Module
8.
Financial
Management
and
Cost
Analysis
NURSE
LEADERS
ROLE
IN
FINANCE
The
nurse
leader’s
role
has
evolved
into
requiring
more
financial
and
business
skills.
Nurse
leaders
control
the
largest
part
of
a
hospital’s
budget,
and
they
have
a
great
responsibility
in
developing
and
effectively
monitoring
the
finances
of
their
departments
(Douglas,
2010).
Most
nurse
managers
enter
the
role
immediately
after
leaving
the
bedside,
only
to
learn
that
the
role
has
expanded
beyond
the
clinical
arena,
to
the
management
of
budgets
and
hospital
finance
(Finkler
&
McHugh,
2008).
Although
the
manager’s
responsibilities
vary
from
institution
to
institution,
there
are
core
competencies
that
are
essential
to
nurse
managers.
Fiscal
management
and
outcomes
begin
at
the
unit
level,
and
nursing
leaders
are
required
to
understand
the
impact
they
have
on
the
bottom
line
of
their
institution.
At
one
time
the
nursing
budgets
were
developed
by
the
finance
department
without
accounting
for
the
complexities
that
drive
nursing
care.
This
model
has
been
doomed
to
failure,
and
now
nurse
managers
have
the
opportunity
to
learn
and
understand
how
to
develop
a
practical
budget
for
a
unit
or
department
that
includes
volume
projections
as
well
as
salary
and
supply
expenses
(Waxman,
2008).
They
must
be
able
to
understand
and
monitor
trends
related
to
staff
and
material
and
supply
usage,
as
well
as
understand
the
overall
impact
length
of
stay
and
overutilization
of
resources
have
on
the
financial
institution.
As
nurse
managers
leave
their
clinical
and
bedside
roles,
they
are
frequently
conflicted
between
their
commitment
to
being
caregivers
as
well
as
patient
advocates,
and
their
acceptance
of
responsibility
for
the
financial
and
business
side
of
health
care
delivery
(Douglas,
2008).
Financial
institutions
that
are
financially
sound
can
provide
quality
care
and
high
quality
services
for
patients
(Finkler
&
McHugh,
2008).
As
healthcare
reimbursement
is
changing,
new
trends
related
to
patient
management,
outcomes,
and
population
based
healthcare
are
emerging.
An
effective
nurse
leader
must
be
astute
in
understanding
his/her
impact
on
assuring
not
only
the
health
of
the
patients
they
serve,
but
the
financial
health
and
viability
of
their
hospital.
BUDGETS
• Operating
Budget:
The
operating
budget
is
the
day
to
day
plan
for
revenue
and
expenses
for
a
year,
and
this
generates
the
bottom
line
(revenue
minus
expenses)
(Muller,
2012).
• Capital
Budget:
Capital
budgets
are
composed
of
major
expenditures
which
typically
last
one
to
two
years.
These
expenditures
can
be
in
the
form
of
equipment,
building
renovations,
and
new
constructions.
Typically
the
purchase
of
a
major
piece
of
equipment
must
generate
a
return
on
investment
(ROI),
which
will
offset
the
cost
of
the
purchase
(Finkler
&
McHugh,
2008).
• Flexible
Budget:
The
flexible
budget
adjusts
to
variations
and
work
load
changes
relative
to
volume
and
activity
(Finkler
&
McHugh,
2012).
• Fixed
Budget:
The
fixed
budget
assumes
no
variations
in
activity
or
volume.
An
example
is
the
building
itself.
1
Module
8.
Financial
Management
and
Cost
Analysis
Approaches
to
Budgeting
Historical
Budgeting
This
type
of
budgeting
uses
history
or
past
performances
to
help
predict
the
future.
This
is
the
most
common
approach
to
budgeting
and
uses
actual
performance
from
a
prior
period
when
preparing
the
budget.
The
manager
should
be
aware
of
potential
organizational
growth
opportunities
or
decreases
in
order
to
adjust
the
budget
predictions.
For
example,
if
a
new
service
line
is
being
added
that
is
projected
to
increase
admissions
to
a
unit
by
10%,
the
budget
must
be
adjusted
accordingly.
Relationships
and
ratios
are
generally
used
to
establish
historical
based
budgets.
Examples
are:
• Revenue
per
primary
unit
of
measure
• Labor
per
primary
unit
of
measure
• Supply
expense
per
primary
unit
of
measure
• Zero
based
budgeting:
This
approach
is
more
labor
intensive
and
time
consuming
than
the
historical
method.
It
involves
starting
from
zero
for
most
revenue
and
expense
line
items
and
developing
the
budget
from
the
“bottom
up”
since
historical
data
does
not
exist.
The
advantage
of
a
zero
based
budget
is
that
it
is
not
influenced
or
corrupted
by
poorly
managed
or
erroneous
data
that
may
be
in
a
historical
budget.
While
a
zero
based
budget
may
produce
a
more
accurate
budget,
it
requires
an
extensive
amount
of
time
and
expertise,
and
it
is
generally
used
in
small
to
midsize
organizations
(Finkler
&
McHugh,
2008).
Planning
for
the
Operating
Budget
Prior
to
the
development
of
an
operating
budget,
the
nursing
leader
must
be
aware
of
potential
factors
that
may
affect
the
activity
and
volume
of
the
department
and
then
incorporate
those
assumptions
into
the
budget
(Finkler&
McHugh,
2008).
Budgets
cannot
be
developed
without
knowing
how
many
patients
will
be
treated,
the
services
the
patients
will
be
utilizing,
and
the
severity
of
illness
(acuity)
of
the
patients
being
treated.
Forecasting
helps
determine
the
revenue
budget
as
well
as
all
other
budgets.
Knowing
the
acuity
of
patients
and
average
census,
such
as
those
in
an
intensive
care
unit,
allows
for
the
nurse
manager
to
adequately
project
the
number
of
staff
to
include
in
the
budget.
Forecasting
can
be
done
by
using
historical
data,
graphing
the
data,
and
analyzing
trends
(Finkler
&
McHugh,
2008).
The
goals
of
the
organization
must
also
be
communicated,
and
new
programs
or
reductions
in
programs
or
activities
that
may
impact
a
nursing
unit
must
be
identified
in
order
to
actually
plan
for
a
budget.
For
example,
if
a
new
Electronic
Health
Record
(EHR)
is
being
implemented
in
a
hospital,
the
expenses
related
to
staffing
and
education
during
the
implementation
must
be
considered
when
preparing
the
budget.
Units
of
Measurements
Used
to
Determine
Budget
Prior
to
determining
the
budget,
the
nursing
manager
must
know
what
unit
of
service
will
be
used
to
describe
the
service
or
activity
that
will
drive
their
revenue
and
expenses.
The
number
2
Module
8.
Financial
Management
and
Cost
Analysis
of
discharges,
procedures,
patient
visits,
appointments,
and
laboratory
or
radiology
tests
are
examples
of
units
of
measurements
used
to
determine
a
budget
for
a
department.
When
calculating
a
budget
for
an
inpatient
unit,
the
term
patient
day
describes
one
patient
staying
one
day
(24
hours)
in
a
bed.
Patient
days
are
calculated
by
taking
the
number
of
patients
on
a
unit,
for
example
10
patients,
multiplied
by
365
days
of
the
year,
which
equals
3,650
patient
days.
These
days
are
the
basis
of
further
calculations
used
for
budgeting
expenses,
labor,
and
supplies
for
a
unit
(Strickler,
2012).
The
average
daily
census
(ADC)
is
the
average
number
of
beds
occupied
each
day
by
a
patient.
The
ADC
can
be
calculated
by
taking
the
number
of
patient
days
in
a
given
time
period
divided
by
the
number
of
days
in
the
same
time
period
(Finkler
&
McHugh,
2008).
Using
our
example
above,
3650
patient
days
divided
by
365
days
a
year
gives
us
an
ADC
of
10.
Length
of
Stay
The
average
length
of
stay
(ALOS
or
LOS)
is
the
average
number
of
days
a
patient
stays
in
the
hospital
with
each
admission.
The
ALOS
can
be
adjusted
per
case
mix.
For
example,
it
can
be
adjusted
by
unit
(such
as
Intensive
Care
Unit,
Surgery,
Obstetrics,
Psychiatric
Unit,
Neonatal
Intensive
Care
Unit,
etc.),
by
payer
class
(insurance
or
self-‐pay,
government
regulation),
or
by
both
unit
and
payer
class.
A
long
length
of
stay
can
have
a
negative
impact
on
inpatient
profitability
because
it
utilizes
more
resources
and
creates
more
expense.
A
lower
length
of
stay
typically
leads
to
lower
cost
and
more
profitability
to
the
hospital
(Capenski,
2003).
Another
important
unit
of
measurement
needed
when
calculating
an
inpatient
budget
is
the
hours
per
patient
day
(HPPD)
or
hours
per
patient
visit
(HPPV)
in
outpatient
settings.
The
HPPD
is
the
actual
care
being
delivered
per
patient
each
day
and
is
calculated
by
dividing
the
number
of
hours
worked
by
the
actual
census
or
volume
(Strickler,
(2012).
This
is
used
when
determining
a
staffing
budget,
which
will
be
covered
under
the
operating
budget
section.
Cost
Cost
per
stay
is
the
amount
of
expenses
incurred
by
each
patient
per
day,
which
can
include
room
and
board,
staffing,
supplies,
and
procedures.
The
cost
per
stay
includes
fixed
costs,
which
are
costs
that
occur
even
without
a
patient,
such
as
cost
of
the
building
or
utilities,
and
variable
cost,
which
varies
with
each
patient.
Variable
cost
can
include
medications
used,
food
cost,
or
staffing
(Muller
&
Karsten,
2012).
Revenue
Revenue
is
based
on
charges
and
is
the
money
a
hospital
is
paid
for
procedures
and
outpatient
or
inpatient
care.
The
amount
of
revenue
received
by
a
hospital
is
dependent
on
the
insurance,
managed
care
rates,
or
self-‐pay.
Revenue
in
hospitals
is
repaid
after
the
services
are
provided,
which
is
unlike
purchasing
a
commodity
and
paying
for
it
before
taking
delivery
(Castro
&
Laymen,
2006).
Gross
Patient
Service
Revenue
(GPSR)
The
amount
a
patient
is
billed
by
an
organization
is
based
on
the
actual
charges
or
“sticker
3
Module
8.
Financial
Management
and
Cost
Analysis
price”.
In
the
United
States,
most
patients
do
not
pay
full
charges
because
of
contractual
agreements
made
with
third
party
payers
(Muller,
2012).
Net
Patient
Service
Revenue
(NPSR)
NPSR
is
the
estimated
net
dollar
amount
collected
from
patients,
insurers,
and
others
for
services
rendered,
including
discounts
and
other
adjustments
made
from
all
sources,
and
is
the
final
negotiated
price
(Muller,
2012).
Ancillary
Revenue
When
compiling
a
revenue
budget,
other
ancillary
items
must
also
be
calculated
into
the
overall
hospital
revenue,
such
as
cafeteria
revenue,
gift
shop
revenue,
grants,
and
donations
(Finkler
&
McHugh,
2008).
• Charge
capture:
Charge
capture
is
an
essential
element
of
revenue
cycle.
All
clinical
areas
must
assure
the
services
and
supplies
used
are
adequately
and
correctly
charged
to
the
patient.
It
is
incumbent
on
the
nurse
leader
to
assure
proper
charging
mechanisms
are
in
place.
The
Revenue
Budget
As
noted
previously,
there
are
many
different
sources
of
revenue
within
healthcare.
Revenue
must
exceed
expenses
in
order
for
the
institution
to
be
profitable
and
to
be
able
to
reinvest
back
into
the
company,
such
as
through
expanding
services
and
equipment
and
through
overall
building
improvements.
Nurse
managers
are
typically
given
responsibility
for
developing
the
expense
budget;
however,
some
managers
may
be
responsible
for
developing
a
revenue
budget
if
their
department
earns
a
profit,
such
as
the
OR.
These
profit
centers
or
revenue
centers
use
volume
projections
and
historical
charges
and
payments
to
predict
future
revenue.
As
the
revenue
budget
is
being
prepared,
future
programs
and
growth
must
be
taken
into
account.
For
example,
if
the
OR
is
planning
to
add
additional
surgery
procedures,
each
procedure
volume
and
the
typical
reimbursement
by
payer
must
be
used
to
forecast
the
amount
of
revenue
that
will
be
generated
(Finkler
&
McHugh,
2008).
The
payer
mix
of
each
hospital
may
vary
based
on
region
and
geographic
location.
For
example,
an
inner
city
hospital
may
see
more
patients
who
are
self-‐pay
and
uninsured
patients
compared
to
a
suburban
hospital
which
sees
more
patients
with
the
ability
to
pay.
Nurse
Managers
should
know
the
payer
mix
of
their
hospital
and
the
patients
they
serve
in
order
understand
why
expense
management
and
revenue
are
important
to
the
hospital’s
bottom
line.
In
hospitals
or
large
institutions,
the
forecasting
of
the
revenue
budget
is
typically
done
by
the
Revenue
Cycle
department,
because
they
have
access
to
historical
payment
data.
Example
of
a
same
day
surgery
clinic
revenue
budget:
Revenue Source Quantity Rate or charge Gross Revenue Average net Revenue Net of
charge discounts and
allowances
4
Module
8.
Financial
Management
and
Cost
Analysis
Private Ins 1000 $1500.00 $1,500,000.00 75% $1.125,000.00
Other ins 600 1500.00 900,000.00 80% 720,000.00
Other ins 400 1500 00 600,000.00 60% 360,000.00
Self-pay 500 1500.00 750,000.00 70% 525,000.00
Gift Shop 5000 17.00 85,000.00 100% 85,000.00
Donations 400 200.00 80,000.00 100% 80,000.00
Subtotal 3,915,000.00 2,895,000.00
Less bad debt -100,000.00
Net Revenue less 2,795,000.00
bad debt
Taken
from
Finkler
&
McHugh,
2008
p.231
Expense
Budget
The
expenses
nurse
managers
must
include
in
the
budgets
for
their
units/wards
are
broken
down
into
either
direct
expenses
or
indirect
expenses.
Direct
expenses
are
those
directly
related
to
the
activities
occurring
on
the
unit
and
to
salaries,
while
indirect
expenses,
such
as
computer
paper,
are
not
related
to
patient
care
but
are
needed
to
run
the
unit
(Finkler
&
McHugh,
2008).
The
greatest
expense
in
an
operating
budget
is
salaries,
which
are
the
largest
portion
of
a
nursing
budget.
In
order
to
develop
the
personnel
budget,
it
is
important
to
understand
the
concept
of
a
full
time
equivalent
(FTE)
position.
A
position
is
not
determined
by
the
number
of
hours
a
person
works,
but
is
described
as
“one
job
for
one
person”
(Finkler
&
McHugh,
2008).
Positions
can
be
categorized
as
full-‐time,
part
time,
or
per
diem,
as
needed
(PRN).
5
Module
8.
Financial
Management
and
Cost
Analysis
A
full
time
person,
who
works
a
typical
40
hour
week,
works
2080
hours
per
year.
This
is
called
a
full
time
employee.
Based
on
a
typical
8
hour
day
worked,
and
a
typical
work
week
of
5
days,
this
equates
to
a
40
hour
work
week.
Multiplying
the
40
hour
work
week
by
52
weeks
in
the
year
equals
2080
worked
hours
per
year,
which
is
the
definition
of
a
full-‐time
equivalent
(FTE).
Because
there
is
a
variation
of
hours
worked
by
individuals,
it
is
necessary
to
determine
one
denominator
when
developing
a
nursing
salary
budget.
This
denominator
is
the
FTE
(Finkler
&
McHugh).
One
employee
can
be
hired
as
full
time
and
work
2080
hours,
or
2
employees
can
be
hired
to
work
2080
hours,
and
each
can
work
1040
hours
or
any
variation
to
equal
2080
hours.
There
may
be
variations
to
the
standard
work
week;
for
example,
many
hospitals
are
now
using
a
12
hour
shift
as
the
standard
shift
rather
than
the
eight
hour
week,
which
will
change
the
definition
of
a
FTE.
When
determining
the
salary
budget,
it
is
important
to
know
the
definition
of
a
FTE
on
a
unit
in
terms
of
total
hours
paid
(2080,
1872,
or
other
variations).
When
budgeting
salaries,
productive
time
(actual
hours
worked)
and
non-‐productive
time
(paid
time
off/PTO);
educational
time)
must
be
taken
into
account.
This
can
also
be
differentiated
as
“worked”
staff,
those
who
actually
worked
a
shift,
and
“paid”
staff,
which
includes
those
on
educational
time
and
PTO
(Strickler,
2012).
To
determine
the
salary
budget,
the
total
number
of
hours
required
to
staff
a
unit
or
department
by
each
job
category—RN,
LVN,
and
nursing
assistant—is
multiplied
by
the
average
hourly
rate.
Because
the
typical
work
week
is
5
days,
the
other
two
days,
plus
possible
PTO
or
sick
time,
must
be
taken
into
account
when
calculating
the
total
hours
worked.
Each
8
hour
work
day
is
considered
.2
FTE,
and
therefore,
to
cover
7
days
a
week,
we
must
multiply
the
number
staff
needed
by
1.4
(.2x7).
Non-‐productive
time
(PTO,
education)
is
divided
by
the
productive
hours
which
will
give
a
percentage
of
non-‐productive
time.
Example:
18
x
1.4
=
25.2
FTEs
are
needed
to
staff
the
unit.
(2080
x
25.2
=52,416
productive
hours).
If
historically
the
non-‐productive
time
used
was
10%,
the
unit
is
paying
productive
time
plus
10%
non-‐productive
time.
52,416
x
10%
=57,637
hours.
57,637
divided
by
2080
will
give
us
27.7
FTEs
required
to
staff
the
unit,
including
productive
and
nonproductive
time.
Calculating
Hours
per
Patient
Day
(HPPD)
HPPD
reflects
nursing
care
hour
required
in
24
hours
for
each
unit
of
work.
It
is
important
to
know
that
this
is
calculated
using
productive
time
only.
Total
hours
worked/patient
days
=
HPPD
or
HPPV
Example:
6
Module
8.
Financial
Management
and
Cost
Analysis
52416
hours
worked
annually
/
9490
patient
days
(ADC
x
365)
=
HPPD
of
5.52.
Multiplying
the
HPPD/HPPV
by
the
patient
days
will
get
the
number
of
hours
required
to
work.
That
number
divided
by
2080
will
give
you
the
FTE’s
needed.
Example
52416/
2080
(FTE)
=
25.2
required
to
staff
the
unit.
Salary
Budget
by
Mix
and
Shift
Following
the
determination
of
HPPD,
hours
by
skill
mix
(RN/LPN/Nursing
assistant)
must
be
determined.
Example:
If
50%
of
the
hours
are
worked
by
Registered
Nurses
(RN),
those
hours
will
be
multiplied
by
the
average
hourly
rate
of
RNs
on
that
unit.
26,206
x
$25.00
=
$655,200.00
Use
the
same
procedure
for
other
staff
mix.
Shift
differential
is
added
by
using
the
hours
worked
on
the
shifts
multiplied
by
the
shift
rate.
Example:
22000
hours
are
night
shift
hours
at
$3.00
an
hour
=$66,000.00.
Estimate
increases
for
the
next
year
including
merit
raises
or
any
proposed
skill
mix.
ICU
BUDGET
RN
LPN
Productivity
Standard
5.52
5.52
Budgeted
Statistics
(Patient
9490
9490
days)
Total
Productive
Hours
26,206
26,206
+
10%
non-‐productive
time
2620
2620
Total
Paid
Hours
28.926
28,926
TOTAL
FTES
(
Divide
hrs
by
13.85
RNs
13.85
LPN
2080)
Avg
hourly
rate
$
23.00
$
15.00
Shift
differential
(if
no
shift
diff
$
3.00
$
2.00
leave
blank).
Merit
increase
4%
$
0.92
$
0.60
New
hourly
rate
$
26.92
$
17.60
SALARY
$
778,688.00
$
509,097.60
TOTAL
SALARY
EXPENSE
$
1,287,785.60
7
Module
8.
Financial
Management
and
Cost
Analysis
Non-‐Salary
Budget
The
non-‐salary
budget
includes
all
other
direct
expenses
in
a
budget
that
are
needed
to
support
the
unit
and
patient
care.
This
typically
consists
of
medical
supplies,
office
supplies,
professional
fees,
medical
equipment,
and
instruments
that
do
not
meet
the
capital
budgetary
requirements,
dietary
costs,
maintenance,
educational
expenses,
etc.
Each
account
is
listed
separately
on
the
chart
of
accounts.
There
are
several
ways
to
calculate
the
non-‐salaried
budget,
and
the
simplest
method
used
is
to
calculate
the
total
cost
per
unit
of
activity:
cost
per
discharge,
cost
per
patient
day,
or
cost
per
work
load
unit
(Finkler
&
McHugh,
2008).
The
key
to
budgeting
non-‐salary
supplies
is
identifying
the
most
reasonable
predictor
and
making
expense
projections
based
on
that
predictor.
The
non-‐salary
expenses
are
calculated
using
the
projected
volume,
such
as
200
procedures,
multiplied
by
the
current
cost.
Forecasting
is
a
tool
that
can
be
used
when
preparing
the
non-‐
salary
budget
because
volume
can
be
predicted
based
on
current
use,
potential
growth
(such
as
a
new
service
line),
or
even
the
possible
decrease
of
a
service
line
(Finkler
and
McHugh,
2008).
Example
of
a
Budget
and
Budget
Variance
• Budget
Variance:
The
budget
variance
is
the
difference
between
what
is
projected
in
the
budget,
and
what
is
actually
expensed
or
received.
For
example,
salary
dollars
budgeted
for
a
unit
is
$10.000.
00
per
month,
and
$12,000.00
was
used.
This
is
a
negative
variance
to
the
salary
budget.
Department Number:
SECTION I. YTD YTD $ % ABSOLUTE VARIANCE
Actual Budget Variance Variance BASED ON PER STAT
(1) Total Statistics: 5,970 6,544 -574.00 -8.8%
(2) Total FTE's: 50.89 55.08 -4.19 -7.6%
(3) Total Revenue: 6,879,628 7,628,596 -748,968.00 -9.8%
Registry):
(4) Salaries (incl 2,873,552 3,090,479 -216,927.00 -7.0%
(5) Total Supplies: 127,311 148,479 -21,168.00 -14.3%
(7) Total Operating Exp: 3,002,328 3,257,559 -255,231.00 -7.8%
(8) Revenue / Stat 1,152.37 1,165.74 -13.37 -1.1% -79,834.00
(9) Salaries / Stat 481.33 472.26 9.07 1.9% 54,151.00
(10) Supplies / Stat 21.33 22.69 -1.36 -6.0% -8,144.00
(11) Oper. Exp./Stat $502.90 $497.79 5.11 1.0% 30,502.00
8
Module
8.
Financial
Management
and
Cost
Analysis
Cost/Benefit
Analysis
Cost-‐benefit
analysis
and
cost
effectiveness
analysis
are
methods
used
to
determine
the
advantages
and
disadvantages
of
a
program.
When
the
benefit
of
a
project
exceeds
the
cost,
the
analysis
is
proven
to
be
positive.
The
following
are
key
elements
needed
in
performing
a
cost-‐benefit
analysis.
• Determine
project
goals.
o Understand
what
the
project
will
accomplish.
Example:
A
hospital
wants
to
add
a
robot
in
their
surgical
unit.
What
will
this
expensive
piece
of
equipment
add
to
the
organization?
Will
it
add
more
volume?
Will
it
attract
more
surgeons?
Will
it
improve
the
hospital’s
competitive
edge?
(Finkler
&
McHugh,
2008).
• Estimate
project
benefits.
o The
benefits
will
be
calculated
based
on
potential
new
volume
and
new
surgeons.
If
the
robot
is
marketed
as
a
non-‐invasive
procedure,
the
benefit
will
be
added
volume
and
potential
increased
revenue
to
the
hospital.
Additionally,
by
using
a
non-‐invasive
technique,
another
benefit
will
be
reducing
the
length
of
stay,
which
will
also
improve
cost
(Finkler
&
McHugh,
2008).
• Estimate
project
costs.
o When
evaluating
costs,
it
is
important
to
include
all
costs,
which
may
be
cost
of
supplies
and
cost
of
staff
dedicated
to
the
robot.
• Discount
cost
and
benefit
flows
o Project
benefits
and
costs
may
occur
over
several
years.
It
may
not
be
practical
to
assume
the
robot
program
will
pay
for
itself
in
one
year,
which
presents
a
problem
when
comparing
benefits
and
costs.
The
cost
of
a
program
is
often
higher
at
the
start
up.
The
cost
of
the
equipment
in
will
depreciate
in
5
years
of
the
program,
and
this
must
be
considered
in
calculating
the
profit
(Finkler
&
McHugh,
2008).
• Complete
the
decision
analysis
o Once
all
relevant
costs
and
benefits
are
projected,
they
can
be
compared
to
each
other
in
the
form
of
a
ratio.
Benefits
are
divided
by
costs,
and
if
the
result
is
greater
than
1,
the
result
is
that
the
benefit
exceeds
the
cost
and
the
project
is
desirable.
(Finkler
&
McHugh,
2008)
• Cost
of
Illness
Analysis:
Determination
of
the
economic
impact
of
an
illness
or
condition
including
associated
treatment
costs.
This
is
typically
done
on
a
given
population,
region,
or
country.
Examples
include
smoking
and
cancer
(Hooshmand
&
Zanbrana,
2013).
The
Centers
for
Disease
Control
and
Prevention
(CDC)
explains
that
“The
Cost
of
illness
(COI)
is
defined
as
the
value
of
the
resources
that
are
expended
or
foregone
as
a
result
of
a
health
problem”
(CDC,
n.d.).
The
COI
includes
costs
of
pain
and
suffering
and
lost
productivity.
It
is
important
to
know
the
economic
burden
of
a
health
problem
in
order
to
make
9
Module
8.
Financial
Management
and
Cost
Analysis
knowledgeable
choices
concerning
which
health
problems
to
address
and
what
interventions
to
use
to
alleviate
them
(CDC,
n.d.).
Understanding
the
estimates
of
medical
expenses
and
loss
of
employment
provides
an
estimate
of
the
extent
of
the
economic
impact
of
various
health
problems
and
the
amount
of
money
that
is
spent
on
an
illness,
compared
to
what
may
need
to
be
spent
on
the
intervention.
This
can
then
determine
if
the
cost
of
the
intervention
is
worth
spending
the
resources
to
alleviate
the
problem.
Key
questions
to
ask
are:
What
is
the
cost
of
the
intervention?
What
is
the
cost
of
the
illness
without
intervention?
What
is
the
cost
of
the
illness
with
the
intervention?
(CDC,
n.d.).
• Cost
Minimization
Analysis:
This
analysis
determines
the
best
way
to
develop
a
program
at
the
lowest
cost.
This
should
be
done
during
the
planning
and
budgeting
phase,
as
it
allows
the
manager
to
evaluate
and
compare
costs
of
equal
products
(Issel,
2014).
For
example,
if
a
new
therapy
or
drug
were
no
safer
or
no
more
effective
than
what
is
currently
being
used
and
there
is
no
obvious
benefit
to
the
new
therapy
or
drug,
it
would
justify
the
same
price
(World
Health
Organization,
2014).
• Cost
Effectiveness
Analysis:
A
program
is
determined
to
be
cost
effective
if
the
desired
outcomes
are
achieved
at
the
least
amount
of
cost.
Using
cost
and
benefits,
cost
effectiveness
compares
alternatives
against
and
the
desired
outcome.
For
example,
a
boot
has
been
used
as
a
preventative
measure
for
pressure
ulcers
on
heels.
A
new
treatment
of
Mepilex
has
been
suggested,
which
is
less
expensive
than
the
boot.
The
outcome
must
be
the
same
or
better
using
Mepilex
to
determine
cost
effectiveness
(Issel,
2014).
• Cost
Utility
Analysis:
In
this
analysis
the
outcome
or
benefit
is
measured
by
the
increased
utility
received
once
an
intervention
has
been
established.
The
result
is
measured
in
cost
per
quality
of
adjusted
life
years
(QALYs)
gained
(Feinstein,
2012).
Issel
defines
QALYs
as
“the
number
of
years
of
life
at
a
given
level
of
health
and
wellbeing”
(Issel,
2014,
p.
148).
Both
quality
and
length
of
life
are
important
when
evaluating
a
health
condition.
These
are
also
referred
to
as
burden
of
disease
measures,
and
are
used
to
evaluate
economic
value
of
programs
or
a
community
needs
assessment
(Issel,
2014).
This
type
of
analysis
can
be
seen
as
controversial
because
it
is
difficult
to
put
a
value
on
health
status
or
on
an
improvement
in
health
status
as
perceived
by
different
individuals
or
societies.
Cost-‐utility
analysis
differs
from
the
cost-‐benefit
analysis
because
it
compares
two
different
therapies
and
the
benefits
of
the
therapies
may
be
different
(WHO,
2014).
Triple
Aim
The
Institute
for
Healthcare
Improvement
recognized
that
focusing
on
three
objectives
simultaneously
will
lead
to
better
models
of
healthcare
delivery
systems.
Those
three
objectives
are:
• Improve
health
in
a
defined
population.
10
Module
8.
Financial
Management
and
Cost
Analysis
• Improve
the
patient
experience.
• Reduce
or
control
the
per
capita
cost
of
care
(Stiefel
&
Nolan,
2012).
The
Triple
Aim
requires
all
public
health
departments,
schools,
social
service
entities,
health
care
organizations,
and
employers
to
cooperate
in
this
venture
because
no
one
entity
can
successfully
improve
the
health
of
a
population.
Over
100
sites
from
around
the
world
have
been
included
in
this
initiative
(Stiefel
&
Nolan,
2012).
Skill
sets
required
by
an
organization
to
assure
the
success
of
establishing
the
Triple
Aim
include:
• Segment
a
population
by
using
predictive
models
• Develop
team
based
models
of
primary
care
• Design
and
implement
customized
care
plans
with
patients
and
families
• Remove
wastes
in
specialty
care
and
other
services
• Discourage
supply
driven
care
and
match
capacity
and
demand
• Measure
improvements
in
health
• Use
outcomes
vs
volume
as
a
basis
of
success
(Healthcare
Executive,
2009)
Obstacles
to
pursuit
of
the
Triple
Aim:
• Supply
driven
demand
• New
technology
with
limited
impact
on
outcomes
• Physician
Centric
Care
• Little
to
no
foreign
competition
to
challenge
domestic
change
(Berwick
et
al,
2008).
Preconditions
of
the
Triple
Aim
• Specifying
a
population
concern,
such
as
all
heart
failure
patients
in
Dade
County.
• Policy
constraints,
for
example,
a
Nation
may
determine
Universal
coverage
is
required.
• Integrator
that
accepts
responsibility
for
all
3
components
of
the
Triple
Aim
for
a
specified
population.
(Berwick
et
al,
2008).
Role
of
the
Integrator:
• Involves
individuals
and
families
o Changes
more
is
better
attitude
o Assures
care
plans
are
developed
for
chronic
conditions
o Navigates
the
patients
through
the
complexities
and
difficult
decisions
of
their
care
• Redesigns
primary
care
services
11
Module
8.
Financial
Management
and
Cost
Analysis
o Expand
the
role
of
the
primary
care
physician
as
a
medical
home,
which
will
include
all
sub
specialists
and
the
hospital
o Makes
access
to
care,
scheduling,
and
connection
to
community
services
available
• Population
health
management
o Deploys
resources
to
a
population
o Anticipates
the
patients
ongoing
needs
rather
than
focusing
on
the
acute
phase
of
a
disease
• Financial
management
systems
o Control
cost
o Measure
and
make
the
per
capita
cost
of
care
transparent
o Develop
incentive
programs
for
decreasing
costs
per
capita
o Carefully
scrutinize
new
technology
and
evaluate
outcomes
(Berwick
et
al,
2008)
12