

• Fought 4th Anglo-Mysore war which ended with the Death of Tipu Sultan.

• Fought 2nd Anglo-Maratha War. Defeated Scindhias Bhonsales & Holkars.

• Treaty of Bassein in 1802

➢ Lord Minto-I (1807-1813)

• Treaty of Amritsar with Maharaja Ranjit Singh.

• Charter Act 1813.

➢ Lord Hastings (1813-1823)

• Anglo-Nepalese War.

• 3rd Anglo-Maratha War (1817-18).

• Introduced Ryotwari Settlement in Madras by Governor Thomas Munro.

➢ Lord Amherst (1823-1828)
• First Burmese War in 1824-26

• Capture of Bharatpur in 1826.

➢ Lord William Bentick (1828-1834)

• Abolished Sati Pratha & other Cruel Rites in 1829.

• Father of Modern Western Education in India.

• Introduced English as the official language.

• Concluded a treaty of perpetual friendship with Maharaja Ranjit Singh

➢ Charles Metcalfe (1834-1836)

• Known as Liberator of Press.

• Passed the Press Law.

➢ Lord Auckland (1836-1842)

• First Afghan War in 1836-1842

• Treaty with Sikhs & Amirs of Sindh.

➢ Lord Ellenborough (1842-1844)

• Known as Liberator of Press.

• Passed the Press Law.

➢ Lord Hardinge-l (1844-1848)

• First Sikh war (1845-46).

• Treaty of Lahore.

• Prohibition of Female Infanticide.

• Gave preference to English educated in Employment.

➢ Lord Dalhousie (1848-1856)
• Widow Remarriage Act 1856.

• Wood's Educational Dispatch.

• Opening of Anglo-Vernacular schools & Govt. Colleges.

• Introduced Doctrine of Lapse.

• Started First Railway Line in 1853 (Bombay to Thana)

• Telegraph & Postal Reforms.

• Established separate Public Works Department in every Province.

• Fought the Anglo-Sikh War & annexed whole of the Punjab.

➢ Lord Canning (1856-1862)

• Revolt of 1857.

• He was the Last Governor-General of East India Company.

• Established 3 Universities at Calcutta, Madras & Bombay in 1857.

• \Withdrew Doctrine of Lapse.

• The Indian Council's Act of 1861 was passed.

• Indian Penal Code of Criminal Procedure (1859) passed

• The Indian High Court Act was enacted.

• Introduced Income Tax for the First time in 1858.

• "White Mutiny" by European troops in 1859.

➢ Lord Elgin-l (1862-1863)

• Supressed Wahabi Movement

➢ John Lawrence (1864 -1868)

• High Courts were Established at Calcutta, Bombay & Madras.

• Expanded Canal Works & Railways.

• Created the Indian Forest Department.

• Reorganized the Native Judicial Service.

➢ Lord Mayo (1869-1872)
• Established Rajkot college at Kathiawar & Mayo College at Ajmer.

• Organized the Statistical Survey of India.

• Established the Department of Agriculture & Commerce.

• He was the only Viceroy to be murdered in his office.

• First Census in India was done in his Rule in 1872.

➢ Lord Lytton (1876-1880)

• Most Unpopular Viceroy.

• Passed the Royal Title Act in 1876 & Queen Victoria was declared as Kaiser-e-Hind.

• Passed the infamous Vernacular Press Act, 1882.

➢ Lord Rippon (1880-1884)

• Repeal of Vernacular Press Act, 1882.

• First Factory Act 1881 to improve Labor condition

• Resolution on Local Self Govt. in 1882

• Resolution of Land Revenue Policy.

• Appointed Hunter Commission for Education Reforms.

• Ilbert Bill Controversy erupted during his time.

• He Carried out First synchronous Official Census in 1881.

➢ Lord Dufferin (1884-1888)

• Annexation of Burma in 1885.

• Congress Founded in 1885.

• Bengal Tenacy Act.

➢ Lord Lansdowne (1888-1894)

• Appointment of Durand Commission to define the Durand line between India & Afghanistan.
➢ Lord Elgin-Il (1894-1899)
• The Santhal Uprising of 1899.

• Great Famine of 1896-97.

• Lyall Commission appointed after Famine.

➢ Lord Curzon (1899-1905)

• Appointed Police Commission in 1902.

• Set up the University Commission.

• Set up the Department of Commerce & Industry.

• Calcutta Corporation Act of 1899.

• Passed Indian Coinage & Paper Currency Act in 1899 & put India on a Gold Std.

• Partition of Bengal in 1905.

• Introduced Ancient Monuments Preservation Act (1904)

➢ Lord Minto-II (1905-1910)

• Swadeshi Movement.

• Foundation of the Muslim League, 1906.

• Surat Session and Congress Split.

• Newspapers Act, 1908.

• Morley-Minto Reforms, 1909.

➢ Lord Hardinge-II (1910-1916)

• Annulment of the Partition of Bengal.

• Transfer of Capital from Calcutta to Delhi.

• Delhi Darbar & Coronation of George-V & Queen.

• Establishment of Hindu Mahasabha by Madan Mohan Malviya in 1915.

➢ Lord Chelmsford (1916-1921)

• Lucknow Pact in 1916 between Congress & Muslims.

• Arrival of Gandhiji in 1915 & Champaran Satyagrah in 1917.

• Home Rule Leagues by Annie Besant & B.G. Tilak in 1956.

• Montague's August Declaration in 1917

• Saddler Commission of Education in 1917.

• Kheda Satyagraha & Satyagraha at Ahemedabad in 1918.

• Govt. of India Act 1919.

• Constitutional Reforms of 1919.

• Repressive Rowlatt Act 1919.

• Massacre of Jallianwala Bagh in 1919.

• Khilafat Movement.

• Non-Cooperation Movement.

• Appointment of S.P. Sinha as Governor of Bihar (the First Indian to become a Governor).

➢ Lord Reading (1921-1926)

• Repeal of Press Act 1910.

• Repealed Rawlatt Act of 1919.

• Chauri-Chaura Incident.

• Violent Moplah Rebellion in Kerela in 1921.

• CPI founded in 1921.

• Decided to hold ICS exam in Delhi & London simultaneously.

• RSS founded in 1925.

• Kakori Robbery in 1925

➢ Lord Irwin (1926-1931)

• Simon Commission announced in 1927.

• Butler Commission in 1927.

• All India Youth Congress in 1928

• Nehru Report in 1928

• Murder of Saunders by Bhagat Singh, Rajguru & Sukhdev in 1928.

• Bomb Blast in Assembly Hall of Delhi by Bhagat Singh & Batukeshwar Dutt.

• Lahore Session of Congress & Poorna Swaraj Declaration.

• Civil Disobedience Movement in 1930

• Dandi March in 1930.

• 1st Round Table Conference in 1930.

• Gandhi-Irwin Pact in 1931.

• Civil Disobedience Movement.

➢ Lord Willingdon (1931-1936)
• Second Round Table Conference in 1931.

• Announcement of Communal Award in 1932.

• Fast unto death by Gandhiji in Yerwada Jail.

• Poona Pact in 1932.

• 3rd Round Table Conference in 1932.

• Foundation of Congress Socialist Part in 1934.

• Govt. of India Act in 1935.

• Burma separated from India in 1935.

• All India Kisan Sabha in 1936.

➢ Lord Linlithgow (1936-1944)

• First General Election in 1936-1937

• Second World War in 1939.

• Forward Block founded in 1939.

• Deliverance Day by Muslim League on 22 December 1939.

• August Offer, 1940

• Lahore Resolution in 1940.

• Cripps Mission in 1942.

• Quit India Movement in 1942.

➢ Lord Wavell (1944-1947)

• CR Formula in 1944.

• Wavell Yojna & Shimla Conference in 1945.

• End of 2nd World War in 1945.

• INA Trials & Naval Mutiny in 1946.

• Cabinet Mission in 1946.

• Direct Action Day by Muslim League.

• Formation of Interim Govt. by Congress in Sept. 1946

➢ Lord Mountbatten (1947-1948)
• Introduction of Indian Independence Bill in the House of Commons.

• Appointment of 2 Boundary Commissions under Sir Cryil Radcliffe.

• Last British Viceroy of British India.

• First Governor-General of Free India.

➢ C. Rajagopalachari (1948-1950)
• Only Indian Governor General.

• Last Governor General of free India.

Land Revenue System by Britishers

1793 Zamindari System- By Lord Cornwallis

1820 Ryotwari System- By Thomas Munro

1833 Mahalwari System- By William Bentick

Some Important Points

• The first Governor-General of Bengal was Warren Hastings (1772-1785)

• The first Governor-General of India William Bentick (1833-35) was also Governor-General of
Bengal in (1828-33)

• The first Viceroy of India Lord Canning (1858-62)

• The last Viceroy of India Lord Louise Mountbatten (1947-48)

• Doctrine of lapse was introduced by Lord Dalhousie

• Sati Pratha was abolished by William Bentick & Raja Ram Mohan Roy (1829)

• Widow remarriage act was passed by Lord Canning & Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar.

• Partition of Bengal by Lord Curzon (1905)

• Hunter Commission was appointed by Lord Ripon. (1882)

 MODERN HISTORY
• 29TH March 1857-Mangal Pandey Revolts
(34th Bengal Native Infantry), Enfield
Rifle
• 8th April 1857-Execution of Mangal Pandey

Revolt 1857 Leaders

• 1764- Bengal
• 1806- Vellore
• 1825- Barrackpore
• Delhi-Bahadurshah Jafar II
• Kanpur-Nana Saheb
Kalki –Tantaiya Tope
• Faizabad -Maulvi Ahmadullah
• Lucknow-Begum Hazrat Mahal (wife of Awadh Nawab), Ahmadullah & Bijris Qadir
• Bareily –Khan Bahadur Khan
• Jhansi –Rani Laxmi Bai
• Jagdishpur-Kunwar Singh
• Allahabad –Liyaqat Ali

• Awadh - Nawab Wajid Ali Shah

• Bihar - Kunwar Singh
• Baghpat - Shah Mal
• Bijnor - Muhammad Khan
• Mandsaur - Firoz Shah
• Assam - Kandapareshwar Singh, Manirama Dutta

➢ Local leadership
• Meerut- fakir (observed)
• Barout (UP)- Shah Mal
• Singhbhum (Chhotanagpur plateau)- Gonoo [tribal cultivator] (leader of Kol tribes)
Big zamindars: break-waters to storm
Who didn't participate?
•Scindia of Gwalior
 • Holkar of Indore
• Rulers of Patiala, Sindh & other Sikh chieftains
•Maharaja of Kashmir
Peel commission- to look into military affairs of India (set up after 1857)
Army Amalgamation Scheme, 1861- moved the company's troops to the services of the crown
➢ Linked- batalion scheme- European troops in India were constantly revamped by periodical
visits to England
• peasants were mobilised by- CSP activists
• many- Karshak Sanghams (peasants orgs)
came into existence

• marching of peasants to landlords- to get their

demands accepted
Kerala • 1938- significant campaign for the amendment
of Malabar

Tenancy Act, 1929

• NG Raga set up in 1933- India Peasants'

Institute

• summer schools of economics & polity by:

o PC Joshi
Andhra Pradesh
o Ajoy Ghosh
o RD Bharadwai

• Sahajanand Saraswati
• Karyanand Sharma

Bihar • Yadunandan Sharma

• Rahul Sankritayan
• Panchanan Sharma
• Jamun Karjiti
 mportant Leagues
• 1864– Translation Society (Scientific Society)
Sir Syed Ahmad Khan
• 1875– Aligarh Muslim University (Sir
Syed Ahmad Khan) in Uttar Pradesh
• 1875- Indian League was formed
➢ Founder- Sisir Kumar Ghosh
➢ Objective- stimulating a sense of Nationalism
➢ among People
➢ Sisir Ghosh founded-Amrita Bazaar Patrika In 1868.
• 1876- Indian Association Formed
➢ Founder-SN Bannerji & Anand Mohan Bose
➢ Objective- Political, Intellectual & Material Advancement of people.
➢ Work- Opposed the Elbert’s Bill
➢ 1885 –Indian National Congress formed
➢ Found in Mumbai,
➢ Founder-AO Hume (Britisher),
Dada Bhai Naoroji, Dinshaw Edulji Wacha
➢ Viceroy at that time – Lord Dufferin

AO Hume Dada Bhai Naoroji Dinshaw Edulji Wacha

 IMPORTANT CONGRESS SESSIONS and PRESIDENTS
➢ 1885 –Bombay- WC Banerjee (Hindu)
➢ 1886,1893,1906 -Calcutta, Lahore, Calcutta Dada Bhai Naoroji (Parsi)
➢ 1887-Madras- Badruddin Tayabji (Muslim)
➢ 1888- Allahabad- George Yule (Non-Indian)
➢ 1917- Annie Besant
➢ 1924- Gandhiji (Belgaon)
➢ 1929,1936 and 1937 –J.L. Nehru (Lahore, Faizpur & Faizpur)
➢ 1931- Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel (Karachi)
➢ 1938- Haripura, SC Bose
➢ 1939- Tripura, SC Bose (But resigned due to Gandhi ji’s Protest)
➢ 1948– Pattabhi Sitaramayya &
[Link](Jaipur)1948-Gandhi ji’s Death

Important Questions on Indian National Congress

Venue 1st Session- Gokul Tejpal Sanskrit School, Bombay.
• "Swaraj"was first used at congress platform:(1906), Calcutta
• First Women President:Annie Besant (1917 Calcutta session)
• First Indian Women President: Sarojini Naidu (1925, Kanpur session)
• Total Women President- Annie Besant, Sarojini Naidu & Nalin Sengupta
• First Muslim President-Badruddin Tayabji (1887, Madras)
• Youngest President Indian National Congress:Maulana Abul Kalam Azad
• Maximum times President:
1) DadabhaiNaoraji (1886,1893, 1906)
2) Jawahar Lal Nehru (1929, 1936, 1937)
• First village session:Faizpur, near Jalgaon, 1936.
• Complete Independence demand raised for the first time:Lahore (1929).
• First time VandeMataram Sung: Calcutta Session 1896
• First time National Anthem (Jana GanaMana ): Calcutta session (1911)
• Constitution need to be emphasized:
1) First time at Allahabad session, 1888
2) Second time Poona Session 1895
• All India Khadi Board:formed as a result of 1923 Delhi Session
• Khadi made compulsory:Guwahati session 1926
• All India Youth congress:Calcutta Session
• Fundamental Rights and Economic Policy Proposals Passed: Karachi Session 1931
• Congress was declared illegal during 1932,1933 sessions
• ‘Socialism’ was first used at -1937 Lucknow session.

IMPORTANT EVENTS WITH TIMELINE

➢ 1894-Ganpati Mahotsav started by Bal Gangadhar Tilak (Lokmanya Tilak)
➢ 1894-Deccan Mahasabha or Deccan Education Society by BG Tilak & Gopal Ganesh Agarkar
in Pune.
Work by BG Tilak-
* Propagated Swadeshi Movement
* All India Home League in 1916 at Belgaum.
* Newspaper-Weeklies Kesari (Marathi) & Mahratta (English).
* Books-Gita Rahasya & Arctic Home of the Vedas.
* Slogan-Swaraj is my birth right & I shall have it.
➢ 1895- Shivaji Mahotsav by Lokmanya Tilak at Fort Raigad at tomb of Shivaji.
➢ 1897– Rama Krishna Mission(H.Q. – Belur Math, West Bengal) Founder- Vivekanand
➢ 1903- Gandhiji Published “Indian Opinion”a newspaper in South Africa. Total 4
publications were run by Gandhiji:Indian Opinion, Young India, Navajivan and Harijan.
➢ 1904-Abhinav Bharat Society(By Vinayak Damodar Savarkar and Ganesh Savarkar)
➢ 1905-Bengal Partition(Viceroy- Lord Curzon), Swadeshi or Boycott Movement started.
* Rabindranath Tagore invoked people to celebrate 16th Oct 1905 as Rakshabandhan Day.
* Slogan in Swadeshi Movement- ‘VandeMataram’ by Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay.
*R.N. Tagore set ‘Bengal National College’ to boycott British Colleges. Principal was Aurobindo
Ghosh.
➢ 1906 Aggressive Nationalists forced Dada Bhai Naoroji to speak of ‘Swaraj’ in Calcutta
Session of INC.
➢ 1906- All India Muslim League
Founder –Aga Khan III, Khawaja Salimullah, Hakim Ajmal Khan
Real Founder –Muhammad Ali
Jinnah Venue-Dhaka (Bangladesh)
Headquarters- Lucknow
Ist President-Aga Khan III (Sultan Muhammad Shah)
 ➢ 1907-Surat Split
* Session-23rd Congress Session
* Venue-Surat, on the bank of River Tapti
* Ras Bihari got the Presidentship
* Extremists wanted Lala Lajpat Rai to be chosen
*INC split into 2 Groups-
a) Extremists(Led by Lal, Bal & Pal)

b) Moderates(Led by G.K. Gokhale)

* Viceroy at that time-Lord Minto

➢ 1908 –Muzaffarpur Bomb Kaand
*Executed by Khudiram Bose.
➢ Morley Minto Reform (Communal Election)
*Lord Minto proposed separate electorate for Muslims.
*Satyendra Prasad Sinha became first Indian to join the Viceroy’s Executive Council. He was
appointed as the Law Member.
➢ 1911- Delhi Darbar (By Lord Harding)
Chief Guest :George Vth and Queen Marry
* New Capital Delhi (Capital Shifted from Calcutta to Delhi)
* Refused Bengal Partition
* Formation of Bihar and Odisha

THE GADAR
• HQ- San Francisco

• 1911: Pre Gadar revolutionary activity

o Ramnath Puri
o GD Kumar
o Taraknath Das
o Sohan Singh Bhakna
o Lala Hardayal
• earlier activists- Swadesh Sevak Home at Vancouver (Canada) & United India House at Seattle (USA)

• Swadesh Sevak Home was set up on the lines of the India House in London

• 1913: Gadar erst (original name- Pacific Coast Hindustan Association)

• 1915: Defence of India Rules were passed to smash Ghadr Movement

➢
➢ 1913-Ghadar Party (in San Francisco, USA)
* Founder –Lala Hardayal, Kartar Singh, Abdul Hafiz Barkatullah
• 1913-Rabindranath Tagore conferred with ‘Knighthood’ title.
➢ The National Anthem is composed in the Raga, ‘Sankarabharanam’
➢ The English translation of the National Anthem is “The morning song of India’’.
➢ National anthem was first sung at the Calcutta session of INC (1911)
➢ India accepted it as our National Anthem on 24 January 1950.
➢ ‘Bharat Vidhata’was the first name of National Anthem.
➢ National anthem was first published in the book ‘Tatvabodhini’.
➢ Tagore also wrote the national anthem of Bangladesh ‘Amar Sonar Bangla’.
➢ ‘Jeevan Smriti’ -Autobiography of Tagore.
➢ 1914-Komagatamaru Ship Incident
* Leader- Baba Gurdit Singh
* Total Passengers- 376
➢ 1915-Gandhiji Came to India
➢ Gandhiji called Subhah Chandra
Bose the ‘Prince among the Patriots’
in 1942.
➢ Winston Churchil called Gandhiji
a‘‘Halfnaked Seditious Fakir”.
➢ The name ‘Gurudev’ was given to Tagore by Gandhiji.
➢ Tagore called Gandhiji- ‘Mahatma’.
➢ The original Autobiography of Gandhiji
written in Gujarati language was
‘Sathya na Prayogo’.
➢ French Novelist who wrote the
biography of Gandhiji was Romain
Rolland.
➢ Gandhiji’s Autobiography ‘‘My Experiments with Truth” was written in 1922 while
he was in Jail. It describes his life from 1869 to 1921.
➢ It was translated into English by Mahadev Desai.
➢ 1916– Banaras Hindu University established by Madan Mohan Malviya.
➢ Lucknow Pact-Extremists & Moderates came together. Also, Hindus & Muslims got together.
➢ Home rule Movement-First by BG Tilak in Pune in April, then by Annie Beasant in Madras in
September.
 ➢ Home Rule movement: later joined by- M Nehru, J Nehru, Bhulabhai Desai, CR Das, KM Munshi,
B Chakravarty, Saifuddin Kitchlew, MMM, Jinnah (led Bombay division), Tej Bahadur Sapru, LL Rai

• Events- Tilak started Home Rule mvmt in Apr 1916

• reunion of congress factions*

1916 Lucknow Ambika Charan • Lucknow Pact/ Tilak-Jinnah Pact:

Majumdar o congress accepted the demand of separate

electorate for Muslims.

➢ Sabarmati Ashram established.

➢ 1917 –Montague Declaration (August Declaration)
➢ Control of Govt. would be transferred gradually to Indian People.

➢ Montague's statement (August 1917)---> attainment of self-govt for Indians became a govt
policy

• Now onwards - demand by nationalists for self-govt could not be termed as seditious
• used the term- responsible govt
• concept of dyarchy was to be evolved
➢ 1917: Bolshevik Party overthrew Czarist regime & founded 1st socialist state + October revolution*

➢ Moderates called it- ‘the Magna Carta of India’

➢ Tilak called it ‘Morning without Sun’
➢ 1917 –Champaran Andolan --1st CDM

•Raikumar Shukla
• Indigo on 3/20th (tinkatia) land
• joinees- R Prasad, Mazhar-ul-Haq, Mahadeo Desai, Narhari Parekh*, JB Kripalani
• 25% money compensated
• others- Brajkishore Prasad, Anurag Narayan Sinha, Ramnavmi Prasad & Shambhusharan Verma

➢ 1918: Ahmedabad Mills Strike - 1st Hunger Strike

• rise in wages: workers demand- 50%; mill owners- 20%
•Anusaya Sarabhai sister of Ambalal Sarabhai (one of the mill owners + President of Ahmedabad Mill
Owners Association founded in 1891)

•Anusaya Behn- Ahmedabad Textile Labour Association (1918*), other founders- Gandhi, Shankerlal
Banker*

• Gandhi: settlement- 35%

➢ 1918: Kheda Satyagraha- 1st NCM
•SVP + Narahari Parikh*, Mohanlal Pandya, Ravi Shankar Vyas
Patel + colleagues organized a tax revolt.

➢ 1919 –(1)Montague Chelmsford Reforms

a) Dyarchy was introduced (Double Govt.).
(2) Jallianwala Bagh Massacre

Jallianwala Bagh Massacre: 13th April, 1919

• arrest of Saifuddin Kitchlew & Dr Satyapal
• Baisakhi celebration
• Dwyer- Martial law (+ background- Gadar)
• Montague called it Preventive Murder (#PYQ)

#Udham Singh= Ram Mohammad Singh Azad

• assassinated Dwyer
•1940- he was hanged

a) Gandhiji gave up the title ‘Kesar-e-Hind’

b) R.N. Tagore gave up the title of ‘Knighthood’
c) Shankaran Nair resigned from Executive Council of Viceroy.
d) Hunter Commission- Inquiry Committee but it had not penalized General Dyer.
e) Revenge was taken by Sardar Udham Singh by killing O’Dyer in Caxton Hall, London on
13 March 1940
(3) Rowlatt Act-
a) Imprisonment without any trial.
b) Criticized as ‘Black Act’
c) It was called-Bina Apeel, Bina Daleel, Bina Vakeel.

d) Rowlatt Act
• = extension of Defence of India Regulations Act 1915
• = Anarchical & Revolutionary Crimes Act
• activists to be deported w/o trial for 2 yrs
• Indian members who resigned- Jinnah, MMM, Mazhar -UI- Hag, BN Sharma
•non acceptable evidences under Indian Evidences Act also accepted
•law of habeas corpus- suspended
•in 1922, Lord Reading repealed this Act
 ➢ Satyagraha against Rowlatt: 1st Mass Strike*
• Gandhi
• = Black Act
• he organised Satyagraha Sabha*
• nationwide hartal + fasting & prayer
• afterwards---> orientation of the national movement shifted to masses permanently
• Satyagraha to be launched on- 6th April, 1919
•though it was 1st mass strike, it was limited to cities

➢ 1919: Hunter Committee

• Disorders Inquiry Committee
•Lord William Hunter (former Solicitor-General for Scotland & Senator of college of justice in
Scotland)

•3 Indian members-
o Sir Chimanal Harilal Setalvad (vice chancellor of Bombay U + advocate of Bombay HC)
o Pandit Jagat Narayan (lawyer + member of LC of UP)
o Sardar Sahibzada Sultan Ahmed (lawyer from Gwalior)
• before the committee began its proceedings---> govt has passed an Indemnity Act
o white washing bill*
o for protection of its officers
Congress view
INC--> non-official committee: M Nehru, CR Das, Abbas Tyabji, MR Jayakar, Gandhi

✓ NCM & KHILAFAT ANDOLAN

3 demands
•favourable treaty for Turkey war
•Redressal of Punjab wrongs

• Estb of Swaraj

(4) Khilafat Andolan- By Mhd. Ali & Shaukat Ali For restoring Political authority of
Calipha of Ottoman Empire (Turkey).
➢ Early 1919: Khilafat Committee
• Maulana Azad
•Ali brothers: Shaukat Ali & Mohammad Ali
•Hasrat Mohani---> 1921- call of Inqalab Jindabad
•Ajmal Khan
Nov 1919: All India Khilafat Conference @Delhi (President- Gandhi)
May 1920: Treaty of Sevres

June 1920: All India Khilafat Conference met Allahbad where it accepted the suggestion of NCM
Believers in Constitutional & lawful struggle (left the congress)

• BC Pal
•Annie Besant
•GS Khaparde
•Jinnah

➢ Indian National Liberal Federation (INLF) (#CDS II 2020)

• S Baneriea 1919
• other founders-
O Tej Bahadur Sapru (President) (#PYQ-2019)
OVS Srinivasa Shastri

OMR Jayankar

➢ 1920 – BG Tilak passed Away

➢ Non Cooperation Movement
a) Launched by Gandhiji on 1 August 1920
b) Boycott of Foreign Goods
c) Surrender of Titles
d) Resign from Army
e) AITUC: All India Trade Union Congress
f) • 1st President: LL Rai
g) • 1st GS: Dewan Chaman Lal

h) Communist Party: @Tashkent

➢ 1921- Prince Charles Came to India

1921: 2nd Moplah Rebellion

• series of riots against British & upper caste Jenmi Hindu landlords

• leaders- Varivamkunnath Kunjahammed Haji, Ali Musaliyar

• a British special battalion, the Malabar Special Force was formed to crush the riots

• 67 Moplah leaders died being transported from prison in wagon---> this incident was called Wagon
Tragedy

➢ 1922– Chauri Chaura Kaand in Gorakhpur, UP

a) The mob burnt 22 policemen
b) Gandhiji withdrew Non Cooperation Movement & he was sentenced to 6 years
 of imprisonment by British Govt. on 10 March 1922.
c) 1922: Sarabandi (no tax) Campaign: GJ, led by- SVP
➢ 1923- Swaraj Party-
a) President- CR Das
b) Secretary- Motilal Nehru
c) Boycott of the Legislative Council
➢ 1924- HRA (Hindustan Republic Association)
a) By Ram Prasad Bismil, Sachindranath Sanyal, Ashfaqullah Khan, Chandrashekhar Azad.
• Aim- to organize an armed revolution to overthrow the colonial govt & est in its place Federal
Republic of United States of India whose basic principle would be Adult Franchise
Assassination attempt on notorious Calcutta Police Commissioner Charles Tegart (another man
named Daygot killed) by Gopinath Saha

b) Kakori Conspiracy on 9 August 1925

Ram Prasad Bismil, Ashfaqullah Khan, Roshan Singh (only planning) & Rajendra Lahiri- were
hanged near Lucknow. Chandrashekhar Azad managed to avoid arrest.
Kanpur Bolshevik Conspiracy Case: members jailed-

• SA Dange
• Muzaffar Ahmed
Shaukat Usmani
•
• Nalini Gupta
➢ Self Respect Movement under Perivar EV Ramaswamy Naicker (Madras)

➢ 1925- RSS- Rashtriya Swayamsewak Sangh by KB Hedgewar, H.Q. Nagpur (Maharashtra)

➢ 1925- All India Spinners Association ( BY Gandhi Ji)

➢ CPI
• Dec 1925
• 1st conference- Kanpur (Cawnpore)
• Founding members: MN Roy, Evelyn Trent Roy (Roy's wife),
Abani Mukherji, Rosa Fiting of (Abani's wife), Mohammad Ali (Ahmed
Hasan),Sultan Ahmed Khan Tarin of NWFP

• President- Singarvelu Chettiar (Madras province)

• GS- PC Joshi, he was the 1st GS & remained so far
(12yrs) till 1947 (#PYQ-2019)
➢

➢ 1926– Nau Jawan Bharat Sabha-

➢ SIMON COMMISSION & NEHRU REPORT
 Simon Commission

• set up on: 8 Nov, 1927 (by British govt under PM Stanley Baldwin)
• aim- to r/c whether India was ready for further constitutional reforms & along what lines
• come to India- 3 Feb, 1928---> countrywide hartal........
• members- 7 (4- conservatives, 2- labourites, 1- liberal) under joint chairmanship of distinguished
lawyers- John Simon & Clement Attlee

➢ 1928-Simon Commission in India

a) For Constitutional Reforms
b) Opposed by Congress because no Indian was its member.
c) Lala Lajpat Rai Martyred on 30 Oct. 1928
➢ Nehru Report
a) A committee was formed under The chairmanship of Motilal Nehru.
b) It advocated Dominion Status not Complete Independence.
c) Recommended Equal Rights for women.

d) others- Tej Bahadur Sapru, Subhash Bose, MS Aney, Mangal Singh, Ali Imam,
Shuaib Qureshi & GR Pradhan
e) finalized in Aug 1928

➢ HSRA (Hindustan Socialist Republican

Party a) By Chandrashekhar Azad
b) Venue- Firoz Shah Kotla , Delhi
c) Motto– Lahore Conspiracy

d) participants-
PB- Bhagat Singh, Sukhdev, Bhagwatichandra Vohra
UP- Bejoy Kumar Sinha, Shiv Verma, Jaidev Kapur
➢ Dec 1928: Saunders' Murder = Lahore Conspiracy Case

• revenge of LL Rai's death

Bhagat Singh, Rajguru, Azad
➢ All Bengal Students' Conference- President: J Nehru
Bardoli Satyagaha (SVP)--> sardar title by women

➢ 1929-Lahore Session
a) Poorna Swaraj declared by INC on the bank of River Ravi, Lahore under Jawaharlal
Nehru on December 1929.
b) Decided to boycott Round Table Conference
c) Newly adopted Tricolour Flag was unfurled On 31 Dec. 1929 & First Independence Day
 was fixed on 26 Jan 1930.
d) This happened due to breakdown of negotiations between leaders of the
Freedom Movement & the British over the question of Dominion Status.
➢ Bhagat Singh & B.K. Dutt bombed the Central Legislative Council, Delhi and
Enchanted- ‘Inquilab Zindabad’ Their Goal was not to harm anyone. Goal was to
“make the deaf hear”.

➢ Meerut Conspiracy Case- Indian Railway Strike

• Muzaffar Ahmed

• SA Dange
• Joglekar
• Philip Spratt
➢ April 1929: Bomb in CLA
• Bhagat Singh & Batukeshwar Dutt
• To protest against the passage of Public Safety Bill & Trades Dispute Bill- aimed at
curtailing civil liberties of citizens in general & workers in particular trial courts- used as
propaganda forums

➢ Dec 1929: Azad blown up Irwin's train

➢ 1930-Civil Disobedience Movement (Savinay Avagya Andolan)
a) Civil Disobedience Movement was started by Gandhiji with Dandi March on 12 March 1930
b) Gandhiji reached Dandi on 6 April 1930 & violated the Salt Law.
Dandi March (12 March- 6 April, 1930)
• women participation- convince

o Sarojini Naidu
o Kamla devi Chattopadhyay

➢ 1st Round Table Conference (74 People)

a) Held on 12 Nov. 1930 in London to discuss Simon Commission.
b) Gandhiji & Congress boycotted it.
c) Muslim League’s representative- Mohammad Ali Jinnah, Agha Khan & Fazlul Haq.
d) Dalits’ Representative- B.R. Ambedkar
April: Chittagong Armoury Raid

• Surya Sen
o participated in NCM
o teacher @ National School in Chittagong
o imprisoned 1926 to 1928
 o lover of poetry & admirer of Tagore & Qazi Nazrul Islam
o arrested in 1933 & hanged in 1934
• others- Anant Singh, Ganesh Ghosh, Lokenath Baul

Spread of Movement at diff places

Place About
• C Rajagopalachari
• he organized a march from Thiruchirapalli to Vrdaranniyam on Tanjore coast
• although he tried to keep mvmt non-violent, violent eruptions of masses & the violent repressions of
police began
TN
• Choolai Mills Strike
• K Kelappan (Vaikom Satyagraha)- organized salt marches
• P Krishna Pillai- future founder of Kerala Communist

Malabar Movement, heroically defeated national flag in the face of police lathi-charge on Calicut beach in
Nov 1930
• no of sibirams (military style camps)-> to serve as HQ of salt satyagraha
• merchants contributed to Congress fund

Andhra • dominant caste Kamma & Raju cultivators defied repressive measures
Pradesh • but, mass support like NCM was missing***

Odisha • Gopalbandhu Chaudhari

• salt satyagraha- @coastal regions of Balasore, Cuttack, Puri dists

Assam • not that great coz of divisive issues

successful student strike against Cunningham Circular, which banned students' participation in
politics

• Chandraprabha Saikiani- incited aboriginal Kachari villages to break forest laws

• Bengal congress divided in 2 factions was involved in Calcutta

Corporation election

o SC Bose

Bengal o JM Sengupta
• alienation of most of Calcutta bhadralok leaders from rural
masses

• communal riots- less Muslim participation

 • Champaran & Saran- 1st 2nd dist to start it*
• Patna- Nakhas Pond (site) under Ambika Kant Sinha
• no-chaukidari tax campaign replaced salt satyagraha
• Chhotanagpur Plateau- lower class militancy
Bihar
o Bonga Majhi
o Somra Majhi
• Santhals- illegal distillation of liquor

• Khan Abdul Gaffar Khan

• = Badshah Khan/ Frontier Gandhi

Peshawar • started 1st Pushto political monthly- Pukhtoon

• Khudai-Khidmatgars / Red Shirts

Sholapur • textile workers went on strike

• burnt liquor shops
• virtual parallel govts

places About

Dharasana • Sarojini Naidu, Imam Sahib, Manilal

(GJ)
• they took up unfinished task of leading a raid on Dharasana
Salt Works

Gujarat • areas- Anand, Borsad, Nadiad in Kheda dist

• determined no-tax campaign

MH, KA, СР • defiance of forest laws*

• no revenue campaigns

UP • no-rent campaigns
• Agra, Rai Bareilly

Manipur & • Rani Gaidinliu- Naga spiritual leader, who followed her
Nagaland cousin Haipou Jadonang

• urged people not to pay taxes

1931-Chandrashekhar Azad Martyred on 27th Feb 1931.
➢ Gandhi Irwin Pact-1931
a) It was signed on 5th March 1931 Between viceroy Lord Irwin & Gandhiji.
b) Gandhiji agreed to suspend Civil Disobedience Movement.
c) Gandhiji agreed to join 2nd Round Table Conference
23rd March 1931 Bhagat Singh was Martyred

➢ 2nd Round Table Conference: 1931

a) Chaired by Ramsay Macdonald (P.M. of Britain)

b) Gandhiji attended this Conference

c) Irwin was changed to a new Viceroy Wellington

d) Gandhiji demanded control over Defence & Foreign Affairs.

e) B.R. Ambedkar demanded separate Electorate for Depressed Class which

was opposed by Gandhiji.
f) No Conclusion of this Conference.

g) Women Representative: Sarojini Naidu

h) Feb- Azad died in police encounter in a Deer park @Allahabad

i) March 23- BRS hanged

Prominent women revolutionaries:

• Kalpana Dutt- arrested & tried along with Surya Sen & given a life sentence
• Santi Ghosh & Suniti Chandheri- school girls of Comilla- shot dead DM (Dec
1931)
• Bina Das- fired point blank at the governor while receiving her degree at the convocation (Feb
1932)
The Philosophy of Bomb- written by: Bhagwatichandra
Vohra Bhagat: real revolutionary armies are in villages &
factories

Karachi Congress Session-1931

In March 1931 & special session of the Congress was held at Karachi to endorse the Gandhi-
Irwin Pact, Six days before the session (which was held on March 29) Bhagat Singh, Sukhdev and
Rajguru were executed. Throughout Gandhi's route to Karachi, he was greeted with black flag
demonstrations by the Punjab Naujawan Bharat Sabha, in protest against his failure to secure
commutation of the death sentence for Bhagat and his comrades.
➢ 1932-Communal Award

a) Separate Electorate was given to Depressed Class.

b) Grant weightage to Muslims in provinces where they were in minority.

➢ Poona Pact
✓ Gandhiji was in Yervada Jail during Communal Award.
✓ He started Fast unto death.
✓ Poona Pact was concluded between B.R. Ambedkar & Gandhiji.(with the help of
Rajendra Prasad & Madan Mohan Malviya)

1932- All India Anti-Untouchability League (by Gandhi ji)

Poona Pact (Sept 1932)
• abandoned the idea of separate electorate for depressed class

•accepted by govt as amendment to Communal Award

Gandhi
• 1932- All India Anti-Untouchability League (#PYQ-2019)

• 1933- started weekly Harijan

• 1934- Harijan Sevak Sangh

➢ 3rd Round Table conference-

a) 46 people attended it.
b) Congress Boycotted it
c) Outcome- Govt. of India Act, All the 3 Round Table Conferences were attended by
B.R. Ambedkar.
➢ 1933-a) Harijan Patrika by Gandhiji
b) Rehmat Ali Khan coined the word “Pakistan”.
➢ 1934-Harijan Sevak Sangh
➢ 1934- All India Village Industries Association

➢ Congress Socialist Party (CSP)

• estb - 1934
•@Patna
•under chairmanship of- Acharya Narendra Deva
• others- JP Narayan, Basawan Singh, Yogendra Shukla

• goals:

o to achieve the independence of the country

 o to enhance the pace of the organised efforts towards establishing a socialist system

• influenced by both: Fabianism + Marxism-Leninism

• advocates of armed struggle or sabotage- Yusuf Meherally, Jai Prakash Narayan, and
Basawon Singh (Sinha)

• advocates of Ahimsa- Acharya Narendra Deva

• decentralized socialism
1934: Swaraj Party--> idea of constituent assembly to frame Constitution of India
➢ 1935-Govt of India Act (It led to Estb. of RBI, Federal Court, PSC, FPSC etc.)

All India Depressed Class League (1935)

➢ By- Jagjivan Ram
➢ 1st conference – Nagpur
➢ President- Raja of Kolhapur
➢ Vice President - Ambedkar

1935: Burma separated from India

➢ All India Kisan Congress

•Lucknow, in April 1936
•President- Sahjanand Saraswati (he was the pioneer of Bihar Kisan Sabha
Movement and founder of Bihar Provincial Kisan Sabha (BPKS)
•GS- NG Ranga
•kisan manifesto issued & a periodical under Indulal Yagnik
•AIKC & congress sessions- in Faizpur in 1936
•After the split of CPI in 1964, the front was also divided into two — All India Kisan
Sabha (CPI) and All India Kisan Sabha (CPI-M; Akhil Bhartiya Kisan Sabha)
•AIKS didn't support QIM by Gandhi, coz- peasants demand not fulfilled)
➢ 1937-Gullam Bharat’s First Ever Election, India Self Rule Movement

➢ 1939-45- World War 2

Subhash Chandra Bose

➢ 1925 – SC Bose arrested, sent to Alipore Jail then sent
to Mandalay Jail via Mayanmar
➢ 1938-Haripur session of INC (SC Bose President)
➢ 1939 Tripuri Session
a) SC Bose Defeated P. Sitaramaiya and then left INC.
b) All India Forward Block Established by SC Bose (Calcutta)
➢ SC Bose gave 2 titles to Gandhiji
1. Rashtrapita
2. Bapu
Aug 1942- British authorities banned the Forward Block

➢ 1945- SC BOSE Aircraft Crashed.

* World’s 1st Women Combat Army by India – Rani Laxmi Bai Regiment
(Women Army) BY SC Bose
* INA Founder- Ras Bihari Bose
* Real Founder- S.C. Bose

Forward Block
•May 1939
•by- Bose & his followers
• VP- SS Cavesheer

•@Makur, Unnao (UP)

•it is formed as new party within Congress
• 1st all India conference- @Nagpur
o this conference declared the Forward Block to be socialist
politicalparty & 22 June 1940 is considered as the founding date
o a resolution titled 'All Power to the Indian People' was passed... urging militant action for struggle
against British rule

➢ 1940- August Offer (By Lord Linlithgow)

a) Dominion status in unspecified future.
b) Expansion of Governor-General’s council
with representation of Indians.
c) Congress and Muslim League Rejected it.
On 23 March 1940 Demand for Pakistan By Mhd. Ali Jinnah
.Demand for Pakistan proposal was prepared by ‘Khaliquzzaman’

➢ March 1942-Stafford Cripps Mission

a) Dominion status to be granted after the war.
b) Defence of India would remain in British hands.
c) Powers of Gov.-Gen. Would remain intact.
d) Gandhiji called it- “Post Dated cheque on a Crashing Bank”
e) All leaders of Congress imprisoned.
 f) Jinnah supported Britishers in World War II.
➢ August 1942-Quit India Movement
a) Started from Gowalia Maidan, Bombay
b) Gandhiji’s slogan- “Do or Die”

QIM, DEMAND FOR PAK & THE INA

8 Aug 1942: Quit India resolution passed (Reso passed at Wardha)
• proposed by- Jawahar Lal Nehru

• seconded by- SVP

• Location- Gowaliya tank, Bombay (QIM launched)

• opposed by- C Rajagopalachari, left congress afterwards

Gandhi- general instructions to diff sections

•govt servants- do not resign, but declare your allegiance
•soldiers- do not leave army, but...
•students- if confident, leave studies
•peasants
•princes
•princely states' people

9 Aug 1942: all top leaders of congress arrested

•Gandhi's newspapers- Harijan & National Herald were banned. Gandhi was kept at Agha Khan palace,
Pune.

Parallel Govts
• Ballia, UP- Chittu Pandey; other major asso leaders-

o Satish Chandra Samantra

o Ajoy kumar Mukherjee stai
o Satish Chandra Sahu
o Baradakanta Kuiti
• Tamluk (Midnapore dist, WB) - Jatiya Sarkar- Vidyut Vahinis

• Satara- Prati Sarkar; YB Chavan & Nana Patil

• BH- no govt authority in Tirhhut division for almost 2 weeks

o 80% police stations were vacated in 10 N & C dist of BH

• KA- >1600+ incidents of cutting telegraph lines

Underground Activities- Indian businessmen were supporting these underground N/W

•Rammanohar Lohiya
•JP Narayan
•Aruna Asaf Ali
• Usha Mehta- underground radio in Bombay; she was supported by Nanka Motwani owner of Chicago
radio

• Biju Patnaik
•Chhotubhai Puranik
•Achyut Patwardhan
•Sucheta Kripalani
•RP Goenka

QIM: Participants
• women- mainly school & college girls*

• peasants- heart; complete absence* of anti-zamindar violence

• Muslims- helped by giving shelter to underground activities; no communal clashes

Govt response:
•govt brutally attacked protestors
• CWG, AICC, PCC- declared unlawful under- Criminal Law Amendment Act of 1908

• Rule 56 of Defence of India rules--> assembly of meetings were prevented

•within 2-4 weeks the entire mvmt was suppressed

Gandhi- 21 day fast, in response to the British violence against the protestors; so...more fuel was
added..rise in demonstrations

•Viceroy's EC- 3 Indian members resigned

o NR Sarkar
o MS Aney
o HP Mody
•BUT, these 3 members were not supporting QIM, Sirf Bapu ke liye...
•Bapu's health was deteriorating, so released from jail on 6 May 1944
23 March 1943: Pakistan Day

➢ Famine of 1943: worst-affected areas- SW Bengal

•Tamluk-Contar-Diamond Harbour
•Dacca
•Faridpur
•Tippera
•Nokhali
 ➢ 1944: CR(Rajagopalchari Formula) Formula- opposed by-

• ML- was not ready to discuss (because- plebiscite should include only Muslims & not all, not
ready for the mentioned joint agreement)

• Hindu Mahasabha- why to consult ML?

• Sikh community- not in majority in any NWFP districts

➢ 1945: Desai- Liaqat Pact

•initially secret
•formation of interim govt at centre, consisting of-
o = no of persons nominated by INC & ML in central L (40%-40%)

o 20% reserved seats for minorities

•both sides disagreed; Bhulabhai..... , no ticket further

➢ 1945-Wavell Plan
a) By Viceroy Wavell, Shimla Agreement
b) All the Executive councils were to be Indians except Governor General & Commander-in-Chief
c) 6 Muslim Representative out of 14 members which was more than the Muslim
share of Population.
d) Hindus, Muslims, Sikhs, Depressed Class all were given equal representation in assembly.
e) This Plan was dissolved with the failure of Conference & with it the last chance to
avoid partition.
➢ 1946- Cabinet Mission Plan
a) It reached Delhi on 24 March 1946.
b) 3 Members were sent by PM of England “Clement Atlee” –
*Pethick Lawrence
* Stafford Cripps,
* A.V. Alexander
c) Objective- To formulate a Constitution- Making Body (the Constituent Assembly of India).
d) It was failed due to demand of a separate nation for Muslims by Muslim League.
➢ 16 Aug. 1946- Direct Action Day
a) Violence between Hindus and Muslims in Calcutta (Bengal).
b) It was initiated by Muslim League led by Muhammad Ali Jinnah.
c) Reason- Failure of Cabinet Mission Plan
d) Demand of separate Nation by Jinnah.
 e) CM of Bengal at that time-Huseyn Shaheed Suhrawardy
f) Governor of Bengal at that time- Frederick John Burrows

• 3 June 1947-Mountbatten Plan

➢ PM of England at that time :Clement Attlee
➢ Mountbatten sworn in as Gov.-Gen. on 24 March 1947
➢ India to be divided into India & Pakistan.
➢ Bengal & Punjab would be Partitioned.
➢ 1947-14 Aug – Pakistan was Formed.
15th August -India got Independence from British Rule.
➢ 1971-Bangladesh separated from Pakistan (Liberation War).
On 26th November 1949, the Constituent Assembly of India adopted the Constitution of India, which came into
effect from 26th January 1950.

Some Activities done by B.R. Ambedkar

• 1924- Bahishkrit Hitakarni Sabha (Outcastes Welfare Association)
•1930- All India Depressed Class Congress/ Federation*
• 1936- Independent Labour Party
•1942- All India SC Federation

• 1st All India political party exclusively for SC

• founded in National Convention of SC held at Nagpur

• presided by- Rao Bahadur N Shivraj (renowed dalit leader from Madras)

• GS- PN Raibhoi (Bombay)

•1950- Bharatiya Bauddha Mahasabha

•1956- final manuscript: The Buddha or Karl Marx

• formed 3 political parties

o Independent Labour Party
o All India SC Federation
o Republican Party of India (1956- by dismissing AI SC Federation)
➢ All India Depressed Class Association 1928
• Aim - uplift depressed class & they never demanded separate electorate

• 1st President - MC Rajah (1st leader who organised SC at national level)

• MC Rajah - B. S. Moonje pact - According to this pact, Moonje offered reserved
 seats to the Scheduled Castes in return for Rajah's support. The Rajah-Moonje Pact was a
precursor for the Poona Pact.

• Rajah - supported joint electorate

• Books by MC Rajah - The oppressed Hindu and An Unforgettable Dalit Voice

INDIA AFTER INDEPENDENCE

India - Pak Wars
• The major cause of the India - Pak wars was the Kashmir problem.
• On September 1, 1965 Pakistan started attack on the border and invaded Chhamb and
Dewa regions.
• On September 11, UN Secretary General U-Thant reached to talk on cease fire.
• After the battle, Tashkent agreement was signed under the mediation of Russia.
• Indian Prime Minister Lal Bahadur Shastri and Pakistan President Ayub Khan
signed the agreement.
• On December 2 The Border Security Force was formed.
• Lal Bahadur Shastri died at Tashkent on 11 January 1966.
• The deplomacy of Shastri was the major source behind India’s victory in the 1965 Indo-
Pak war.
• The Second Indo-Pak war was in 1971. After the war Bangladesh became an
independent country.
• The agreement signed after the 1971 war was the Shimla Agreement.
• Shimla Agreement was signed by Indian Prime Minister Indira Gandhi and Pakistan
Prime Minister Zulfiker Ali Bhuto in 1972.
• The Kargil war in 1999 was against the terrorist usurpation into Kashmir from Pakistan.
• Kargil military operation of India was known as ‘Operation Vijay’.
• Former Prime Minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee conducted the famous Lahore Bus Journey in
1999 February.
• The Kargil war officially ended on 26 July 1999.
• Boundary line between India and Pakistan is Radcliff line.
• The Lahore declaration was signed between [Link] and Nawaz Sharif.
• Military operation conducted by India on Pakistan 1948 was known as Operation Sojila.
• The operation in which Indian army captured Siachin was known as Operation Meghdoot.
• India and Pakistan signed the Indus River Water Agreement in 1960.
 Indo-China War
• Nehru and Chinese Prime Minister Chau Enlai established bilateral friendly relation
signing the Panchsheel in 1954.
• But giving asylum to the Dalai Lama of Tibet (1954) provocated China.
• China attacked India by crossing the Mac Mohanline on September 8, 1962.
• On October 19 Chinese made a massive attack.
• On October 26 Government declared Emergency and Defence of India Ordinance.
• Keeping view of the Chinese aggression the Gold Bond Scheme was declared.
• In November 1962 the National Defence Council was set up.
• On Nov. 10, the Chinese declared a Unilateral withdrawal.
• In 2005 China removed Sikkhim from Chinese map and accepted it Indias part.
• In 2006, Two countries agreed to open the Nathulapass (Sikkim) after a lapse of four
decades. Liberation of Pondicherry and Goa
• Goa was in the hands of Portuguese from 1510 AD.
• The Liberation Army captured Dadra, Nagar haveli on 22 July 1954.
• Goa, Daman and Diu were liberated from the Portuguese in 1961.
• Pondicherry was under the French
• Since 1946 there were freedom struggle
in Pondicherry.
• The legal hand over of Pondicherry was in 1954.
• Malayalam speaking Mahi, Telegu speaking Yanam and Tamil speaking Karakkal are
the parts of Pondicherry.
• Pondicherry’s new name is Puthussery. onwards.

Nuclear Experiments in India

• Nuclear researches in India were lead by Homi J. Bhaba.
• Council for Scientific Industrial Research Institute was formed in 1942.
• Indias first Nuclear Experiment was on 18th May 1974.
• First Nuclear Experiment of India was code named as ‘‘Buddha Smiles’. It was during
the period of Indira Gandhi as Prime Minister.

• It was conducted at the Pokhran Desert in Rajasthan.

• Uranium was used in the process.
 • It was lead by Dr. H.N. Setna and [Link] Ramanna.
• Second Nuclear experiment was in 1998.
• It was code named a ‘Operation Shakti’ or ‘Buddha Smiles again’’.
• Pokhran is in the Jaisalmer district in Rajasthan.
• Second experiment was conducted during the term of Atal Bihari Vajpayee

New Important Topics Added

1. Social- Cultural reform Movements & their Leaders
2. Political Associations before INC
3. Important Reforms for Women
4. Era of Militant Nationalism
5. Important wars
 SOCIO-CULTURAL REFORM MOVEMENTS & THEIR LEADERS
➢ 1828- Brahmo Sabha
o later renamed- Brahmo Samaj
o purify Hinduism & preach Monotheism
o does not believe in authority of Vedas

o Associates: - David Hare, Alexander Duff, Debendranath Tagore, PK Tagore, Chandrashekhar

Deb, Tarachand Chakraborty

➢ Prarthana Samaj
• 1867- Atmaram Pandurang Bombay (helped by Kesha) + RG Bhandarkar
• 1870- MG Ranade joined it
• 4 point social agenda
[Link] of caste system
[Link]'s education
[Link] remarriage

[Link] marriage age

• DK Karve & Vishnu Shastri- champions of social reform with Ranade
• Karve + Ranade---> Widow Remarriage Mvmt & Widows' Home Asso

➢ Young Bengal Movement

• founder- Henry Vivian Derozio
• 1828

• he was inspired from French Revolution

➢ ICV
• blend of Indian & Western thought

• 1850- became principal of Sanskrit College

• supported widow remarriage

• crusader against child marriage & polygamy

➢ Balshastri Jambhekar
• Newspaper- Darpan(1832)

• father of Marathi Journalism

• 1840- Digdarshan

• Founder of
o Bombay Native General Library
o Native Improvement Society

➢ Paramhansa Mandali (1849)

• Founders- Dadoba Pandurang (Brother of Atmaram), Mehtaji Durgaram & others (Dagdu-
Praju, MD)

• began as secret society to reform Hindu religion & society in general

• Ideology- closely linked to Manav Dharma Sabha

➢ Satyashodhak Samaj & Phule (1873)
• Aim- social service + spread of education among woman & lower caste people

• Books: Gulamgiri, Sarvajanik Satyadharma, Ishara, Dharma Teritiya Ratiya Ratna

➢ Gopalhari Deshmukh 'Lokahitawadi'

• weekly- Prabhakar, Hitechhu

• he held the post of judge under British Raj

• leading role in founding periodicals- Gyan Prakash, Indu Prakash & Lokahitawadi

➢ Gopal Ganesh Agarkar

• co-founder of- New English School, Deccan Education Society kstaw & Ferguson
college (principal)

• 1st editor of Kesari

own periodical- Sudharak (spoke against untouchability & caste s/s

➢ Servants of India Society (1905)

• founder- Gopal Krishan Gokhale
• Aim-
✓ To train national missionaries for service of India

✓ to promote by all constitutional means* the true interests of all Indian people
✓ to prepare cadre of selfless workers

✓ later (1915)- Srinivasa Shastri became President

✓ distinguished members- MC Setalvad, BN Rao, Alladi Krishnaswamy (#PYQ)

➢ Social Service League (1911)

• Founder- Narayan Malhar Joshi @Bombay (follower of Gokhale)

• Aim- to secure for the masses better & reasonable conditions of life & work
 • He also founded- All India Trade Union Congress (1920)

➢ Ramakrishna Movement & Swami Vivekananda

• Ramakrishna Math- Ramakrishna Paramhansa* [poor priest at Kali T in

• Dakshineshwar, childhood name- Gadadhar Chattopadhyay]

• Ramakrishna Mission- Swami Vivekananda (1897)

• HQ- Belur near Calcutta

• 1893- Parliament of Religion @Chicago

• SV was editor of Prabuddha Bharata

➢ Dayananda Saraswati / Mulashankar & Arya Samaj

• 1st Arya Samaj Unit- @Bombay in 1875*

• later HQ- @Lahore*

• book-Satyartha Prakash

• slogan- back to vedas

• Arya Samaj- fixed minimum marrigeable age: 25- boys, 16- girls

• 1886- Dayanand Anglo-Vedic College @Lahore- 2 groups

• 1900- Swami Shardanand opened Gurukul @Gujaranwala

o aim- to provide indigenous alternative to Lord Macaulay's education policy by offering education in
the areas of-
✓ Vedic literature
✓ Indian Philosophy
✓ Indian culture
✓ modern sciences & research*

➢ Seva Sadan
• founded by BM Malabari in 1908 (+ Diwan Davaram Gidumal)

• to take care of exploited & socially discarded women

• newspaper (Malabari)- Indian Spectator

• Books by Behramji Merwanji Malabari - The India muse in English Garb, The Indian Eye on
English life or Rambles of a Pilgrim reformer, The Indian Problem, Infant Marriage and Enforced
Widowhood in india

➢ Dev Samaj
• estb- 1887 by Shiv Narayan Agnihotri (earlier Brahmo follower)

• Dev Sadan- religious & social reform society

 • Book- Deva Shastra

➢ Dharma Sabha
•1830, by Radhakant Deb (PYQ CAPF 2021)
•it was established to counter Brahmo Samaj's propaganda
• orthodox society- preservation of status-quo in socio-religious matters
• still favoured western education even for girls
•he was the 1st president of British Indian Association (#PYQ)

➢ Self-respect movement (1925)

• Leaders: EV Ramaswamy Nicker (invited by- S Ramanathan), Baljia Naidu

• fight against exploitation of lower caste

• against Brahminism

➢ Bharat Dharma Mahasabha

•against- orthodox Hinduism, Arya Samaj, Theosophist, Ramakrishna Mission
•others defending above:
o Sanatan Dharma Sabha- 1895
o Dharma Mahila Parishad- S. India

o Dharma Mahamandali- Bengal

•1902- all above combined to form- Bharat Dharma Mahasabha

•HQ- Varanasi

➢ Radhaswami Movement
• 1861- Tulsi Ram (Agra banker)
•one supreme being

➢ SNDP movement
• Sree Narayan Guru Dharma Paripalana

• origin- conflict b/w- depressed class & upper caste

• 1889- Aruvippuram Kshetra Yogam

• 1903- SNDP registered under Indian Companies Act

➢ Vokkaliga Sangha
• 1905 @Mysore

• anti- Brahmin movement

➢ Justice Movement (South Indian Liberal Federation)

•1917
• Madras presidency
• leaders: CN Mudaliar, TM Nair, P Tyagraja
• aim- to secure representation of non- brahmin in legislature

➢ Temple Entry movement

• Leaders: Sree Narayan Guru, N Kumaran Asan Boo

• 1924- Vaikom Satyagraha led by KP Kesava (Kerala)

• 1931- CDM suspended=> temple entry movement in Kerala

o inspired by- K Kelappan, Subramaniyam Tirumambu (singing sword of Kerala)
o P Krishna Pillai, AK Gopalan

➢ Indian Social Conference

• Founders: MG Ranade & Raghunath Rao

• 1st session- 1887 same time & same venue as INC

• launched Pledge movement- to inspire people to take a pledge against a child marriage

➢ Wahabi/ Walliullah Movement

• revivalist

• Shah Walliullah
o 1st Indian Muslim leader of 18th century to organize Muslims*
o his teachings further popularised by- Shah Abdul Aziz & Syed Ahmed Barelvi
o fizzled out in 1870s

➢ Titu Mir's Movement\

Mir Nithar Ali= Titu Mir
o desciple of Sayyid Ahmed Barelvi (founder of Wahabi movement)

• he adopted Wahabism & advocated Sharia

➢ Faraizi Movement
• called so coz- emphasis on Islamic pillars of faith

• founded by Haji Shariatullah in 1818

• Aim- eradication of social innovations or un-Islamic practices

• under Haji's son- Dudu Mian- movement became revolutionary in 1840

 ➢ Ahmadiyya Movement
• 1889, by- Mirza Ghulam Ahmad

• based on liberal principles

• believed in separating mosque from state

➢ Aligarh Movement
• Syed Ahmed Khan--> loyalist member of judicial service

• he wanted to reconcile Western scientific education with the teachings of Quran

• 1875- started- Mohammedan Anglo-Oriental College--> later, Aligarh Muslim University (1920)

• 1876- retired from British Service

➢ Deoband School (Darul Uloom)

• organised by- orthodox section among Muslim Ulemas as revivalist movement

• 2 objectives –
✓ propogate pure teachings of Quran & Hadis among Muslims
✓ keeping alive the spirit of Jihad against the foreign rule

➢ Parsi Reform Movement

• 1851- Rahnumai Mazdayasnan Sabha (Religious Reform Asso)

• aim- regeneration of social conditions of Parsis & restoration of Zoroastrian religion to its prestine
purity

• leaders- Naoroji Furdonji, Dadabhai Naoroji, KR Cama, SS Bengalee

• Newspaper- Rast Goftar

➢ Sikh Reform movements

• Singh Sabha movement
o Amritsar
o Objectives
✓ modern education to Sikhs
✓ to counter proselytising activities of Christian Missionaries, Brahmo Samajist, Arya Samajist
& Muslim Maulavis

• Akali movement
o Gurudwara reform movement
o aim- liberating Gurdwaras from the control of corrupt Udasi mahants
o Sikh Gurdwaras Act, 1922 (amended in 1925)
o apex body- Shiromani Gurdwara Prabandhak Committee (SGPC)
 ➢ Theosophical Movement
• founders- Madame HP Blavatsky + MS Olcott + William Quan Judge & others

• Theosophical Society- NewYork, USA in 1875

• 1882- HQ shifted to Adyar (near Madras)

• opposed- child marriage

• Annie Besant
o 1893- came to India
o 1898- founded Central Hindu College @Banaras (1916- BHU)
o 1907 - became president

POLITICAL ASSOCIATIONS BEFORE INC

Bangabhasha Prakasika Sabha

• 1836, by- associates of RRR---> Gourishankar Tarkabagish

• obj- to promote Bengali language & build public opinion

Zamindari Association/ Landholders' society

•1837
• founders- Raja Radhakant Dev + Dwarkanath Tagore
• to safeguard interests of landlords
• beginning of organised political activity (1st)
• methods of constitutional agitation

Bengal British Indian Society

•1843
•founder- George Thompson
• bi- collection & dissemination of info relating to actual condition of people & promote
general public interest

British Indian Association

• 1851, by- Landholders' society + Bengal British Indian Society

• 1st president: Radhakant Deb

• 1st GS: Debendranath Tagore

Madras Native Association
• 1852

• founder- Gazulu Lakshminarasu Chettiar (or Chetty) (he also founded - 1st Indian-
owned newspaper in Madras- The Crescent)

East India Association- 1866, London, by- Dadabhai Naoroji

• obj- to discuss the Indian question & influence public men in England to promote
Indian welfare

Poona Sarvajanik Sabha- 1867, by- MG Ranade+ others (SS Chiplunkar), acted as bridge b/w-
gov & people

Indian League- 1875, by- Sisir Kumar Ghosh, obj- to stimulate sense of nationalism in people +
encourage political education

Indian Association of Calcutta/ Indian National Association

• superseded by Indian League

• founded in 1876

• By- Surendranath Banerjee & Anand Mohan Bose

• sponsored all India Conference- 1st @Calcutta in 1883

• obj- to promote political, intellectual & material advancement of people by legitimate

• merged with INC in 1886.

Bombay Presidency Association- 1885, by- Badruddin Tyabji, Pherozshah Mehta &
KT Telang

• to champion Indian interests & hosted the 1st meeting of INC in Bombay

Madras Mahajan Sabha- 1884, by- M Viraraghavachari, B Subramaniya Aiyer & P

Anandacharlu

• supported INC

• objective- to create an org of All India level to relieve & free the nation from the clutches of British
rule

Gujarat Sabha
• 1884, @Ahmedabad, GJ

• association members- Vallabhbhai Rathod, Hardik Khurana, DJ Civil & Mitesh Pandya

• Gandhi served as its president from 1918 to 1919

INC
 1883: Ilbert Bill Controversy

• CP Ilbert - law member of EC

• provisions- it proposed to allow Indian judges & magistrates to convict Europeans in criminal cases
3 Acts of British which necessitates formation of INC

• VPA 1878

• Arms Act 1878

• Ilbert Bill 1884

INC
• founder- AO Hume (retired Civil Servant Officer)

• Theories:
o Safety Valve Theory: Lala Lajpat Rai (1st time the term was used in
his newspaper- Young India)

o Conspiracy Theory: Rajani Palme Dutt (journalists) (Marxist...

offshoot of safety valve)

o Lightning Conductor Theory/ Nationalist Theory: GK Gokhale (if

Indians have started it, British would have definitely suppressed it)

• obj- to facilitate dialogue b/w educated Indians & Britishers

• INC: 1st session- Gokuldas Tejpal Sanskrit College, Bombay (initially planned at
Pune, but Cholera); mostly lawyers & no women delegate

• PPP Model
1890: Kadabini Ganguly- 1st woman graduate of Calcutta University
Indian National Conference: main architects- S Baneriea & Anand Mohan Bose

British Committee of INC in London in 1889 (PYQ CAPF 2020)

•William Wedderburn - 1st chairman
• William Digby – Secretary
• He was one of the founding member of INC, Bombay HC judge,
Chief Secy to Bombay govt
William
1889 Bombay Wedderburn • 1st time women in session (10) - included
Pandita Ramabai, Kadambini Ganguly &
Swarnakumari Devi (R Tagore's sister)

1890: it was decided to hold INC session of 1892 in London---> NEVER happened
#Economic Critique (#PYQ)

Romesh Chunder Dutt Economic History of India (1901)

Dadabhai Naoroji Poverty & Un-British Rule in India (1901)

MG Ranade Essays on Indian Economics (1898)

IMPORTANT REFORMS FOR WOMEN

➢ Steps taken to ameliorate women's position
➢ Abolition of Sati:
• Regulation of 1829 (Act XVII): sati- illegal + punishable by criminal courts

• Initially applicable to Bengal

• later extended to Bombay & Madras with modifications in 1830

➢ Preventing Female Infanticide:

• Bengal Regulations of 1795 & 1804- murdering of female infant illegal

• 1870 Act- compulsory birth registration + verification of female children after some years
of birth.

➢ Widow Remarriage:
Widow Remarriage Act (Act XV), 1856
(Lord Canning) - drafted by Dalhousie.

o efforts by- Ishwar Chandra (principal of Sanskrit College, Calcutta)

o legalised widow remarriage & issues from such marriage- legitimate
o MH- Jagannath Shankar Sheth & Bhau Daji (Ram Krishna Lad) - active promoters of
girls'education

o Vishnu Shastri Pandit- founded Widow Remarriage Association in 1850s

o Karsondas Mulii- Satya Prakash in Gujarati in 1852- to advocate widow remarriage
➢ DK Karve
o married a widow in 1893
o dedicated his life to the upliftment of Hindu widows
o became the secretary of the Widow Remarriage Association
o opened a widows' home @Poona- vocational training to high* caste widows
o Madras- Veerasalingam Pantulu
o other- BM Malabari, Narmad (Narmadashankar Labhshankar Dave), MG Ranade, K Natarajan

➢ Controlling child marriage:

• Native Marriage Act, 1872

• NA to Hindu, Muslim & other recognised faiths

• Age of Consent Act, 1891

• Imp- BM Malabari (Parsi Reformer)

• girl marriage age: >12

• Act X

• introduced by- Andrew Scoble, Passed by - Lord Lansdowne.

• Rakhmabai case (1887)

• Phulomani Dasi case (1889)

• Supporters - B.M. Malabari, Pandita Ramabai Saraswati

• Opposed by Romesh chunder Mitter, B.G. Tilak

➢ Sarda Act, 1930 [named after- Rai Sahib Harbilas Sharda]

o marriage age: boys-18, girls-14

➢ Child Marriage Restraint (Amendment) Act, 1978

o girls- 18 (15), boys- 21 (18)

➢ Education of women
• 1819- Calcutta Female Juvenile Society- set up by Christian Missionaries

• 1849- Bethune school by JED Bethune (President of Council of Education in Calcutta)

• 1854- Wood's Despatch = great stress on need of female education

• 1880s- Dufferin hospitals

• 1914- women's medical service- training of nurses & mid-wives

• 1916- Indian Women University- by DK Karve

• 1916- Lady Hardinge Medical College, Delhi

 ➢ Women's Organisations: {ALBNA: 1882, 1904, 1910, 1925, 1927}

• 1882- Arya Mahila Samaj

• Founder- Pandita Ramabai Saraswati (PRS)

• PRS was awarded Kaisar-i-Hind Medal for community service in 1919

• PRS - founded Sharada Sadan - doctrines of Christianity were taught to women.

▪ 1904- Ladies Social Conference (Bharat Mahila Parishad)
▪ Bombay
▪ Founder- Ramabai Ranade
▪ Chaired the first session of India Women Conference held in Bombay in 1904,
▪ 1908- Bombay Seva Sadan
▪ 1909- Poona Seva Sadan

• 1910- 1st meeting of Bharat Stree Mahamandal

• Allahabad by- Sarda Devi Chaudhurani (editor of journal- Bharati, founded by her uncle R
Tagore)

•1925- National Council of Women in India

o vital role- Mehribai Tata

➢ Religious disabilities Act, 1856

• Modified Hindu customs

• change of religion did not debar son from inheriting property of his heathen father
(religion change to Christianity)

• 1838-42: 1st Afghan war

• 1845-49: Punjab wars

• 1854-56: Crimean wars

➢ General services Enlistment Act, 1856

• all future recruits to the Bengal Army would have to give an undertaking to serve
anywhere their services might be required by the government
 ➢ 1927-AIWC
o Founder- Margaret Cousins (Irish-Indian educationist, suffragist and Theosophist)
o 1st women organisation with egalitarian approach
o 1st conference- Ferguson college,
o India's 1st Lady Barrister- Cornelia Sarabji
o India's 1st women practicing doctor- Rukhmabai
o Muthulakshi Reddy- 1st women legislator of India

➢ Women's Indian Association (Adyar, Madras) 1917

o Annie Besant - 1st president WIA
o WIA followed the INC stand against separate electorates for minorities and women

ERA OF MILITANT NATIONALISM (1905-1909)

• 1896: Italian army got defeated by Ethiopians

• 1899-1902: Boer Wars--->Gandhi supported it (& was awarded Kaiser-i-Hind for his work relating
to ambulance service)

• 1905: Japan's victory over Russia

• Swami Dayanand Saraswati- India for Indians

Anti-Partition Campaign (1903-05)- leaders

•Surendranath Banerjee (Bengalee)
•KK Mitra* (Hitabadi)
•P Ray

Vande Mataram movement

• initial stage: led by moderate leaders like- SN Baneriee & Krishna Kumar Mitra
• KK Mitra gave slogan- TOTAL BOYCOTT for the 1st time in his journal- Sanjibani
• spread deltaic regions of AP (#PYQ)

Aug 7, 1905: Boycott Resolution---> formal proclamation of Swadeshi

Oct 16, 1905: Partition Day
1905 Benaras Gokhale • support anti-partition & Swadeshi movement
• # moderate- extremists diff come fore

• S Banerjee & Anand Mohan Bose: addressed huge gatherings

• Aurobindo Ghosh: Political freedom is the life breath of the nation (Bande Mataram Case-->
he was charged under sedition for writing in Bande Mataram)

• Swadeshi Sangram: by- VO Chidambaram Pillai, Subramania Siva + some lawyers--->

@Tirunelveli, TN
VOC- follower of Tilak

• Bengal National College: 1906 (1st President- Aurobindo Ghosh), inspired by Tagore's
Shantiniketan

• 1906- National Council on Education*

• aim- to promote S&T as a part of Swadeshi industrialization movement

Nandalal Bose- 1st recipient of scholarship offered by- Indian Society of Oriental Art (founded in-
1907, founders- Gaganendranath Tagore & Abanindranath Tagore)

1906 Calcutta Dadabhai • Self government or Swaraj- goal

Naoroji • extremists demanded- passive resistance should be INC's agenda, but
president wasn't extremist (respected by both)

• so, more rift... still extremists were successful in convincing President

to declare Swaraj as goal

Subramania Siva & Chidambaram Pillai- led strikes in foreign-owned cotton mills
PB: Arsenal & railway workers strike--> led by- Lala Lajpat Rai & Ajit Singh
➢ Govt Acts to suppress Swadeshi Movement
•1907 - Swadeshi Meeting Act
• 1908- Criminal Law (Amendment) Act
• 1908- Indian Newspapers (Incitement to Offences) Act
•1908- Explosive Substances Act
• 1910- Indian Press Act

➢ PC Ray- Bengal Chemical factory (during Swadeshi)

 ➢ VO Chidambaram Pillai- Steam Navigation Company (during Swadeshi)
➢ Bharat Mata Asso: founders- Nilkantha Brahmachari + Vanchi Ayyer
➢ National Anthem was sung 1st time in 1911 @Calcutta session of INC (President- BN
Dhar)

➢ NM Joshi- father of modern trade unionism in India (he was also the founder of Social
Service League in 1911)

• 1880- helped for founding New English School; later became- Fergusson College
•1893- Ganesh festival
• 1895- Shivaji festival
•1897- gave call for No Tax campaigns

➢ 1906: Simla Deputation

•led by- Agha Khan
• demand for separate electorate for Muslims
30 Dec 1906: formation of All India Muslim League (founder- Nawab Khwaja Salimullah)
Leaders arrested:
•Tilak
•Ajeet Singh
•C Pillai
•Aurobindo Ghosh (Alipore conspiracy case)
Aurobindo & BC Pal- later retired from active politics
PLACE YEAR ACTIVITY
• 1st revolutionary group under Jnanendranath Basu
@Midnapore

• @Calcutta- Anushilan Samiti

o founders- Promotha Mittar*, Jatindranath Banerjee,
Barindra Kumar Ghosh, Satish Chandra Basu
o began as gymkhana
Bengal
o name from Bankim Chandra Chatterjee's novel--->
1902 Anushilan Tatva

• April: inner circle within Anushilan Samiti started weekly

Yugantar (name taken from Shivnath Shastri's novel by the same
name)

• inner circle= Barindra Kumar Ghosh, Bhupendranath Dutta

(both-editors)

• 30 cr Indians---> 60 cr hands
• Barisal conference*
1906 • in 1907, Barindranath Ghosh wrote a book- Vartaman
Bengal
Rananiti (Rules of Modern Warfare)

• in 1905, Aurobindo Ghosh wrote a pamplate named Bhavani

Mandir (in this pamplate he wrote about how to organize

revolutionary activities)
• an abortive attempt was made by Yugantar group on the life of
very unpopular British official, Sir Fuller (the 1st Lt Gov of new
province of E Bengal & Assam)

• Dec: attempts to derail the train on which the Lt Gov

Andrew Fraser was travelling; 2 attempts; 5 Dec- bomb
@Naarayannagar
Bengal 1907
o arrested- Barindra Kumar Ghosh, Bibhuti Bhushan Sarkar,
Ullash Kumar Dutt
PLACE YEAR ACTIVITY

Alipore Conspiracy or Muraripukur Conspiracy

• Aurobindo Ghosh, Barindra Kumar Ghosh & others

• Barindra Ghosh- head of secret society of revolutionaries

• Ullaskar Dutt- maker of bombs

• Naredra Goswami (MC)

• Hemchandra Das Kunungo- he went to Germany to learn bomb making

• Prafulla Chaki & khudiram Bose- attempted to murder Muzaffarpur
Magistrate, Kingsford (Why?..coz- he had inflicted severe punishments on
Swadeshi activists) (#PYQ-CDS)

• but instead 2 British ladies got killed (wife and daughter of barrister Pringle
Kennedy) (#PYQ-CDS)

• Chaki- shot himself & Khudiram Bose was hanged

Bengal 1908
Barrah Dacoity (#PYQ)

• org by- Dacca Anushilan under Pulin Das (it was organized on the advice
of P Mitrra)

• to raise funds for revolutionary activities

• E Bengal

Bomb thrown on Viceroy Hardinge by Rashbehari Bose & Sachin Sanyal Delhi
Conspiracy or Delhi-Lahore Conspiracy trial

• Basant Kumar Bishwas, Amir Chand, Avadh Behari

• Rashbehari Bose- person behind the plan

W Anushilan Samiti
Bengal 1912 • Jatindranath Mukheriee or Bagha Jain

• he emerged as Jugantar or Yugantar

 Zimmerman Plan/ German Plot

• WW I time- Jugantar Party arranged to import German arms & ammunition

through sympathisers & revolutionaries abroad

• Jatin asked Rashbehari Bose to take charge of Upper India, aiming to

bring out all-India insurrection

• funds through dacoities called as- taxicab dacoities & boat dacoities

• plan- Guerilla force with seizure of Fort Williams

• plot- leaked

• Bagha Jain- @Balasore

1914-17 o he shot dead in 1915
o call- 'we shall die to awaken the nation'

PLACE YEAR ACTIVITY

Ramosi Peasant Force- Vasudev Balwant Phadke (Koli, Bhil,

Dhangar)
MH 1879

Chapekar brothers (Damodar & Balkrishna) murdered the Plague

Commissioner of Poona Rand & one Lt Ayerst
1897

Mitra Mela
VD Savarkar

1899 • above- merged with Abhinav Bharat in 1904 (after Mazzinni's

Young Italy)
AMT Jackson- collector of Nashik was killed by Anant Lakshman
Kanhere (member of Abhinav Bharat)
1909
 • LL Rai: Punjabi
• Ajit Singh: Anjuman-i-Mohisban-i-Watan in Lahore; journal-
Bharat Mata

• other leaders-
o Aga Haider
o Syed Haider Raza
o Bhai Parmanand
o radical Urdu poet- Lalchand Falak
• Ajit Singh:
o 1907- Pagadi Sambhal Jatta agitation---> jail @Mandalay
o peasant mobilization---> instead of providing ownership, status of
peasants was reduced to sharecroppers

▪ Colonization Act
▪ Doab Bari Act
o he also attended 1907 INC session
PB
o later society- Bharat Mata*
o also launched Bharat Mata book agency
o fled to Iran via Karachi, Paris
o Indian Revolutionary Asso @Paris
o Switzerland
o met communists like Lenin, Trotsky, Mussolini (Fascist)
PLACE YEAR ACTIVITY

Indian Home Rule Society/ India House

• @London

Abroad 1905 • by- Shyamji Krishnaverma

• journal- The Indian Sociologist*

• Savarkar, Hardayal- became members

Madanlal Dhingra murdered Curzon-Wyllie

Paris & Geneva

• Madam Bhikaji Cama (Parsi revolutionary)
• Bande Mataram
• she supported Indian Home Rule Society of SK Verma

Abroad 1909 • co-founded Paris Indian Society (others- MB Godrej & SR Rana)...
opened as a branch of IHRS

2nd socialist congress @Stuttgart, Germany---> flag unfurled

after 1909 when Anglo-German relations deteriorated, Virendranath

Chattopadhyaya chose Berlin as his base
Berlin Committee for Indian Independence
• founded by-
o Virendranath Chattopadhyaya
o Bhupendranath Dutta
o Lala Hardayal

Mission under Raja Mahendra Pratap Singh, Barkatullah &

Abroad 1915 Obaidullah Sindhi went to Kabul to organize Provincial Indian Govt
Mutiny in Singapore

• leaders- Jamadar Chisti Khan, Jamadar Abdul Gani, Subedar Daud

Khan
 WARS
PERIOD WARS TREATY
1746-48 First Carnatic War Treaty of Air-La-Chapelle
• Madras given back to British &
Quebec (Canada) to French

1749-54 Second Carnatic War Tearty of Pondicherry, 1755

• British candidate Mohamed Ali Khan
Walajan was recognized as Nawab of
Carnatic

23 june 1757 Battle of Plassey Feb 1757- Treaty of Alinagar (b/w –Clive & Siraj)

1758-63 Third carnatic War Treaty of Paris (remember: 1760- Wandiwash:

French- x)

• Signed in 1763 after end of 7 yrs war

• French possessions in India were
made protectorate states
• No fortification & standing army
allowed

• French confined only two

few areas

22 oct 1764 Battle of Buxar Treaty of Allahbad

Diwani rights to british for Bengal, bihar, Odisha

1766-69 1st Anglo- Mysore war Treaty of Madras

1780-84 2nd Anglo- Mysore war Mahe seized by British

Hyder Ali- death
Treaty of Manglore
1789-1792 3rd Anglo- Mysore Treaty of Sriangpattinam (capital of Mysore)

1799 4th Anglo- Mysore war Mysore became part of Britsh India (death of
Tipu Sulatan)

1775-82 1st Anglo- Maratha War Treaty of Salbai- status qua + focus on common
enemy …> Mysore

1803-06 2nd Anglo Maratha war Treaty of Bassein (1802: peshwa Bsjirao ii –
British)

1817-18 3rd Anglo Maratha 1857- Pune pact:-> dissolving of Martha

Confederacy & abolishment of peshwaship
1844-46 1st Anglo Sikh War Treaty of Lahore
1848-49 2nd Anglo Sikh War Annexation of punjab
(battle of Chillianwala)
 FAMOUSE HISTORICAL TOMBS, SHRINES, MOSQUES
Monument Location Built By
Akbar’s Tomb Sikandra, Agra, UP Jahangir
Bada Imambabda Lucknow, UP Nawab Asaf-ud-Daula
Bibi ka Maqbara Aurangabad Alam Shah
Charar-e-Sharrif Sri Nagar, J&K Jainul Abedin
ChhotaImambada Lucknow, UP Md Ali Shah
Etmad-ud-Daula Tomb Agra,UP Noor Jahan
Gol Ghar Patna, Bihar British Govt
Humanyu’s Tomb Delhi HameedaBano Begum
Jama Masjid` Agra, UP Shah Jahan
Pandari ki haveli Patna, Bihar Father Capuchin
Mecca Masjid Hyderabad Quli Qutub Shah
Moti Masji Agra Fort, UP Shah Jahan
Patthar ki Masjid Patna, Bihar Parvez Shah
Safderjung Tomb Delhi Shuja-ud-Daula
Sheesh Mahal Agra, UP Shah Jahan
Sher Shah’s Tomb Sasaram, Bihar Son of Sher Shah
Shershah’s Masjid Patna, Bihar Parvez Shah
Tajmahal Agra, UP Shah Jahan

Events/Acts/Reforms.......... Viceroy/Governor Generals

Permanent Settlement (1793)..........Lord Cornwallis
Subsidiary Alliance (1798).............. Lord Wellesley
Abolition of Sati (1829) ....... Lord William Bentinck
Introduction of Civil service ..........Lord Cornwallis
Doctrine of Lapse ......................... Lord Dalhousie
Railways started in India ............... Lord Dalhousie
Post and Telegraph ....................... Lord Dalhousie
English Education in India .. Lord William Bentinck
Vernacular Press Act (1878).................Lord Lytton
Arms Act (1878) .................................Lord Lytton
Local Self Government (1882) ............ Lord Rippon
Ryotwari System ................................ Lord Munro
Partition of Bengal (1905) ................... Lord Curzon
Rowlatt Act (1914) ...................... Lord Chelmsford
Simon Commission (1928) ... Lord William Bentinck
Sepoy Mutiny (1857) ....................... Lord Canning
Queens Proclamation (1858) ........... Lord Canning
Factory Act (1881) .............................. Lord Ripon
Repeal of Vernacular Press Act (1881)Lord Canning
Indian councils Act/Minto -Morley Reforms (1909)
....................................................... Lord Minto II
Partition of Bengal revoked (1911) Lord Hardinge II
Transfer Capital to Delhi (1911) ... Lord Hardinge II
Dyarchy in province (1919) ......... Lord Chelmsford
Jallianwala Bagh Tragedy (1919).. Lord Chelmsford
Non co-operation ....................... Lord Chelmsford
Poorna Swaraj resolution (Lahore 1929) . Lord Irwin
Frist Round Table Conference (1930) ..... Lord Irwin
Gandhi Irwin Pact (1931) ....................... Lord Irwin
Communal Award (1932) .............. Lord Wellington
Poona Pact (1932) ........................ Lord Wellington
2nd Round Table Conference(1931) .... Lord Wellington
3rd Round Table Conference (1932) ..... Lord Wellington
Separate Electorates (1932) .......... Lord Wellington
Government of India Act (1935).... Lord Wellington
Provincial Autonomy (1937)......... Lord Linlithgow
Cripps Mission (1942) .................... Lord Linthgow
Quit India Movement ................... Lord Linlithgow
Cabinet Mission (1946) ...................... Lord Wavell
INA Trial (1945) ................................. Lord Wavell
Indian Independence Act 1947) .......Lord Mountbatten
Partition of India (1947) ............ Lord Mountbatten
 Books and Authors
VandeMataram.....................Aurobindo Ghosh
New Lamps for Old ...............Aurobindo Ghosh
Bhavani Mandir ....................Aurobindo Ghosh
Hind Swaraj ........................... Mahatma Gandhi
Gora ................................ Rabindranath Tagore
GhareBaiyare .................. Rabindranath Tagore
Gitanjali ........................... Rabindranath Tagore
Discovery of India ............................J.L. Nehru
Essays in Indian Economics..........M.G. Ranade
Arctic Home of the Aryans ................B.G. Tilak
Geeta Rahasya ................................... B.G. Tilak
Poverty and Un-British Rule in India….Dada Bhai Naoroji
We ........................................... M.S. Golwalkar
Durgesh Nandini .... Bankim Chandra Chatterjee
Bang Darshan......... Bankim Chandra Chatterjee
Anand Math .......... Bankim Chandra Chatterjee
India in Transition ............................ M.N. Roy
Economic History of British India ....... R.C. Dutt
The Indian Struggle ......Subhash Chandra Bose
Indian Musalmans ................................. Hunter
GanaDevta ....... TarashankarBandhopadhyaya
Philosophy of the Bomb.....BhagavatiCharan Vohra
Why Socialism ................Jayaprakash Narayan
Gandhi Versus Lenin ....................... S.A. Dange
Problem of the East ....................... Lord Curzon
Neel Darpam ...................... DeenBandu Mithra
India Today ........................................ R.P. Dutt
India Wins Freedom ............ Abdul Kalam Azad
Indian Unrest .......................... Valentine Chirol
Prachya Aur Paschchatya .... Swami Vivekanand
Gau Karunanidhi.................... Swami Dyayanda
Letters from Russia ............ Rabindranth Tagore
Wither India ......................................[Link]
Soviet Asia ......................................J.L. Nehru
Pather Debi ................... Avanindranath Tagore
History of Hindu Chemistry .................. P.C. Rai
Peasantry of Bengal ........................... R.C. Dutt

Governors Generals of India

1772-1785 .............................Warren Hastings
1786 - 1793 ............................. Lord Cornwallis
1793 - 1798 ................................. Sir Joh Shore
1798 - 1805 .............................. Lord Wellesley
1807- 1813 .................................... Lord Minto
1813 -1823 ................................Lord Hastings

1823 - 1828 ................................ Lord Amherst

1828 - 1835 .................... Lord William Bentinck
1835 - 1842 .......................Baron Ellenborough
1842 - 1844 .................. William Wilberfore Bird
1844 - 1848 ............................... Lord Hardinge
1848 - 1856 .............................. Lord Dalhousie
1856 - 1858 ................................ Lord Canning

Viceroys of British India

1858 - 1862 ................................ Lord Canning
1862 - 1863 .............................. 8th Earl Elgin I.
1863 .................................... Sir Robert Napier
1863 - 1864 .................... Sir William T. Dension
1864 - 1869 ................................. Earl of Mayo
1872 - .................................. Sir John Strachey
1872 - 1876 ........................ Baron North Brook
1876 - 1880 ................................... Lord Lytton
1880-1884 ..................................... Lord Ripon
1884 -1888 .................................Lord Dufferin
1888-1894 .............................Lord Lansdowne
1894 -1899 .................................. Lord Elgin II
1899 - 1905 .................................. Lord Curzon
1905 - 1910 .................................Lord Minto II
1910 - 1916 ............................ Lord Hardinge II
1916 - 1921 ............................ Lord Chelmsford
1921 -1926 .................................Lord Reading
1926-1931 ...................................... Lord Irwin
1931 -1936 ............................ Lord Wellington
1936 -1942 ............................. Lord Linlithgow
1942-1947 ....................................Lord Wavell
1947 (March 13 - August 14) ..........................
................................. Lord Louis Mounbatten

Governors - Generals of Indian Union

1947 (August 15)
1948 (June 20) ...........Lord Louis Mountbatten
1950 Jan. 25 ....................... C. Rajagopalachari

Famous Conspiracy Cases

Case Date Accused
Nasik 1909-10 Vinayak Savarkar Conspiracy
Alipore 1908 Aurobindo Ghosh
Hawrah case 1910 JatinMukharjee
Dacca Case 1910 Pulin Das
Delhi case 1915 Amirchand, Awad
Bihari and Bal Mukund
Lahore case 1929 - 30 Bhagat Singh, Rajguru
and Sukhdev
Banaras case 1915 – 16 Sachindranath Sanyal
Kakori case 1925 Rama Prasad BismilAnd Ashfaq

Some Other Important Books

Person Newspaper
G Subramaniya Iyer The Hindu
Swadesamitran

Tilak Kesari
Mahrattha
Surendranath Banerjea Bengalee

Sisir Kumar Ghosh & Motilal Ghosh Amrita Bazaar Patrika

GK Gokhale

Manmohan Ghosh & Devendranath Indian Mirror

Tagore
(NN Sen- writer)

Devendranath Tagore National Newspaper

Dadabhai Naoron Voice of India

Rast Goftar

GP Varma Hindustan
Advocate

SK Verma Indian Sociologist

Aurobindo Ghosh Bande Mataram (from Paris)

Barindra Kumar Ghosh
Madam Cama- Paris publication

Madanial Dhingra Talwar

Bhikaii Cama
Virendranath Chattopadhyay -(founder)

Lala Hardaval Ghadar

Sambad kaumudi
Mirat-ul-Akbar
RRR Banga- Duta (+ Dwarkanath Taagore & others)
 PERSON NEWSPAPER

New India
Annie Besant Commonweal

ICV Som Prakash

Gopal Hari Deshmukh Induprakash

Karsondas Mulji Satya Prakash (Gujarati, 1852)

Mohammad Ali Comrade

Sir Syed Ahmed Khan Tahzib-ul-Akhlag

Maulana Azad Al- Hilal

Al- Balagh

Swami Vivekanand Udbodhana

Prabudha Bharat*

KM Pannikar Hindustan Times

VM Mandalik Native Opinion

The Bengal Gazette James Augustus Hicky (#1st)

TK Madhavan Deshabhimani

Marshman***(PYQ-CAPF) Samachar Darpan (1st weekly Bengali)

AUTHOR BOOKS

Sir Syed Ahmed Khan The Causes of Indian Revolt (to support* British)

Viceroy Hardinge My Indian Year

RC Dutt Economic History of India (1901)

Dadabhai Naoroii Poverty & Un-British Rule in India (1901)

MG Ranade Essays on Indian Economics (1898)

PC Ray The Poverty Problem in India (1870)

ICV Barnaparichay, babuvivah okstawa

Din Bandhu Mitra Nil Darpan

Michael Madhusudan Dutta The Things Mirror (English translation of Nil Darpan)
Meghnad Badh Kavya

Nazir Ahmad (PYQ-CAPF) Mirat-ul-uroos (The Bride's Mirror)

GE Ward the Bride's Mirror (English translation of Mirat-ul-uroos)

Stanley Wolpert Nehru: A tryst with Destiny

Arvind Pangariya India's tryst with Destiny

Jagdish Bhagwati

S Radhakrishnan Glimpses of World History

The Story of My Experiments With Truth

Hind Swaraj (Indian Home Rule)
M Gandhi Key to Health
A Nation In Making (PYQ)

Savarkar The Indian War oF Independence 1857 Bookstawa

Hindutva: Who is Hindu (Ratnagiri Jail)

SA Dange Gandhi v Lenin

S Vivekananda Raja Yoga

Inana Yoga
Karma Yoga

SC Bose The Indian Struggle (PYQ)

S Banerjee Hind Swaraj

LL Rai Autobiographical