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Nurse Leaders in Financial Management

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17 views12 pages

Nurse Leaders in Financial Management

Uploaded by

River Dale
Copyright
© All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd

Module

 8.  Financial  Management  and  Cost  Analysis  

NURSE  LEADERS  ROLE  IN  FINANCE  

The  nurse  leader’s  role  has  evolved  into  requiring  more  financial  and  business  skills.  Nurse  
leaders  control  the  largest  part  of  a  hospital’s  budget,  and  they  have  a  great  responsibility  in  
developing  and  effectively  monitoring  the  finances  of  their  departments  (Douglas,  2010).  Most  
nurse  managers  enter  the  role  immediately  after  leaving  the  bedside,  only  to  learn  that  the  role  
has  expanded  beyond  the  clinical  arena,  to  the  management  of  budgets  and  hospital  finance  
(Finkler  &  McHugh,  2008).  Although  the  manager’s  responsibilities  vary  from  institution  to  
institution,  there  are  core  competencies  that  are  essential  to  nurse  managers.  Fiscal  
management  and  outcomes  begin  at  the  unit  level,  and  nursing  leaders  are  required  to  
understand  the  impact  they  have  on  the  bottom  line  of  their  institution.    

At  one  time  the  nursing  budgets  were  developed  by  the  finance  department  without  
accounting  for  the  complexities  that  drive  nursing  care.  This  model  has  been  doomed  to  failure,  
and  now  nurse  managers  have  the  opportunity  to  learn  and  understand  how  to  develop  a  
practical  budget  for  a  unit  or  department  that  includes  volume  projections  as  well  as  salary  and  
supply  expenses  (Waxman,  2008).    They  must  be  able  to  understand  and  monitor  trends  related  
to  staff  and  material  and  supply  usage,  as  well  as  understand  the  overall  impact  length  of  stay  
and  overutilization  of  resources  have  on  the  financial  institution.  

As  nurse  managers  leave  their  clinical  and  bedside  roles,  they  are  frequently  conflicted  
between  their  commitment  to  being  caregivers  as  well  as  patient  advocates,  and  their  
acceptance  of  responsibility  for  the  financial  and  business  side  of  health  care  delivery  (Douglas,  
2008).  Financial  institutions  that  are  financially  sound  can  provide  quality  care  and  high  quality  
services  for  patients  (Finkler  &  McHugh,  2008).  As  healthcare  reimbursement  is  changing,  new  
trends  related  to  patient  management,  outcomes,  and  population  based  healthcare  are  
emerging.  An  effective  nurse  leader  must  be  astute  in  understanding  his/her  impact  on  assuring  
not  only  the  health  of  the  patients  they  serve,  but  the  financial  health  and  viability  of  their  
hospital.    

BUDGETS  

• Operating  Budget:  The  operating  budget  is  the  day  to  day  plan  for  revenue  and  expenses  
for  a  year,  and  this  generates  the  bottom  line  (revenue  minus  expenses)  (Muller,  2012).    
• Capital  Budget:  Capital  budgets  are  composed  of  major  expenditures  which  typically  last  
one  to  two  years.    These  expenditures  can  be  in  the  form  of  equipment,  building  
renovations,  and  new  constructions.    Typically  the  purchase  of  a  major  piece  of  equipment  
must  generate  a  return  on  investment  (ROI),  which  will  offset  the  cost  of  the  purchase  
(Finkler  &  McHugh,  2008).  
• Flexible  Budget:  The  flexible  budget  adjusts  to  variations  and  work  load  changes  relative  to  
volume  and  activity  (Finkler  &  McHugh,  2012).    
• Fixed  Budget:    The  fixed  budget  assumes  no  variations  in  activity  or  volume.      An  example  is  
the  building  itself.  

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Module  8.  Financial  Management  and  Cost  Analysis  

Approaches  to  Budgeting      

Historical  Budgeting                                  
This  type  of  budgeting  uses  history  or  past  performances  to  help  predict  the  future.  This  is  the  
most  common  approach  to  budgeting  and  uses  actual  performance  from  a  prior  period  when  
preparing  the  budget.    The  manager  should  be  aware  of  potential  organizational  growth  
opportunities  or  decreases  in  order  to  adjust  the  budget  predictions.    For  example,  if  a  new  
service  line  is  being  added  that  is  projected  to  increase  admissions  to  a  unit  by  10%,  the  budget  
must  be  adjusted  accordingly.  

Relationships  and  ratios  are  generally  used  to  establish  historical  based  budgets.  Examples  are:  

• Revenue  per  primary  unit  of  measure  


• Labor  per  primary  unit  of  measure  
• Supply  expense  per  primary  unit  of  measure  

• Zero  based  budgeting:  This  approach  is  more  labor  intensive  and  time  consuming  than  the  
historical  method.    It  involves  starting  from  zero  for  most  revenue  and  expense  line  items  
and  developing  the  budget  from  the  “bottom  up”  since  historical  data  does  not  exist.    The  
advantage  of  a  zero  based  budget  is  that  it  is  not  influenced  or  corrupted  by  poorly  
managed  or  erroneous  data  that  may  be  in  a  historical  budget.    While  a  zero  based  budget  
may  produce  a  more  accurate  budget,  it  requires  an  extensive  amount  of  time  and  
expertise,  and  it  is  generally  used  in  small  to  midsize  organizations  (Finkler  &  McHugh,  
2008).      

Planning  for  the  Operating  Budget                            


Prior  to  the  development  of  an  operating  budget,  the  nursing  leader  must  be  aware  of  potential  
factors  that  may  affect  the  activity  and  volume  of  the  department  and  then  incorporate  those  
assumptions  into  the  budget  (Finkler&  McHugh,  2008).    Budgets  cannot  be  developed  without  
knowing  how  many  patients  will  be  treated,  the  services  the  patients  will  be  utilizing,  and  the  
severity  of  illness  (acuity)  of  the  patients  being  treated.  Forecasting  helps  determine  the  
revenue  budget  as  well  as  all  other  budgets.    Knowing  the  acuity  of  patients  and  average  
census,  such  as  those  in  an  intensive  care  unit,  allows  for  the  nurse  manager  to  adequately  
project  the  number  of  staff  to  include  in  the  budget.      Forecasting  can  be  done  by  using  
historical  data,  graphing  the  data,  and  analyzing  trends  (Finkler  &  McHugh,  2008).  

The  goals  of  the  organization  must  also  be  communicated,  and  new  programs  or  reductions  in  
programs  or  activities  that  may  impact  a  nursing  unit  must  be  identified  in  order  to  actually  
plan  for  a  budget.      For  example,  if  a  new  Electronic  Health  Record  (EHR)  is  being  implemented  
in  a  hospital,  the  expenses  related  to  staffing  and  education  during  the  implementation  must  
be  considered  when  preparing  the  budget.  

Units  of  Measurements  Used  to  Determine  Budget                      


Prior  to  determining  the  budget,  the  nursing  manager  must  know  what  unit  of  service  will  be  
used  to  describe  the  service  or  activity  that  will  drive  their  revenue  and  expenses.  The  number  

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Module  8.  Financial  Management  and  Cost  Analysis  

of  discharges,  procedures,  patient  visits,  appointments,  and  laboratory  or  radiology  tests  are  
examples  of  units  of  measurements  used  to  determine  a  budget  for  a  department.    

When  calculating  a  budget  for  an  inpatient  unit,  the  term  patient  day  describes  one  patient  
staying  one  day  (24  hours)  in  a  bed.  Patient  days  are  calculated  by  taking  the  number  of  
patients  on  a  unit,  for  example  10  patients,  multiplied  by  365  days  of  the  year,  which  equals  
3,650  patient  days.    These  days  are  the  basis  of  further  calculations  used  for  budgeting  
expenses,  labor,  and  supplies  for  a  unit  (Strickler,  2012).  

 The  average  daily  census  (ADC)  is  the  average  number  of  beds  occupied  each  day  by  a  patient.    
The  ADC  can  be  calculated  by  taking  the  number  of  patient  days  in  a  given  time  period  divided  
by  the  number  of  days  in  the  same  time  period  (Finkler  &  McHugh,  2008).    Using  our  example  
above,  3650  patient  days  divided  by  365  days  a  year  gives  us  an  ADC  of  10.    

Length  of  Stay  


The  average  length  of  stay  (ALOS  or  LOS)  is  the  average  number  of  days  a  patient  stays  in  the  
hospital  with  each  admission.    The  ALOS  can  be  adjusted  per  case  mix.  For  example,  it  can  be  
adjusted  by  unit  (such  as  Intensive  Care  Unit,  Surgery,  Obstetrics,  Psychiatric  Unit,  Neonatal  
Intensive  Care  Unit,  etc.),  by  payer  class  (insurance  or  self-­‐pay,  government  regulation),  or  by  
both  unit  and  payer  class.    A  long  length  of  stay  can  have  a  negative  impact  on  inpatient  
profitability  because  it  utilizes  more  resources  and  creates  more  expense.    A  lower  length  of  
stay  typically  leads  to  lower  cost  and  more  profitability  to  the  hospital  (Capenski,  2003).  
 
Another  important  unit  of  measurement  needed  when  calculating  an  inpatient  budget  is  the  
hours  per  patient  day  (HPPD)  or  hours  per  patient  visit  (HPPV)  in  outpatient  settings.    The  HPPD  
is  the  actual  care  being  delivered  per  patient  each  day  and  is  calculated  by  dividing  the  number  
of  hours  worked  by  the  actual  census  or  volume  (Strickler,  (2012).  This  is  used  when  
determining  a  staffing  budget,  which  will  be  covered  under  the  operating  budget  section.  
 
Cost                                    
Cost  per  stay  is  the  amount  of  expenses  incurred  by  each  patient  per  day,  which  can  include  
room  and  board,  staffing,  supplies,  and  procedures.    The  cost  per  stay  includes  fixed  costs,  
which  are  costs  that  occur  even  without  a  patient,  such  as  cost  of  the  building  or  utilities,  and  
variable  cost,  which  varies  with  each  patient.    Variable  cost  can  include  medications  used,  food  
cost,  or  staffing  (Muller  &  Karsten,  2012).  

Revenue                                              
Revenue  is  based  on  charges  and  is  the  money  a  hospital  is  paid  for  procedures  and  outpatient  
or  inpatient  care.    The  amount  of  revenue  received  by  a  hospital  is  dependent  on  the  insurance,  
managed  care  rates,  or  self-­‐pay.    Revenue  in  hospitals  is  repaid  after  the  services  are  provided,  
which  is  unlike  purchasing  a  commodity  and  paying  for  it  before  taking  delivery  (Castro  &  
Laymen,  2006).  

Gross  Patient  Service  Revenue  (GPSR)                            


The  amount  a  patient  is  billed  by  an  organization  is  based  on  the  actual  charges  or  “sticker  

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Module  8.  Financial  Management  and  Cost  Analysis  

price”.      In  the  United  States,  most  patients  do  not  pay  full  charges  because  of  contractual  
agreements  made  with  third  party  payers  (Muller,  2012).  

Net  Patient  Service  Revenue  (NPSR)                              


NPSR  is  the  estimated  net  dollar  amount  collected  from  patients,  insurers,  and  others  for  
services  rendered,  including  discounts  and  other  adjustments  made  from  all  sources,  and  is  the  
final  negotiated  price  (Muller,  2012).  

Ancillary  Revenue                            
When  compiling  a  revenue  budget,  other  ancillary  items  must  also  be  calculated  into  the  overall  
hospital  revenue,  such  as  cafeteria  revenue,  gift  shop  revenue,  grants,  and  donations  (Finkler  &  
McHugh,  2008).  

• Charge  capture:  Charge  capture  is  an  essential  element  of  revenue  cycle.  All  clinical  areas  
must  assure  the  services  and  supplies  used  are  adequately  and  correctly  charged  to  the  
patient.    It  is  incumbent  on  the  nurse  leader  to  assure  proper  charging  mechanisms  are  in  
place.  

The  Revenue  Budget                                        


As  noted  previously,  there  are  many  different  sources  of  revenue  within  healthcare.    Revenue  
must  exceed  expenses  in  order  for  the  institution  to  be  profitable  and  to  be  able  to  reinvest  
back  into  the  company,  such  as  through  expanding  services  and  equipment  and  through  overall  
building  improvements.    Nurse  managers  are  typically  given  responsibility  for  developing  the  
expense  budget;  however,  some  managers  may  be  responsible  for  developing  a  revenue  
budget  if  their  department  earns  a  profit,  such  as  the  OR.    These  profit  centers  or  revenue  
centers  use  volume  projections  and  historical  charges  and  payments  to  predict  future  revenue.    
As  the  revenue  budget  is  being  prepared,  future  programs  and  growth  must  be  taken  into  
account.    For  example,  if  the  OR  is  planning  to  add  additional  surgery  procedures,  each  
procedure  volume  and  the  typical  reimbursement  by  payer  must  be  used  to  forecast  the  
amount  of  revenue  that  will  be  generated  (Finkler  &  McHugh,  2008).  

The  payer  mix  of  each  hospital  may  vary  based  on  region  and  geographic  location.    For  
example,  an  inner  city  hospital  may  see  more  patients  who  are  self-­‐pay  and  uninsured  patients  
compared  to  a  suburban  hospital  which  sees  more  patients  with  the  ability  to  pay.      Nurse  
Managers  should  know  the  payer  mix  of  their  hospital  and  the  patients  they  serve  in  order  
understand  why  expense  management  and  revenue  are  important  to  the  hospital’s  bottom  
line.  

In  hospitals  or  large  institutions,  the  forecasting  of  the  revenue  budget  is  typically  done  by  the  
Revenue  Cycle  department,  because  they  have  access  to  historical  payment  data.      

Example  of  a  same  day  surgery  clinic  revenue  budget:  

Revenue Source Quantity Rate or charge Gross Revenue Average net Revenue Net of
charge discounts and
allowances

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Module  8.  Financial  Management  and  Cost  Analysis  

Private Ins 1000 $1500.00 $1,500,000.00 75% $1.125,000.00

Other ins 600 1500.00 900,000.00 80% 720,000.00

Other ins 400 1500 00 600,000.00 60% 360,000.00

Self-pay 500 1500.00 750,000.00 70% 525,000.00

Gift Shop 5000 17.00 85,000.00 100% 85,000.00

Donations 400 200.00 80,000.00 100% 80,000.00

Subtotal 3,915,000.00 2,895,000.00

Less bad debt -100,000.00

Net Revenue less 2,795,000.00


bad debt

Taken  from  Finkler  &  McHugh,  2008  p.231  

Expense  Budget                                  
The  expenses  nurse  managers  must  include  in  the  budgets  for  their  units/wards  are  broken  
down  into  either  direct  expenses  or  indirect  expenses.    Direct  expenses  are  those  directly  
related  to  the  activities  occurring  on  the  unit  and  to  salaries,  while  indirect  expenses,  such  as  
computer  paper,  are  not  related  to  patient  care  but  are  needed  to  run  the  unit  (Finkler  &  
McHugh,  2008).  

The  greatest  expense  in  an  operating  budget  is  salaries,  which  are  the  largest  portion  of  a  
nursing  budget.  In  order  to  develop  the  personnel  budget,  it  is  important  to  understand  the  
concept  of  a  full  time  equivalent  (FTE)  position.  

A  position  is  not  determined  by  the  number  of  hours  a  person  works,  but  is  described  as  “one  
job  for  one  person”  (Finkler  &  McHugh,  2008).    Positions  can  be  categorized  as  full-­‐time,  part  
time,  or  per  diem,  as  needed  (PRN).    

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Module  8.  Financial  Management  and  Cost  Analysis  

A  full  time  person,  who  works  a  typical  40  hour  week,  works  2080  hours  per  year.    This  is  called  
a  full  time  employee.    Based  on  a  typical  8  hour  day  worked,  and  a  typical  work  week  of  5  days,  
this  equates  to  a  40  hour  work  week.    Multiplying  the  40  hour  work  week  by  52  weeks  in  the  
year  equals  2080  worked  hours  per  year,  which  is  the  definition  of  a  full-­‐time  equivalent  (FTE).    
Because  there  is  a  variation  of  hours  worked  by  individuals,  it  is  necessary  to  determine  one  
denominator  when  developing  a  nursing  salary  budget.    This  denominator  is  the  FTE  (Finkler  &  
McHugh).    One  employee  can  be  hired  as  full  time  and  work  2080  hours,  or  2  employees  can  be  
hired  to  work  2080  hours,  and  each  can  work  1040  hours  or  any  variation  to  equal  2080  hours.    

There  may  be  variations  to  the  standard  work  week;  for  example,  many  hospitals  are  now  using  
a  12  hour  shift  as  the  standard  shift  rather  than  the  eight  hour  week,  which  will  change  the  
definition  of  a  FTE.    When  determining  the  salary  budget,  it  is  important  to  know  the  definition  
of  a  FTE  on  a  unit  in  terms  of  total  hours  paid  (2080,  1872,  or  other  variations).    

When  budgeting  salaries,  productive  time  (actual  hours  worked)  and  non-­‐productive  time  (paid  
time  off/PTO);  educational  time)  must  be  taken  into  account.    This  can  also  be  differentiated  as  
“worked”  staff,  those  who  actually  worked  a  shift,  and  “paid”  staff,  which  includes  those  on  
educational  time  and  PTO  (Strickler,  2012).  

To  determine  the  salary  budget,  the  total  number  of  hours  required  to  staff  a  unit  or  
department  by  each  job  category—RN,  LVN,  and  nursing  assistant—is  multiplied  by  the  average  
hourly  rate.        Because  the  typical  work  week  is  5  days,  the  other  two  days,  plus  possible  PTO  or  
sick  time,  must  be  taken  into  account  when  calculating  the  total  hours  worked.  Each  8  hour  
work  day  is  considered  .2  FTE,  and  therefore,  to  cover  7  days  a  week,  we  must  multiply  the  
number  staff  needed  by  1.4  (.2x7).        

Non-­‐productive  time  (PTO,  education)  is  divided  by  the  productive  hours  which  will  give  a  
percentage  of  non-­‐productive  time.  

Example:    

18  x  1.4  =  25.2  FTEs  are  needed  to  staff  the  unit.  (2080  x  25.2  =52,416  productive  hours).  

If  historically  the  non-­‐productive  time  used  was  10%,  the  unit  is  paying  productive  time  plus  10%  
non-­‐productive  time.      52,416  x  10%  =57,637  hours.    57,637  divided  by  2080  will  give  us  27.7  
FTEs  required  to  staff  the  unit,  including  productive  and  nonproductive  time.  

Calculating  Hours  per  Patient  Day  (HPPD)  

HPPD  reflects  nursing  care  hour  required  in  24  hours  for  each  unit  of  work.    It  is  important  to  
know  that  this  is  calculated  using  productive  time  only.  

Total  hours  worked/patient  days  =  HPPD  or  HPPV  

Example:      

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Module  8.  Financial  Management  and  Cost  Analysis  

52416  hours  worked  annually  /  9490  patient  days  (ADC  x  365)      =  HPPD  of  5.52.  

Multiplying  the  HPPD/HPPV  by  the  patient  days  will  get  the  number  of  hours  required  to  work.    
That  number  divided  by  2080  will  give  you  the  FTE’s  needed.    Example  52416/  2080  (FTE)  =  25.2  
required  to  staff  the  unit.  

Salary  Budget  by  Mix  and  Shift  

Following  the  determination  of  HPPD,  hours  by  skill  mix  (RN/LPN/Nursing  assistant)  must  be  
determined.        

Example:      

If  50%  of  the  hours  are  worked  by  Registered  Nurses  (RN),  those  hours  will  be  multiplied  by  the  
average  hourly  rate  of  RNs  on  that  unit.    26,206  x  $25.00  =  $655,200.00        Use  the  same  
procedure  for  other  staff  mix.  

Shift  differential  is  added  by  using  the  hours  worked  on  the  shifts  multiplied  by  the  shift  rate.      

Example:  

22000  hours  are  night  shift  hours  at  $3.00  an  hour  =$66,000.00.  

Estimate  increases  for  the  next  year  including  merit  raises  or  any  proposed  skill  mix.  

ICU  BUDGET       RN   LPN  


    Productivity  Standard   5.52   5.52  
Budgeted  Statistics  (Patient  
    9490   9490  
days)  
    Total  Productive  Hours   26,206   26,206  
    +  10%  non-­‐productive  time   2620   2620  
    Total  Paid  Hours   28.926   28,926  
TOTAL  FTES    (  Divide  hrs  by  
    13.85  RNs   13.85  LPN  
2080)  
    Avg  hourly  rate    $                                                                        23.00      $                                                          15.00    
Shift  differential  (if  no  shift  diff  
     $                                                                            3.00      $                                                              2.00    
leave  blank).  
    Merit  increase  4%    $                                                                            0.92      $                                                              0.60    
    New  hourly  rate    $                                                                        26.92      $                                                          17.60    
    SALARY    $                                                      778,688.00      $                                        509,097.60    
    TOTAL  SALARY  EXPENSE        $                                  1,287,785.60    

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Module  8.  Financial  Management  and  Cost  Analysis  

Non-­‐Salary  Budget                                  
The  non-­‐salary  budget  includes  all  other  direct  expenses  in  a  budget  that  are  needed  to  support  
the  unit  and  patient  care.    This  typically  consists  of  medical  supplies,  office  supplies,  
professional  fees,  medical  equipment,  and  instruments  that  do  not  meet  the  capital  budgetary  
requirements,  dietary  costs,  maintenance,  educational  expenses,  etc.    Each  account  is  listed  
separately  on  the  chart  of  accounts.  

There  are  several  ways  to  calculate  the  non-­‐salaried  budget,  and  the  simplest  method  used  is  to  
calculate  the  total  cost  per  unit  of  activity:  cost  per  discharge,  cost  per  patient  day,  or  cost  per  
work  load  unit  (Finkler  &  McHugh,  2008).    The  key  to  budgeting  non-­‐salary  supplies  is  
identifying  the  most  reasonable  predictor  and  making  expense  projections  based  on  that  
predictor.  

The  non-­‐salary  expenses  are  calculated  using  the  projected  volume,  such  as  200  procedures,  
multiplied  by  the  current  cost.    Forecasting  is  a  tool  that  can  be  used  when  preparing  the  non-­‐
salary  budget  because  volume  can  be  predicted  based  on  current  use,  potential  growth  (such  as  
a  new  service  line),  or  even  the  possible  decrease  of  a  service  line  (Finkler  and  McHugh,  2008).  

Example  of  a  Budget  and  Budget  Variance  

• Budget  Variance:  The  budget  variance  is  the  difference  between  what  is  projected  in  the  
budget,  and  what  is  actually  expensed  or  received.    For  example,  salary  dollars  budgeted  for  
a  unit  is  $10.000.  00  per  month,  and  $12,000.00  was  used.    This  is  a  negative  variance  to  the  
salary  budget.  

 
Department Number:
 

 
SECTION I. YTD YTD $ % ABSOLUTE VARIANCE
 
Actual Budget Variance Variance BASED ON PER STAT
 
(1) Total Statistics: 5,970 6,544 -574.00 -8.8%
(2) Total FTE's: 50.89 55.08 -4.19 -7.6%
 
(3) Total Revenue: 6,879,628 7,628,596 -748,968.00 -9.8%
  Registry):
(4) Salaries (incl 2,873,552 3,090,479 -216,927.00 -7.0%
(5) Total Supplies: 127,311 148,479 -21,168.00 -14.3%
 
(7) Total Operating Exp: 3,002,328 3,257,559 -255,231.00 -7.8%
(8) Revenue / Stat 1,152.37 1,165.74 -13.37 -1.1% -79,834.00
 
(9) Salaries / Stat 481.33 472.26 9.07 1.9% 54,151.00
(10) Supplies / Stat 21.33 22.69 -1.36 -6.0% -8,144.00
(11) Oper. Exp./Stat $502.90 $497.79 5.11 1.0% 30,502.00
8  
Module  8.  Financial  Management  and  Cost  Analysis  

Cost/Benefit  Analysis                              
Cost-­‐benefit  analysis  and  cost  effectiveness  analysis  are  methods  used  to  determine  the  
advantages  and  disadvantages  of  a  program.  When  the  benefit  of  a  project  exceeds  the  cost,  
the  analysis  is  proven  to  be  positive.    The  following  are  key  elements  needed  in  performing  a  
cost-­‐benefit  analysis.  

• Determine  project  goals.  


o Understand  what  the  project  will  accomplish.    Example:  A  hospital  wants  to  
add  a  robot  in  their  surgical  unit.    What  will  this  expensive  piece  of  
equipment  add  to  the  organization?    Will  it  add  more  volume?  Will  it  
attract  more  surgeons?    Will  it  improve  the  hospital’s  competitive  edge?    
(Finkler  &  McHugh,  2008).  
• Estimate  project  benefits.  
o The  benefits  will  be  calculated  based  on  potential  new  volume  and  new  
surgeons.    If  the  robot  is  marketed  as  a  non-­‐invasive  procedure,  the  benefit  
will  be  added  volume  and  potential  increased  revenue  to  the  hospital.    
Additionally,  by  using  a  non-­‐invasive  technique,  another  benefit  will  be  
reducing  the  length  of  stay,  which  will  also  improve  cost  (Finkler  &  
McHugh,  2008).  
• Estimate  project  costs.  
o When  evaluating  costs,  it  is  important  to  include  all  costs,  which  may  be  
cost  of  supplies  and  cost  of  staff  dedicated  to  the  robot.  
• Discount  cost  and  benefit  flows  
o Project  benefits  and  costs  may  occur  over  several  years.    It  may  not  be  
practical  to  assume  the  robot  program  will  pay  for  itself  in  one  year,  which  
presents  a  problem  when  comparing  benefits  and  costs.  The  cost  of  a  
program  is  often  higher  at  the  start  up.  The  cost  of  the  equipment  in  will  
depreciate  in  5  years  of  the  program,  and  this  must  be  considered  in  
calculating  the  profit  (Finkler  &  McHugh,  2008).  
• Complete  the  decision  analysis  
o Once  all  relevant  costs  and  benefits  are  projected,  they  can  be  compared  
to  each  other  in  the  form  of  a  ratio.  Benefits  are  divided  by  costs,  and  if  the  
result  is  greater  than  1,  the  result  is  that  the  benefit  exceeds  the  cost  and  
the  project  is  desirable.  (Finkler  &  McHugh,  2008)  
 

• Cost  of  Illness  Analysis:  Determination  of  the  economic  impact  of  an  illness  or  condition  
including  associated  treatment  costs.    This  is  typically  done  on  a  given  population,  region,  or  
country.    Examples  include  smoking  and  cancer  (Hooshmand  &  Zanbrana,  2013).  The  
Centers  for  Disease  Control  and  Prevention  (CDC)  explains  that  “The  Cost  of  illness  (COI)  is  
defined  as  the  value  of  the  resources  that  are  expended  or  foregone  as  a  result  of  a  health  
problem”  (CDC,  n.d.).  The  COI  includes  costs  of  pain  and  suffering  and  lost  productivity.    It  is  
important  to  know  the  economic  burden  of  a  health  problem  in  order  to  make  

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Module  8.  Financial  Management  and  Cost  Analysis  

knowledgeable  choices  concerning  which  health  problems  to  address  and  what  
interventions  to  use  to  alleviate  them  (CDC,  n.d.).  
 
Understanding  the  estimates  of  medical  expenses  and  loss  of  employment  provides  an  
estimate  of  the  extent  of  the  economic  impact  of  various  health  problems  and  the  amount  
of  money  that  is  spent  on  an  illness,  compared  to  what  may  need  to  be  spent  on  the  
intervention.    This  can  then  determine  if  the  cost  of  the  intervention  is  worth  spending  the  
resources  to  alleviate  the  problem.    Key  questions  to  ask  are:  What  is  the  cost  of  the  
intervention?  What  is  the  cost  of  the  illness  without  intervention?  What  is  the  cost  of  the  
illness  with  the  intervention?  (CDC,  n.d.).  
 
• Cost  Minimization  Analysis:  This  analysis  determines  the  best  way  to  develop  a  program  at  
the  lowest  cost.  This  should  be  done  during  the  planning  and  budgeting  phase,  as  it  allows  
the  manager  to  evaluate  and  compare  costs  of  equal  products  (Issel,  2014).    For  example,  if  
a  new  therapy  or  drug  were  no  safer  or  no  more  effective  than  what  is  currently  being  used  
and  there  is  no  obvious  benefit  to  the  new  therapy  or  drug,  it  would  justify  the  same  price  
(World  Health  Organization,  2014).  
 
• Cost  Effectiveness  Analysis:  A  program  is  determined  to  be  cost  effective  if  the  desired  
outcomes  are  achieved  at  the  least  amount  of  cost.  Using  cost  and  benefits,  cost  
effectiveness  compares  alternatives  against  and  the  desired  outcome.    For  example,  a  boot  
has  been  used  as  a  preventative  measure  for  pressure  ulcers  on  heels.    A  new  treatment  of  
Mepilex  has  been  suggested,  which  is  less  expensive  than  the  boot.    The  outcome  must  be  
the  same  or  better  using  Mepilex  to  determine  cost  effectiveness  (Issel,  2014).  
 
• Cost  Utility  Analysis:  In  this  analysis  the  outcome  or  benefit  is  measured  by  the  increased  
utility  received  once  an  intervention  has  been  established.    The  result  is  measured  in  cost  
per  quality  of  adjusted  life  years  (QALYs)  gained  (Feinstein,  2012).    Issel  defines  QALYs  as  
“the  number  of  years  of  life  at  a  given  level  of  health  and  wellbeing”  (Issel,  2014,  p.  148).    
Both  quality  and  length  of  life  are  important  when  evaluating  a  health  condition.    These  are  
also  referred  to  as  burden  of  disease  measures,  and  are  used  to  evaluate  economic  value  of  
programs  or  a  community  needs  assessment  (Issel,  2014).  This  type  of  analysis  can  be  seen  
as  controversial  because  it  is  difficult  to  put  a  value  on  health  status  or  on  an  improvement  
in  health  status  as  perceived  by  different  individuals  or  societies.  Cost-­‐utility  analysis  differs  
from  the  cost-­‐benefit  analysis  because  it  compares  two  different  therapies  and  the  benefits  
of  the  therapies  may  be  different  (WHO,  2014).  

Triple  Aim  

The  Institute  for  Healthcare  Improvement  recognized  that  focusing  on  three  objectives  
simultaneously  will  lead  to  better  models  of  healthcare  delivery  systems.  Those  three  
objectives  are:  

• Improve  health  in  a  defined  population.  

10  
Module  8.  Financial  Management  and  Cost  Analysis  

• Improve  the  patient  experience.  


• Reduce  or  control  the  per  capita  cost  of  care  (Stiefel  &  Nolan,  2012).  
 

The  Triple  Aim  requires  all  public  health  departments,  schools,  social  service  entities,  health  
care  organizations,  and  employers  to  cooperate  in  this  venture  because  no  one  entity  can  
successfully  improve  the  health  of  a  population.    Over  100  sites  from  around  the  world  have  
been  included  in  this  initiative  (Stiefel  &  Nolan,  2012).  

Skill  sets  required  by  an  organization  to  assure  the  success  of  establishing  the  Triple  Aim  
include:  

• Segment  a  population  by  using  predictive  models    


• Develop  team  based  models  of  primary  care  
• Design  and  implement  customized  care  plans  with  patients  and  families  
• Remove  wastes  in  specialty  care  and  other  services  
• Discourage  supply  driven  care  and  match  capacity  and  demand  
• Measure  improvements  in  health  
• Use  outcomes  vs  volume  as  a  basis  of  success  (Healthcare  Executive,  2009)  
 
 
Obstacles  to  pursuit  of  the  Triple  Aim:  
• Supply  driven  demand  
• New  technology  with  limited  impact  on  outcomes  
• Physician  Centric  Care  
• Little  to  no  foreign  competition  to  challenge  domestic  change  (Berwick  et  
al,  2008).  
Preconditions  of  the  Triple  Aim  
• Specifying  a  population  concern,  such  as  all  heart  failure  patients  in  Dade  
County.  
• Policy  constraints,  for  example,  a  Nation  may  determine  Universal  
coverage  is  required.  
• Integrator  that  accepts  responsibility  for  all  3  components  of  the  Triple  Aim  
for  a  specified  population.  (Berwick  et  al,  2008).  
 

Role  of  the  Integrator:  

• Involves  individuals  and  families  


o Changes  more  is  better  attitude  
o Assures  care  plans  are  developed  for  chronic  conditions  
o Navigates  the  patients  through  the  complexities  and  difficult  
decisions  of  their  care  
• Redesigns  primary  care  services  

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Module  8.  Financial  Management  and  Cost  Analysis  

o Expand  the  role  of  the  primary  care  physician  as  a  medical  home,  
which  will  include  all  sub  specialists  and  the  hospital  
o Makes  access  to  care,  scheduling,  and  connection  to  community  
services  available  
• Population  health  management  
o Deploys  resources  to  a  population  
o Anticipates  the  patients  ongoing  needs  rather  than  focusing  on  the  
acute  phase  of  a  disease  
• Financial  management  systems  
o Control  cost  
o Measure  and  make  the  per  capita  cost  of  care  transparent  
o Develop  incentive  programs  for  decreasing  costs  per  capita  
o Carefully  scrutinize  new  technology  and  evaluate  outcomes  (Berwick  
et  al,  2008)    

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Common questions

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The Triple Aim framework facilitates healthcare delivery improvements by simultaneously focusing on enhancing population health, improving patient experiences, and reducing per capita care costs. This approach requires collaboration among public health departments, healthcare organizations, and other stakeholders to address systemic issues comprehensively. By emphasizing outcome-based measures and efficiency, healthcare systems can innovate service delivery models, integrate care across platforms, and align incentives, thus enhancing overall healthcare quality and sustainability .

Variance analysis aids hospital management by identifying discrepancies between budgeted and actual financial figures, providing insight into underperformance or efficiency gains. By evaluating differences in areas such as revenues, salaries, and supplies, managers can pinpoint operational inefficiencies or favorable deviations, enabling corrective actions to align performance with financial targets. This tool ensures management maintains control over expenditures and revenues, facilitates proactive strategic adjustments, and supports effective financial stewardship within the hospital .

The payer mix, which includes the composition of payments from private insurance, government entities, and self-paying patients, significantly influences a hospital's financial strategies and budgeting. Hospitals serving more patients with private insurance may have higher revenues due to better reimbursement rates compared to government payers. This impacts expense management and revenue projections in the budgeting process, as hospitals adjust their operations to maximize profitability based on their patient demographics .

Direct expenses, such as those related to patient care and salaries, contribute significantly to a hospital unit's expense budget. Indirect expenses, while not directly linked to patient care, are essential for unit operations (e.g., utilities, office supplies). Managing these costs involves identifying efficiency opportunities, such as streamlining processes or optimizing resource use. Implementing technology to track expenses and adopting cost-saving practices can also help keep both direct and indirect costs in check, thereby optimizing the unit's financial health .

Implementing predictive models in healthcare faces several challenges, including data accuracy, integration, and privacy concerns. Predictive algorithms require high-quality, comprehensive data to deliver accurate insights, which can be difficult to obtain due to fragmented health records. Integration across different healthcare systems and platforms often poses technical obstacles. Moreover, privacy concerns around patient data can impede data sharing and cooperation among entities, crucial for successful segmentation and personalized care interventions as targeted by the Triple Aim .

Cost-effectiveness analysis assesses healthcare programs based on their ability to achieve desired outcomes at the lowest cost, comparing different interventions against each other for effectiveness in achieving health goals. In contrast, cost-minimization analysis focuses only on cost evaluation when two or more interventions are expected to achieve broadly equivalent outcomes. This highlights the primary role of cost-effectiveness analysis in guiding resource allocation towards methods that maximize health benefits relative to cost .

Cost-Utility Analysis provides insights into interventions by measuring outcomes in terms of quality-adjusted life years (QALYs), offering a comprehensive assessment of both the quality and length of life. This can guide decisions on resource allocation by quantifying the utility of medical advancements. However, it is controversial since it challenges quantifying health state improvements, which vary by individuals and societies, and can involve ethical issues regarding the valuation of life and well-being. Despite providing a systematic approach to evaluating healthcare interventions, it confronts complexities in accurately capturing subjective health benefits .

Full-Time Equivalent (FTE) positions are critical in developing a salary budget as they represent the standard work hours of a full-time employee, totaling 2,080 hours per year. This measurement allows for consistent budgeting and resource allocation, accounting for different employment types such as full-time, part-time, or per diem roles. By calculating the necessary FTEs, managers can accurately assess staffing needs and allocate salaries accordingly, harmonizing workload distribution and financial planning to meet the unit's operational demands .

Conducting a Cost of Illness (COI) analysis is significant, as it estimates the economic impact of specific health conditions on a given population. It assesses direct costs, such as medical treatment expenditures, and indirect costs, like lost productivity, providing a comprehensive picture of the financial burden of diseases. This information aids policymakers in prioritizing healthcare interventions by highlighting areas with high economic strain, ensuring resource allocation targets cost-effective strategies to alleviate societal and economic impacts of health issues .

Understanding the Average Length of Stay (ALOS) is crucial for financial management because it directly impacts hospital profitability. A longer ALOS can increase operational costs, as more resources are consumed per patient, reducing profitability. By managing and reducing ALOS efficiently, hospitals can decrease costs per patient and improve financial performance . Adjustments based on unit or payer class (e.g., Intensive Care Unit vs. Surgical Unit) further refine cost management and enhance decision-making regarding resource allocation .

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