MODULE 1

Definition and History of Educational Technology

Many technological innovations of the 20th century have promised
breakthroughs in the methods and effectiveness of teaching. Some of the most
promising innovations included filmstrips and motion pictures, teaching machines
(mechanical devices that present systematic instruction to students), and programmed
instruction (instruction delivered in a graded sequence of steps, usually by means of a
computer or other device). But the promise generated by much of this new technology
proved illusory, and most changes in teaching methods became nothing more than
short-lived fads.

Two very different technologies, however, may have far greater effects on
educational practice than their predecessors. The revolution in computer and
communications technology holds out hope that all students will connect with more
information and more people than ever before, and that learning might become more
individualized. The other promising technological advance is in biochemistry and
genetic engineering. Innovations in these fields suggest that certain barriers to
learning, such as short attention spans or faulty memories, might one day be reduced
by means other than the traditional reliance on sheer effort alone. For example,
medical researchers conduct studies on the brain and central nervous system in
hopes of discovering ways to enhance memory and intelligence.

Educational technology is involved with the facilitation of human learning. It is

essentially a product of a historical stream of trial and error, imitation, individual
creativity and persuasion. Learn more about educational technology as you read this
module.

Your Goal:

At the end of the module, you should be able to:

1. Define educational technology;

2. Discuss the history of educational technology;
3. State some contributors in the development of educational technology.
4. Prepare a timeline chart to show the development of educational
technology.
PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY BAYAMBANG CAMPUS Educational Technology 1
 Definition of Educational Technology
Educational technology is involved with the facilitation of human learning
through systematic identification, development, organization and use of a full range of
resources and then management of these resources.

Educational technology is an area of study concerned with all aspects of the

organization of educational systems and procedure.

Educational technology is concerned with the systematic use of modern

methods and technologies in teaching and learning. It refers to hardware and
software.

A true technology of education includes the entire process of the settings of

goals, the continuous renewal of curriculum, the trying out of alternative strategies and
materials, the evaluation of the system as a whole and resetting of the goals as new
information on the effect of the system is known.

From all these definitions, we find the common elements: 1) field or area of
study or the practice of using methods and technologies; 2) systematized use of
methods and resources; 3) facilitation of the learning process as the ultimate goal.
Expressed succinctly, any attempt at systematizing the use of methods and learning
resources in order to achieve a desired educational goal is educational technology.

History of Education
I INTRODUCTION

Education developed from the human struggle for survival and enlightenment. It may
be formal or informal. Informal education refers to the general social process by which
human beings acquire the knowledge and skills needed to function in their culture.
Formal education refers to the process by which teachers instruct students in courses
of study within institutions.

II EDUCATION IN PRELITERATE SOCIETIES

Before the invention of reading and writing, people lived in an environment in which
they struggled to survive against natural forces, animals, and other humans. To
survive, preliterate people developed skills that grew into cultural and educational
patterns. For a particular group‘s culture to continue into the future, people had to

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transmit it, or pass it on, from adults to children. The earliest educational processes
involved sharing information about gathering food and providing shelter; making
weapons and other tools; learning language; and acquiring the values, behavior, and
religious rites or practices of a given culture.

Through direct, informal education, parents, elders, and priests taught children the
skills and roles they would need as adults. These lessons eventually formed the moral
codes that governed behavior. Since they lived before the invention of writing,
preliterate people used an oral tradition, or storytelling, to pass on their culture and
history from one generation to the next. By using language, people learned to create
and use symbols, words, or signs to express their ideas. When these symbols grew
into pictographs and letters, human beings created a written language and made the
great cultural leap to literacy.

III EDUCATION IN ANCIENT AFRICA AND ASIA

Teachings of Confucius
Nearly 2500 years ago when intrigue
and vice were rampant in feudal China,
the philosopher Confucius taught
principles of proper conduct and social
relationships that embraced high
ethical and moral standards.
Confucius’s teachings and wisdom were
standard scholarly education for the
bureaucrats who administered the
country. The Confucian tradition, which
encompasses education, wisdom, and
ethics, persists in China.
National Palace Museum, Taiwan/Robert Harding
Picture Library

In ancient Egypt, which flourished from about 3000 BC to about 500 BC, priests in
temple schools taught not only religion but also the principles of writing, the sciences,
mathematics, and architecture. Similarly in India, priests conducted most of the formal
education. Beginning in about 1200 BC Indian priests taught the principles of the Veda,
the sacred texts of Hinduism, as well as science, grammar, and philosophy. Formal
education in China dates to about 2000 BC, though it thrived particularly during the
Eastern Zhou Dynasty, from 770 to 256 BC . The curriculum stressed philosophy,
poetry, and religion, in accord with the teachings of Confucius, Laozi (Lao-tzu), and
other philosophers.

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IV EDUCATION IN ANCIENT GREECE

Historians have looked to ancient Greece as one of the origins of Western formal
education. The Iliad and the Odyssey, epic poems attributed to Homer and written
sometime in the 8th century BC, created a cultural tradition that gave the Greeks a
sense of group identity. In their dramatic account of Greek struggles, Homer‘s epics
served important educational purposes. The legendary Greek warriors depicted in
Homer‘s work, such as Agamemnon, Odysseus, and Achilles, were heroes who
served as models for the young Greeks.

Homer’s Iliad

Homer's epic poem the Iliad, which dates

from the 8th century BC, was a central text of
ancient Greek education. In the poem, Trojan
and Greek armies gather for the Trojan War,
the classic battle of Western lore. In the
meantime, the mythological gods gather to
debate the fate of the humans.

Culver Pictures/(p) 1994 Microsoft Corporation. All

Rights Reserved.

Ancient Greece was divided into small and often competing city-states, or poleis,
such as Athens, Sparta, and Thebes. Athens emphasized a humane and democratic
society and education, but only about one-third of the people in Athens were free
citizens. Slaves and residents from other countries or city-states made up the rest of
the population. Only the sons of free citizens attended school. The Athenians believed
a free man should have a liberal education in order to perform his civic duties and for
his own personal development. The education of women depended upon the customs
of the particular Greek city-state. In Athens, where women had no legal or economic
rights, most women did not attend school. Some girls, however, were educated at
home by tutors. Slaves and other noncitizens had either no formal education or very
little. Sparta, the chief political enemy of Athens, was a dictatorship that used
education for military training and drill. In contrast to Athens, Spartan girls received
more schooling but it was almost exclusively athletic training to prepare them to be
healthy mothers of future Spartan soldiers.

In the 400s BC, the Sophists, a group of wandering teachers, began to teach in
Athens. The Sophists claimed that they could teach any subject or skill to anyone who
wished to learn it. They specialized in teaching grammar, logic, and rhetoric, subjects

PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY BAYAMBANG CAMPUS Educational Technology 4

that eventually formed the core of the liberal arts. The Sophists were more interested
in preparing their students to argue persuasively and win arguments than in teaching
principles of truth and morality.

The word Sophists (Greek sophistēs,‖expert, master craftsman, man of wisdom‖),

originally, name applied by the ancient Greeks to learned men, such as the Seven
Wise Men of Greece; in the 5th century BC, a name applied to itinerant teachers who
provided instruction in several higher branches of learning for a fee.

Individuals sharing a broad philosophic outlook rather than a school, the Sophists
popularized the ideas of various early philosophers; but based on their understanding
of this prior philosophic thought, most of them concluded that truth and morality were
essentially matters of opinion. Thus, in their own teaching, they tended to emphasize
forms of persuasive expression, such as the art of rhetoric, which provided pupils with
skills useful for achieving success in life, particularly public life.

The Sophists were popular for a time, especially in Athens; however, their skeptical
view on absolute truth and morality eventually provoked sharp criticism. Socrates,
Plato, and Aristotle challenged the philosophic basis of the Sophists' teaching, and
Plato and Aristotle further condemned them for taking money. Later, they were
accused by the state of lacking morality. As a result, the word sophist acquired a
derogatory meaning, as in the modern term sophistry, which can be defined as subtle
and deceptive or false argumentation or reasoning.

The Sophists were of minor importance in the development of Western philosophic

thought. They were, however, the first to systematize education. Leading 5th-century
Sophists included Protagoras, Gorgias, Hippias of Elis, and Prodicus of Ceos.

Unlike the Sophists, the Greek philosopher Socrates sought to discover and teach
universal principles of truth, beauty, and goodness. Socrates, who died in 399 BC,
claimed that true knowledge existed within everyone and needed to be brought to
consciousness. His educational method, called the Socratic method, consisted of
asking probing questions that forced his students to think deeply about the meaning of
life, truth, and justice.

In 387 BC Plato, who had studied under Socrates, established a school in Athens
called the Academy. Plato believed in an unchanging world of perfect ideas or
universal concepts. He asserted that since true knowledge is the same in every place
at every time, education, like truth, should be unchanging. Plato described his
educational ideal in the Republic, one of the most notable works of Western
philosophy. Plato‘s Republic describes a model society, or republic, ruled by highly
intelligent philosopher-kings. Warriors make up the republic‘s second class of people.
The lowest class, the workers, provide food and the other products for all the people of
PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY BAYAMBANG CAMPUS Educational Technology 5
the republic. In Plato‘s ideal educational system, each class would receive a different
kind of instruction to prepare for their various roles in society.

The Academy of Plato

The Academy, the school established

by Greek philosopher Plato, is
depicted in this Roman mosaic from
the early 1st century AD. Plato, third
from the left, leans against a tree that
symbolizes wisdom and knowledge.
The Acropolis appears in the
background. The mosaic, from the
house of Siminius Stephanus in
Pompeii (Italy), is now in the National
Archaeological Museum, Naples.

Encarta Encyclopedia
Archivo Iconografico, S.A/Corbis

In 335 BC Plato‘s student, Aristotle, founded his own school in Athens called the
Lyceum. Believing that human beings are essentially rational, Aristotle thought people
could discover natural laws that governed the universe and then follow these laws in
their lives. He also concluded that educated people who used reason to make
decisions would lead a life of moderation in which they avoided dangerous extremes.

In the 4th century BC Greek orator Isocrates developed a method of education

designed to prepare students to be competent orators who could serve as government
officials. Isocrates‘s students studied rhetoric, politics, ethics, and history. They
examined model orations and practiced public speaking. Isocrates‘s methods of
education directly influenced such Roman educational theorists as Cicero and
Quintilian.

V EDUCATION IN ANCIENT ROME

While the Greeks were developing their civilization in the areas surrounding the
eastern Mediterranean Sea, the Romans were gaining control of the Italian peninsula
and areas of the western Mediterranean. The Greeks‘ education focused on the study
of philosophy. The Romans, on the other hand, were preoccupied with war, conquest,
politics, and civil administration. As in Greece, only a minority of Romans attended
school. Schooling was for those who had the money to pay tuition and the time to
attend classes. While girls from wealthy families occasionally learned to read and write
at home, boys attended a primary school, called aludus. In secondary schools boys
studied Latin and Greek grammar taught by Greek slaves, called pedagogues.
PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY BAYAMBANG CAMPUS Educational Technology 6
After primary and secondary school, wealthy young men often attended schools of
rhetoric or oratory that prepared them to be leaders in government and administration.
Cicero, a 1st century BC Roman senator, combined Greek and Roman ideas on how
to educate orators in his book De Oratore. Like Isocrates, Cicero believed orators
should be educated in liberal arts subjects such as grammar, rhetoric, logic,
mathematics, and astronomy. He also asserted that they should study ethics, military
science, natural science, geography, history, and law.

Quintilian, an influential Roman educator who lived in the 1st century AD, wrote that
education should be based on the stages of individual development from childhood to
adulthood. Quintilian devised specific lessons for each stage. He also advised
teachers to make their lessons suited to the student‘s readiness and ability to learn
new material. He urged teachers to motivate students by making learning interesting
and attractive.

VI ANCIENT JEWISH EDUCATION

Education among the Jewish people also had a profound influence on Western
learning. The ancient Jews had great respect for the printed word and believed that
God revealed truth to them in the Bible. Most information on ancient Jewish goals and
methods of education comes from the Bible and the Talmud, a book of religious and
civil law. Jewish religious leaders, known as rabbis, advised parents to teach their
children religious beliefs, law, ethical practices, and vocational skills. Both boys and
girls were introduced to religion by studying the Torah, the most sacred document of
Judaism. Rabbis taught in schools within synagogues, places of worship and religious
study.

VII MEDIEVAL EDUCATION

During the Middle Ages, or the medieval period, which lasted roughly from the 5th to
the 15th century, Western society and education were heavily shaped by Christianity,
particularly the Roman Catholic Church. The Church operated parish, chapel, and
monastery schools at the elementary level. Schools in monasteries and cathedrals
offered secondary education. Much of the teaching in these schools was directed at
learning Latin, the old Roman language used by the church in its ceremonies and
teachings. The church provided some limited opportunities for the education of women
in religious communities or convents. Convents had libraries and schools to help
prepare nuns to follow the religious rules of their communities. Merchant and craft
guilds also maintained some schools that provided basic education and training in
specific crafts. Knights received training in military tactics and the code of chivalry.

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 Monk in a Scriptorium

Many of the books used for

education in medieval Europe
were reproduced by monks.
They diligently copied entire
texts in a monastery room called
a scriptorium, which was
designed for this purpose.

THE BETTMANN ARCHIVE

As in the Greek and Roman eras, only a minority of people went to school during the
medieval period. Schools were attended primarily by persons planning to enter
religious life such as priests, monks, or nuns. The vast majority of people were serfs
who served as agricultural workers on the estates of feudal lords. The serfs, who did
not attend school, were generally illiterate.

In the 10th and early 11th centuries, Arabic learning had a pronounced influence on
Western education. From contact with Arab scholars in North Africa and Spain,
Western educators learned new ways of thinking about mathematics, natural science,
medicine, and philosophy. The Arabic number system was especially important, and
became the foundation of Western arithmetic. Arab scholars also preserved and
translated into Arabic the works of such influential Greek scholars as Aristotle, Euclid,
Galen, and Ptolemy. Because many of these works had disappeared from Europe by
the Middle Ages, they might have been lost forever if Arab scholars such as Avicenna
and Averroës had not preserved them.

Medieval Schools

During the Middle Ages, advocates

of Scholasticism sought to forge
through the use of logic a
connection between classical Greek
philosophy and Christian theology.
Teachers and instructors employed
the concepts of reason and
revelation to teach their students
how to think. In this 15th-century
Italian painting, parents take their
children to see a teacher of
grammar.

Hulton Deutsch

PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY BAYAMBANG CAMPUS Educational Technology 8

In the 11th century medieval scholars developed Scholasticism, a philosophical and
educational movement that used both human reason and revelations from the Bible.
Upon encountering the works of Aristotle and other Greek philosophers from Arab
scholars, the Scholastics attempted to reconcile Christian theology with Greek
philosophy. Scholasticism reached its high point in the Summa Theologiae of Saint
Thomas Aquinas, a 13th century Dominican theologian who taught at the University of
Paris.

Saint Thomas Aquinas

Education in the 13th century was

shaped profoundly by the work of
Italian philosopher and theologian Saint
Thomas Aquinas. Aquinas's writings
attempted to reconcile the philosophy
of Aristotle with the ideas of Christian
theologian Saint Augustine. Aquinas
employed both reason and faith in the
study of metaphysics, moral
philosophy, and religion.

Hulton Deutsch

Aquinas reconciled the authority of religious faith, represented by the Scriptures, with
Greek reason, represented by Aristotle. Aquinas described the teacher‘s vocation as
one that combines faith, love, and learning. The work of Aquinas and other
Scholastics took place in the medieval institutions of higher education, the universities.
The famous European universities of Paris, Salerno, Bologna, Oxford, Cambridge,
and Padua grew out of the Scholastics-led intellectual revival of the 12th and 13th
centuries. The name university comes from the Latin word universitas, or associations,
in reference to the associations that students and teachers organized to discuss
academic issues. Medieval universities offered degrees in the liberal arts and in
professional studies such as theology, law, and medicine.
All Souls College, University of Oxford

Established during the 12th century, the

University of Oxford is England’s oldest
institution of higher education. During
the Renaissance (late-14th century to
17th century) the school became one of
the leading centers of higher education
in Europe. The University of Oxford is a
federation of colleges and residence
halls, each with its own structure and
activities. Many prominent scholars have
been associated with All Souls College,
shown here.
Ulrike Welsch/Photo Researchers, Inc.

PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY BAYAMBANG CAMPUS Educational Technology 9

VIII EDUCATION DURING THE RENAISSANCE

The Renaissance, or rebirth of learning, began in Europe in the 14th century and
reached its height in the 15th century. Scholars became more interested in the
humanist features—that is, the secular or worldly rather than the religious aspects—of
the Greek and Latin classics. Humanist educators found their models of literary style
in the classics. The Renaissance was a particularly powerful force in Italy, most
notably in art, literature, and architecture. In literature, the works of such Italian writers
as Dante Aleghieri, Petrarch, and Giovanni Boccaccio became especially important.

Desiderius Erasmus

Dutch scholar and theologian Desiderius

Erasmus wrote the religious satire The
Praise of Folie, (1509, translated in
1549). Erasmus believed that the Bible
and other Christian works should be
read in the original Hebrew or Greek
text and belonged to a group of scholars
who became known as Christian
humanists.

Library of Congress

Humanist educators designed teaching methods to prepare well-rounded, liberally

educated persons. Dutch humanist Desiderius Erasmus was particularly influential.
Erasmus believed that understanding and conversing about the meaning of literature
was more important than memorizing it, as had been required at many of the medieval
religious schools. He advised teachers to study such fields as archaeology,
astronomy, mythology, history, and Scripture.

Classical Studies

Renaissance humanists studied the

literature of ancient Greece and Rome,
believing that these classical works
represented the height of human
knowledge and were important models
for a new age. St. Jerome in His Study,
by the Italian painter Antonello da
Messina (1430-1479), depicts the 4th-
century scholar Jerome. Jerome was
known for his important literary
accomplishments, including a translation
of the Bible into Latin.

National Gallery, London/SuperStock

PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY BAYAMBANG CAMPUS Educational Technology 10

The invention of the printing press in the mid-15th century made books more widely
available and increased literacy rates. But school attendance did not increase greatly
during the Renaissance. Elementary schools educated middle-class children while
lower-class children received little, if any, formal schooling. Children of the nobility and
upper classes attended humanist secondary schools.

New Educational Goals

Education during the Renaissance

emphasized such humanistic
disciplines as history, poetry, and
ethics. This painting depicts
Massimiliano Sforza, the son of a
duke of Milan, attending to his
lessons.

Biblioteca Trivulziana, Milan,

Italy/Bridgeman Art Library,
London/New York

Educational opportunities for women improved slightly during the Renaissance,

especially for the upper classes. Some girls from wealthy families attended schools of
the royal court or received private lessons at home. The curriculum studied by young
women was still based on the belief that only certain subjects, such as art, music,
needlework, dancing, and poetry, were suited for females. For working-class girls,
especially rural peasants, education was still limited to training in household duties
such as cooking and sewing.

IX EDUCATION DURING THE PROTESTANT REFORMATION

The religious Reformation of the 16th century marked a decline in the authority of the
Catholic Church and contributed to the emergence of the middle classes in Europe.
Protestant religious reformers, such as John Calvin, Martin Luther, and Huldreich
Zwingli, rejected the authority of the Catholic pope and created reformed Christian, or
Protestant, churches. In their ardent determination to instruct followers to read the
Bible in their native language, reformers extended literacy to the masses. They
established vernacular primary schools that offered a basic curriculum of reading,
writing, arithmetic, and religion for children in their own language. Vernacular schools
in England, for example, used English to teach their pupils. As they argued with each
other and with the Roman Catholics on religious matters, Protestant educators wrote
catechisms—primary books that summarized their religious doctrine—in a question
and answer format.

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While the vernacular schools educated both boys and girls at the primary level, upper-
class boys attended preparatory and secondary schools that continued to emphasize
Latin and Greek. The gymnasium in Germany, the Latin grammar school in England,
and the lycee in France were preparatory schools that taught young men the classical
languages of Latin and Greek required entering universities.

Martin Luther
German theologian and religious reformer Martin
Luther precipitated the Protestant Reformation
with his publication in 1517 of his Ninety-Five
Theses, which detailed the indulgences and
excesses of the Roman Catholic Church. Luther felt
that the essence of Christianity lay not in an
elaborate organization headed by the pope, but in
each person’s direct communication with God.
Luther’s protest set off a flood of departures from
the Roman Catholic Church and set the stage for
further Protestant movements, including Calvinism
and Presbyterianism.
THE BETTMANN ARCHIVE
Microsoft ® Encarta ® 2008. © 1993-2007
Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.

Martin Luther believed the state, family, and school, along with the church, were
leaders of the Reformation. Since the family shaped children‘s character, Luther
encouraged parents to teach their children reading and religion. Each family should
pray together, read the Bible, study the catechism, and practice a useful trade. Luther
believed that government should assist schools in educating literate, productive, and
religious citizens. One of Luther‘s colleagues, German religious reformer
Melanchthon, wrote the school code for the German region of Württemberg, which
became a model for other regions of Germany and influenced education throughout
Europe. According to this code, the government was responsible for supervising
schools and licensing teachers.

The Protestant reformers retained the dual-class school system that had developed in
the Renaissance. Vernacular schools provided primary instruction for the lower
classes, and the various classical humanist and Latin grammar schools prepared
upper-class males for higher education.

X EDUCATIONAL THEORY IN THE 17TH CENTURY

Educators of the 17th century developed new ways of thinking about education. Czech
education reformer Jan Komensky, known as Comenius, was particularly influential.
A bishop of the Moravian Church, Comenius escaped religious persecution by taking
refuge in Poland, Hungary, Sweden, and The Netherlands. He created a new

PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY BAYAMBANG CAMPUS Educational Technology 12

educational philosophy called Pansophism, or universal knowledge, designed to
bring about worldwide understanding and peace. Comenius advised teachers to use
children‘s senses rather than memorization in instruction. To make learning interesting
for children, he wrote The Gate of Tongues Unlocked (1631), a book for teaching Latin
in the student‘s own language. He also wrote Orbis Sensualium Pictus (1658; The
Visible World in Pictures, 1659) consisting of illustrations that labelled objects in both
their Latin and vernacular names. It was one of the first illustrated books written
especially for children.

The work of English philosopher John Locke influenced education in Britain and
North America. Locke examined how people acquire ideas in An Essay Concerning
Human Understanding (1690). He asserted that at birth the human mind is a blank
slate, or tabula rasa, and empty of ideas. We acquire knowledge, he argued, from the
information about the objects in the world that our senses bring to us. We begin with
simple ideas and then combine them into more complex ones.

Locke believed that individuals acquire knowledge most easily when they first consider
simple ideas and then gradually combine them into more complex ones. In Some
Thoughts Concerning Education (1697), Locke recommended practical learning to
prepare people to manage their social, economic, and political affairs efficiently. He
believed that a sound education began in early childhood and insisted that the
teaching of reading, writing, and arithmetic be gradual and cumulative. Locke‘s
curriculum included conversational learning of foreign languages, especially French,
mathematics, history, physical education, and games.

XI EDUCATION DURING THE ENLIGHTENMENT

Jean Jacques Rousseau

One of the most influential Enlightenment

thinkers, French philosopher Jean
Jacques Rousseau argued that individual
freedom is more important than state
institutions. His political writings helped
inspire the French Revolution (1789-
1799). He also wrote eloquently on
education, arguing that children learn
best by interacting freely with their
environment. His thoughts on education
anticipated 20th-century reforms in
schooling.
Giraudon/Art Resource, NY

The Age of Enlightenment in the 18th century produced important changes in

education and educational theory. During the Enlightenment, also called the Age of
Reason, educators believed people could improve their lives and society by using their
PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY BAYAMBANG CAMPUS Educational Technology 13
reason, their powers of critical thinking. The Enlightenment‘s ideas had a significant
impact on the American Revolution (1775-1783) and early educational policy in the
United States. In particular, American philosopher and scientist Benjamin Franklin
emphasized the value of utilitarian and scientific education in American schools.
Thomas Jefferson, the third president of the United States, stressed the importance of
civic education to the citizens of a democratic nation. The Enlightenment principles
that considered education as an instrument of social reform and improvement remain
fundamental characteristics of American education policy.

XII EDUCATION IN THE 19TH CENTURY

Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi

Swiss educator Johann Heinrich

Pestalozzi is widely considered the
pioneer of early childhood education.
His teaching philosophy, which he first
proposed in the 1770s, was based on
the principle that children were
naturally good and that education
should nurture and preserve this innate
innocence. Pestalozzi established
several schools for poor and orphaned
children in Switzerland.
Keystone Pressedienst GmbH

The foundations of modern education were established in the 19th century. Swiss
educator Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi, inspired by the work of French philosopher
Jean Jacques Rousseau, developed an educational method based on the natural
world and the senses. Pestalozzi established schools in Switzerland and Germany to
educate children and train teachers. He affirmed that schools should resemble secure
and loving homes.

Like Locke and Rousseau, Pestalozzi believed that thought began with sensation and
that teaching should use the senses. Holding that children should study the objects in
their natural environment, Pestalozzi developed a so-called ―object lesson‖ that
involved exercises in learning form, number, and language. Pupils determined and
traced an object‘s form, counted objects, and named them. Students progressed from
these lessons to exercises in drawing, writing, adding, subtracting, multiplying,
dividing, and reading.

Pestalozzi employed the following principles in teaching: (1) begin with the concrete
object before introducing abstract concepts; (2) begin with the immediate environment
before dealing with what is distant and remote; (3) begin with easy exercises before

PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY BAYAMBANG CAMPUS Educational Technology 14

introducing complex ones; and (4) always proceed gradually, cumulatively, and slowly.
American educator Henry Barnard, the first U.S. Commissioner of Education,
introduced Pestalozzi‘s ideas to the United States in the late 19th century. Barnard
also worked for the establishment of free public high schools for students of all classes
of American society.

German philosopher Johann Herbart emphasized moral education and designed a

highly structured teaching technique. Maintaining that education‘s primary goal is
moral development, Herbart claimed good character rested on knowledge while
misconduct resulted from an inadequate education. Knowledge, he said, should create
an ―apperceptive mass‖—a network of ideas—in a person‘s mind to which new ideas
can be added. He wanted to include history, geography, and literature in the school
curriculum as well as reading, writing, and arithmetic. Based on his work, Herbart‘s
followers designed a five-step teaching method: (1) prepare the pupils to be ready for
the new lesson, (2) present the new lesson, (3) associate the new lesson with ideas
studied earlier, (4) use examples to illustrate the lesson‘s major points, and (5) test
pupils to ensure they had learned the new lesson.

A Kindergarten

Friedrich Froebel

German educator Friedrich Froebel founded

the first kindergarten in 1837 in
Blankenburg, Prussia (now part of
Germany). Froebel based his educational
philosophy on a belief in the innate
creativity of children. Accordingly, his
kindergarten stressed that children should
spend part of each day engaged in play to
naturally develop their creative and
intellectual potential.
Archive Photos

German educator Friedrich Froebel created the earliest kindergarten, a form of

preschool education that literally means ―child‘s garden‖ in German. Froebel, who had
an unhappy childhood, urged teachers to think back to their own childhoods to find
insights they could use in their teaching. Froebel studied at Pestalozzi‘s institute in
Yverdon, Switzerland, from 1808 to 1810. While agreeing with Pestalozzi‘s emphasis
on the natural world, a kindly school atmosphere, and the object lesson, Froebel felt
that Pestalozzi‘s method was not philosophical enough. Froebel believed that every
child‘s inner self contained a spiritual essence—a spark of divine energy—that
enabled a child to learn independently.

PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY BAYAMBANG CAMPUS Educational Technology 15

In 1837 Froebel opened a kindergarten in Blankenburg with a curriculum that featured
songs, stories, games, gifts, and occupations. The songs and stories stimulated the
imaginations of children and introduced them to folk heroes and cultural values.
Games developed children‘s social and physical skills. By playing with each other,
children learned to participate in a group. Froebel‘s gifts, including such objects as
spheres, cubes, and cylinders, were designed to enable the child to understand the
concept that the object represented. Occupations consisted of materials children could
use in building activities. For example, clay, sand, cardboard, and sticks could be used
to build castles, cities, and mountains.

Immigrants from Germany brought the kindergarten concept to the United States,
where it became part of the American school system. Margarethe Meyer Schurz
opened a German-language kindergarten in Watertown, Wisconsin, in 1855. Elizabeth
Peabody established an English-language kindergarten and a training school for
kindergarten teachers in Boston, Massachusetts, in 1860. William Torrey Harris,
superintendent of schools in St. Louis, Missouri, and later a U.S. commissioner of
education, made the kindergarten part of the American public school system.

B Social Darwinism

British sociologist Herbert Spencer strongly influenced education in the mid-19th

century with social theories based on the theory of evolution developed by British
naturalist Charles Darwin. Spencer revised Darwin‘s biological theory into social
Darwinism, a body of ideas that applied the theory of evolution to society, politics, the
economy, and education. Spencer maintained that in modern industrialized societies,
as in earlier simpler societies, the ―fittest‖ individuals of each generation survived
because they were intelligent and adaptable. Competition caused the brightest and
strongest individuals to climb to the top of the society. Urging unlimited competition,
Spencer wanted government to restrict its activities to the bare minimum. He opposed
public schools, claiming that they would create a monopoly for mediocrity by catering
to students of low ability. He wanted private schools to compete against each other in
trying to attract the brightest students and most capable teachers. Spencer‘s social
Darwinism became very popular in the last half of the 19th century when
industrialization was changing American and Western European societies.

Spencer believed that people in industrialized society needed scientific rather than
classical education. Emphasizing education in practical skills, he advocated a
curriculum featuring lessons in five basic human activities: (1) those needed for self-
preservation such as health, diet, and exercise; (2) those needed to perform one‘s
occupation so that a person can earn a living, including the basic skills of reading,
writing, computation, and knowledge of the sciences; (3) those needed for parenting,

PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY BAYAMBANG CAMPUS Educational Technology 16

to raise children properly; (4) those needed to participate in society and politics; and
(5) those needed for leisure and recreation. Spencer‘s ideas on education were
eagerly accepted in the United States. In 1918 the Cardinal Principles of Secondary
Education, a report issued by the National Education Association, used Spencer‘s list
of activities in its recommendations for American education.

XIII NATIONAL SYSTEMS OF EDUCATION

In the 19th century, governments in the United Kingdom, Germany, France, Italy, and
other European countries organized national systems of public education. The United
States, Canada, Argentina, Uruguay, and other countries in North and South America
also established national education systems based largely on European models.

XIV EDUCATION IN THE TWENTIETH CENTURY

At the beginning of the 20th century, the writings of Swedish feminist and educator
Ellen Key influenced education around the world. Key‘s book Barnets århundrade
(1900; The Century of the Child,1909) was translated into many languages and
inspired so-called progressive educators in various countries. Progressive education
was a system of teaching that emphasized the needs and potentials of the child,
rather than the needs of society or the principles of religion. Among the influential
progressive educators were Hermann Lietz and Georg Michael Kerschensteiner of
Germany, Bertrand Russell of England, and Maria Montessori of Italy.

A Montessori

Montessori‘s methods of early childhood education have become internationally

popular. Trained in medicine, Montessori worked with developmentally disabled
children early in her career. The results of her work were so effective that she believed
her teaching methods could be used to educate all children. In 1907 Montessori
established a children‘s school, the Casa dei Bambini (Children‘s House), for poor
children from the San Lorenzo district of Rome. Here she developed a specially
prepared environment that featured materials and activities based on her observations
of children. She found that children enjoy mastering specific skills, prefer work to play,
and can sustain concentration. She also believed that children have a power to learn
independently if provided a properly stimulating environment.

PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY BAYAMBANG CAMPUS Educational Technology 17

A young boy in a Montessori preschool matches words and illustrations as his teacher looks on. Italian educator
Maria Montessori introduced her method of teaching children in 1907. The Montessori method encourages the
development of initiative and self-reliance in children.
Elizabeth Crews/The Image Works

Montessori‘s curriculum emphasized three major classes of activity: (1) practical, (2)
sensory, and (3) formal skills and studies. It introduced children to such practical
activities as setting the table, serving a meal, washing dishes, tying and buttoning
clothing, and practicing basic social manners. Repetitive exercises developed sensory
and muscular coordination. Formal skills and subjects included reading, writing, and
arithmetic. Montessori designed special teaching materials to develop these skills,
including laces, buttons, weights, and materials identifiable by their sound or smell.
Instructors provided the materials for the children and demonstrated the lessons but
allowed each child to independently learn the particular skill or behavior.

Maria Montessori with Children

Italian educator Maria Montessori visits

children at a Montessori school in London,
England sometime in the late 1940s.
Montessori developed her method for teaching
young children in Italy during the early 20th
century. Her successes led to the spread of
Montessori schools throughout Europe and the
United States.

Popperfoto/Archive Photos Microsoft ®

Encarta ® 2008. © 1993-2007 Microsoft
Corporation. All rights reserved.

In 1913 Montessori lectured in the United States on her educational method. American
educators established many Montessori schools after these lectures, but they declined
in popularity in the 1930s as American educators stressed greater authority and
control in the classroom. A revival of Montessori education in the United States began
in the 1950s, coinciding with a growing emphasis on early childhood education.

PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY BAYAMBANG CAMPUS Educational Technology 18

B Dewey
John Dewey
John Dewey emphasized practical ideas in
both his philosophical and educational
theories, always striving to show how
abstract concepts could work in everyday
life. He emphasized “hands-on” learning, and
opposed authoritarian methods in teaching.
His ideas prompted a drastic change in
United States education beginning in the
20th century. He published Democracy and
Education in 1916.
Archive Photos
Microsoft ® Encarta ® 2008. © 1993-2007 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.

The work of American philosopher and educator John Dewey was especially
influential in the U.S. and other countries in the 20th century. Dewey criticized
educational methods that simply amused and entertained students or were overly
vocational. He advocated education that would fulfil and enrich the current lives of
students as well as prepare them for the future. The activity program of education,
which derived from the theories of Dewey, stressed the educational development of
the child in terms of individual needs and interests. It was the major method of
instruction for most of the 20th century in elementary schools of the United States and
many other countries.

Playing with Educational Toys

American philosopher, educator, and psychologist

John Dewey reformed educational theory and
practice in the United States by making learning
more diverse and participatory. He tested his
educational principles at the famous Laboratory
School, also called the Dewey School, in Chicago.
Dewey’s theories were developed while he was at
the University of Chicago, from 1894 to 1904.
BETTMANN ARCHIVE/Corbis

PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY BAYAMBANG CAMPUS Educational Technology 19

C Piaget

Jean Piaget

Swiss psychologist Jean Piaget is recognized

for his studies of the mental development of
children. Piaget was associated with several
universities. In 1955 he became director of the
International Center for Epistemology in
Geneva, Switzerland, where he studied the
development of thought and intelligence in
children.

THE BETTMANN ARCHIVE

The work of Swiss psychologist Jean Piaget had a major impact on educational theory
in the early 20th century, particularly in Europe. Piaget wrote extensively on the
development of thought and language patterns in children. He examined children‘s
conceptions of number, space, logic, geometry, physical reality, and moral judgment.
Piaget believed that children, by exploring their environment, create their own
cognitive, or intellectual, conceptions of reality. By continually interacting with their
environment, they keep adding to and reshaping their conceptions of the world. Piaget
asserted that human intelligence develops in stages, each of which enhances a
person‘s understanding of the world in a new and more complex way.

Photography and Education

With the invention of photography, a movement called ―visual instruction‖ took shape
to demonstrate the effectiveness of visual media. However it did not become widely
accepted until 1920‘s.

Photography is a method of picture making based on the principles of light, optics and
chemistry. It comes from Greek words which means ―drawing with light‖. Photograph
serves as scientific evidence, conveyers of news, historical documents, works of art,
and records of family life. Millions of people around the world own cameras and enjoy
taking pictures; every year more than 10 billion exposures are made with still cameras.
The combination of choices that a photographer makes—film type, camera size,
focus, angle of view, lens aperture, shutter speed—influences the appearance of the
photograph as much as the choice of subject and the time of day.

PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY BAYAMBANG CAMPUS Educational Technology 20

 Autofocus Camera

Some cameras are able to automatically adjust

themselves, focusing on the main figure in the
field view. The autofocus mechanism usually
bounces infrared light beams or ultrasonic
waves off of a subject, taking rangefinding
samples which are processed electronically.

Minolta Corporation
Microsoft ® Encarta ® 2008. © 1993-2007 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.

Audio Visual Technology

Audiovisual texts were published to aid the teacher in the use of audio-visual
materials. By 1926, educational films started being produced. The following year,
Pressey published his earliest paper on programmed learning.

The first instructional TV application occurred in 1932 in the US at the State University
of Iowa, Also developed at about this period was the 16 mm sound motion picture, and
considered the workhorse of the audio-visual movement.

Audio-visual Education

Planning, preparation, and use of devices and materials that involved sight, sound or
both for educational purposes. Among the devices used are still and motion pictures,
film strips, television, transparencies, audiotapes, records, teaching machines,
computers and video discs. The growth of audio-visual education has reflected
developments on both technology and learning theory.

World War II

The development of Educational Technology was intensified during World War II with
the US government‘s emphasis and encouragement on the establishment of military
training programs and allocation of financial resources for the implementation of a
technology of instruction. Out came the impetus for a system approach to instruction:
microteaching, individualized instruction, language laboratories, behavioral objectives,
computer aided instruction and many others.

Educational Technology in the Philippines

The development of Educational Technology has been at a much slower pace in the
Philippines. While Educational Television (ETV) in the US appeared in the 1930‘s,
ETV in the Philippines was born only in the early 1960‘s with Channel 9‘s ―Education

PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY BAYAMBANG CAMPUS Educational Technology 21

on TV‖ produced by Fr. James B. Reuter, S.J. In 1961, a college course in Physics
was telecast over one of the commercial channels.

Television Sets from 1950s

Television pictures are formed by the
transmission of a succession of tiny tonal
elements on a screen, which appear as
moving images to the human eye. The
electronics giant Radio Corporation of
America financed the development of
early television, and by 1955, 67 percent
of American households had television
sets.
THE BETTMANN ARCHIVE/CORBIS-
BETTMANN

ETV Program of the Department of Education Culture and Sports

A joint production with the Bureau of Broadcast of the Former Ministry of Public
Information that operated from 1971 to 1979. Among the series developed and used in
the formal education system at the elementary level were ― Aliwan ng mga
Bata‖(playtime). ―Tayo‘y Magpalakas‖ (Let‘s Exercise), and an In-service education
designed for school administrators, teachers and student teachers and parents.

University of the Air Program

Modern Radio
Advertising finances most radio and television
stations, with the exception of those affiliated with
National Public Radio or the Public Broadcasting
Service. Radio and television programs are often
punctuated by commercials from sponsoring
companies. Sometimes on modern radio stations, disc
jockeys themselves promote the sponsors.
© Microsoft Corporation. All Rights
Reserved./Thomson Consumer Electronics, Inc.

Offered by the University of Mindanao, Davao City in the early 1970‘s was among the
early innovations in the use of radio for instructions. 50% of instruction in different
subjects of the curriculum was conducted via radio, while 50% was taught in the
campus.

The ―Lingap ng Pangulo sa Barangay‖, an inter-agency non formal school on the air
under the Office of Non-formal education of DECS and based at the National Media
Production Center.

PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY BAYAMBANG CAMPUS Educational Technology 22

SEAMEO-INNOTECH

A major Breakthrough in the development in the Philippines was the establishment of

the SEAMEO Center for the Educational Innovations and Technology (INNOTECH). It
was created to serve as a Major research arm of the Southeast Asian Ministers of
Education Organization (SEAMEO) as the principal instrumentality for implementing
purposes has been to identify educational problems in the Southeast Asian Region
and seek solution or assist in the solution of such problems.

SEAMEO-INNOTECH Projects

 Project IMPACT (Instructional Management by Parents, Adults, Community and

Teachers)

 ISOSA (In-school off school Approach)

 RIT (Reduced Instructional Time)

 CB-BLP (Community Based Basic Learning Package)

 DELSILIFE (Development of a Learning System for the Improvement of Life)

Now that you are thru reading the historical development of education and educational
technology, you are now ready to accomplish the following activities. Let us apply
what you have learned.

After you accomplished the activity, your facilitator will ask you to share your work to
your classmates for collaborative discussion.

Accomplish the exercises prepared for you, this will be submitted to your facilitator and
will be recorded as your output.

Go on with the next module.

PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY BAYAMBANG CAMPUS Educational Technology 23

ACTIVITY 1 “Educational Technology Timeline Chart”

Your Task:

Prepare a timeline chart showing the development of educational technology as

contained in the history of education. For each significant event or involvement,
highlight the person/contributor and it‘ significance in the improvement of the teaching
and learning processes.

Here is an example for you:

TIMELINE

PREHISTORICAL HISTORICAL ANCIENT

Apprentiship

Children learn from parents the knowledge and skills

needed for survival and daily living.

Invention of writing

Start of formal education.

Note: Use additional short bond when needed, use landscape orientation format.

ACTIVITY 2 “My Own Definition of Educational Technology”

Your Task:

A. Define Educational Technology in your own words.

____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________

PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY BAYAMBANG CAMPUS Educational Technology 24

 Exercise 1

A. Identification
Direction: Identify what is being referred to by the following statements, write your
answer on the space before each number.

1. It is an area of study concerned with all aspects of the organization of

the educational systems and procedure.

2. He is a Swiss educational reform, whose theories laid the groundwork

for modern elementary education.

3. She is an Italian educator and physician, best known for developing

the Montessori Method of Teaching young children.

4. It is a method of picture making, using the principles of light, optics

and chemistry.

5. SEAMEO means ____________.

B. True or False
Direction: Write T if the statement is TRUE and F if the statement is FALSE.

1. Educational Technology is concerned with the systematic use of modern methods

and technologies in teaching and learning.

2. The term ―techne‖ is used to refer to the process of applying knowledge

systematically to the practical art of instruction.

3. John Dewey emphasized ―hands-on learning‖ and opposed authoritarian methods

in teaching.

4. Fr. James B. Reuter produced the ETV in the Philippines in the early1960‘s.

5. INNOTECH means Innovation and Technology.

PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY BAYAMBANG CAMPUS Educational Technology 25

 MODULE 2

Four Phases of Educational Technology

We have already discussed some parts of technology and now as we go along

with our topics, we will discuss the four phases of Educational technology so, sit back
and relax... welcome to the Four Phases of Technology

Your Goal:

At the end of this module, you are expected to:

1. Enumerate the Four Phases of Educational Technology

2. Describe each of the Four Phases of Educational Technology in your own words.
3. State the contribution of these developments to teaching-learning process.

What is a Phase?

According to Webster, it is a characteristics period in a regularly recurring

sequence of events or stage in a development.

Meaning, in the process of our teaching- learning process there are stages that we
need to accomplish and these are the following:

First Phase - Identification of objectives

What is an objective?

These are the goals or purposes of a certain thing. This part answers the following
questions. What will you expect at the end of this lesson? Why do we need to study
this? and even how can we formulate our learning activities.

Therefore, there is always a need for us to identify our objectives before identifying
your subject matter. In addition here there is also a need to indicate cognitive,
affective and psychomotor objectives.

PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY BAYAMBANG CAMPUS Educational Technology 26

For communicators and future teachers like you, it is important to have knowledge of
the domains of human learning as a guide to determine whether your
communication/teaching objectives cover an appropriate range of skills and to decide
the sequence of skills and to decide the sequence of skills you wish to impart.
The three main levels of skills inclusive of the kinds of simple or complex human
actions are:

1. Cognitive level

1.1. Knowledge: to remember, define, recognize, recall/recite by memory.

1.2. Comprehension: to translate, interpret, paraphrase, summarize,

extrapolate (expound or describe)

1.3. Application: to relate ideas and information to other situations (e.g. How
President Noynoy‘s wishing governance reforms would apply to present-
day Filipino attitude towards the Philippine government)

1.4. Creation: to break down into other ideas/concepts, to device a similar idea
construct (e.g. produce a motion film production that will showcase the
students‘ lives at PSU Bayambang)

2. Affective level

2.1. Receiving: to be aware, to lend attention (e.g. internalize and feel the
emotions of a poet as you listen to his poem being read)

2.2. Responding: to react actively

2.3 Valuing: to display an attitude

3. Motor skills level

3.1 Imitation: To repeat action (e.g. act our backhand tennis drive)

3.2 Manipulation: to perform independently (e.g. prepare a picture book)

3.3 Precision: to perform with accuracy

3.4 Articulation: to perform unconsciously with increased skills

PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY BAYAMBANG CAMPUS Educational Technology 27

Interpersonal skills

As we interrelate with other people communicators wish to identify certain ―types

of interpersonal skills‖

1. Seeking or giving information - to offer facts, opinions, clarification

2. Proposing - to make suggestion

3. Building and Supporting - to add a concept

4. Shutting - to exclude members/a group from involvement

5. Disagree - to declare difference of opinion, to criticize

6. Summarizing - to restate in a compact form.

Second Phase - Design of the Learning Experiences

The following are the things to be considered in the design of the learning experience:

1. Sequence and strategies

This part discusses the order of ways that are needed to do. This time you
plan for the steps you have to do in order not to get lost during the
discussion.

2. Modes and Media

After determining the order of presentation, you will now think of the ways
and how you will deliver it. Will it be on the form of discussion or the other
ways?

Planning the use of Instructional Media or Audio Visual Materials

Instructional media or audio-visual materials are not substitute for effective instruction.
They are complementary materials which assist the teacher in the teaching-learning
process, while there is no one way to use these materials, they are guidelines which
should be considered in order to derive the greatest amount of good teaching and
learning from them.

When media or AV’s are used

There is no specific time for use of instructional materials in the teaching-learning

situation. Much will depend on upon the teacher, the subject Matter, the students and

PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY BAYAMBANG CAMPUS Educational Technology 28

the learning situation. There are, however, many uses for materials in making
meaning clear. For example, they can be used for:
1. Introducing of a unit
2. Developing a unit
3. Interpreting a unit
4. Following-up or summarizing a unit
5. Correlating bits of information
6. Identifying self with a situation
7. Transferring to real life situation
8. Motivating and arousing of interest
9. Providing individual and group Therapy

How media or AV’s are used

The wise teacher recognizes that variety of presentation adds much to the art of
teaching. While there is no part formula for giving vitality to a presentation, there are
suggested procedure that can be employed to improve the teaching-learning process.

The following are the basic plan of effective teaching:

1. Prepare yourself
1.1 Consider the value and purpose of the materials being covered.
1.2 Consider the needs and interest of the students.
1.3 Consider how the medium can be utilized.
1.4 Preview or audit the materials to be used
.
2. Prepare the classroom
2.1 See that all the necessary materials are on hand and arranged for their best
use.
2.2 Be sure that the light can be controlled if needed.
2.3 Check ventilation and seating.

3. Prepare the class

3.1 Explain why the particular medium is being used.

3.2 Discuss what the medium includes.
3.3 Explain what you expect to get out of it.
3.4 Introduce new world of terminology
3.5 Describe any follow-up activities including the test.

4. Present the materials

4.1 Make the presentation resourceful.

4.2 Watch the time.
4.3 Observe students reaction.
PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY BAYAMBANG CAMPUS Educational Technology 29
5. Summarization

5.1 Discuss the presentation in detail.

5.2 Ask summary questions.
5.3 Clarify misconceptions.
5.4 Test, if necessary.

6. Follow-up

6.1 Allow students to utilize their new knowledge.

6.2 Develop or assign follow up details.

Systems Approach to Teaching

As in all arts, the art of teaching requires skills that must be developed through
practice, drill and hard work. Basic to all good teaching is thorough planning. And
although some educators frown upon rigid, inflexible lesson plans an organized,
systematic outline of proposed classroom activities will be of great help to the teacher
in making the most effective use of instructional materials.

The effective use of instructional materials requires the teachers use a systematic
approach to the development of learning sequences. The total system must
encompass:

(a) The learners

(b) The objectives and the content of the lesson(s)
(c) The methods to be used in instruction
(d) The instructional materials to be used, including consideration of unique
strengths and weakness
(e) The facilities or environment
(f) The supporting equipment, and
(g) The student and teacher evaluation of the results, in changed behavior
attitudes.

Five Phases in a Total System of Instruction

Identified to be the Five Phases which can assure that instructional outcomes will be
as rewarding as possible. These are: (1) Introduction (2) Development (3)
Organization (4) Summarizing and (5) Evaluation.

PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY BAYAMBANG CAMPUS Educational Technology 30

1. INTRODUCTION

This is the motivational and exploratory phase. During this phase, students are shown
that the course of study will be interesting and challenging to them. The use of AV‘s
can help to motivate and challenge students.

Whenever instructional materials are used, the teacher must consider the following
preparations:

1.1 Self preparation. Preview and evaluate the materials with an aim to effectively
integrating them in the unit of study, either as an introductory or
as follow-up material.

1.2. Preparation of the presentation. Determine how the media will be most effectively
presented for projected and/or audio material, consider the
following possibilities: (a) showing materials all the way through
(b) showing only excepts/segments/frames (c) showing material
with recorded narration (d) showing material without recorded
narration (e) pausing at specific points of verbal
comment/information on projected material (f) repeating
segments (g) combining two or more media.

1.3 Preparing students. Inform students on what they are to see, why they are going to
see it and what they are expected to see it, and what they are
expected to learn from the presentation.

1.4 Preparing the follow-up activities. Plan in advance what could be the activities after
the presentation. A review or content? An evaluation? Projects?
Further Studies?

2. DEVELOPMENT PHASE

This involves the location and learning of the required information by students. A
problem under study may be segmented to facilitate the use of all available alternative
options of methodology, such as: study by individuals, group, or the entire class.

3. ORGANIZATION PHASE

This is the time for ―pulling together‖ the results of the researches and study activities
of the students. This phase uses the production capabilities of the school media
center. Among the most useful materials which students may use of are: mounted
pictures, slide or still pictures, materials, charts, posters, graphs, maps, models, mock-
ups, duplicate materials, audio and video recording, etc. Dramatizations, debates,
reports, panel discussion, role playing situations, use of resource speakers, etc., are
typical of activities that may be planned and developed. Students may also plan and
execute display centers, bulletin boards or exhibits.

PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY BAYAMBANG CAMPUS Educational Technology 31

4. SUMMARIZATION PHASE
This entails a major presentation for the whole class either by individual members,
small groups, or by the teacher. Students may make summary presentations; present
and discuss the content of displays; or hand in written reports, papers, scrap books
etc. The teacher may reshow a film, filmstrip, set of slide, overhead transparencies
etc..that was used in the introductory phase in order to provide a review and to
―cement‖ together all facets of the study. Any ―loose-ends‖ are tied together and the
class is ready for the final or fifth phase, that of evaluation.

5. EVALUATION PHASE
This involves two areas of evaluation- student and teachers. It‘s important that there
be an evaluation process. Students need to be made aware that they are to be held
accountable for lesson content and ultimately for changes in behavior- changes that
prepare them to live and function as contributing citizens in society. Among the
evaluation techniques used in evaluation are:

(a) Written test using true-false, multiple choice, fill-in-the-blank, matching type,
short-answer, essay or take-home exams.
(b) Oral discussions, dramatizations, role-playing, sociodramas and
demonstrations;
(c) Audiotape or videotape response or experience
(d) Written reports, term papers or research papers
(e) Student-produced instructional materials, such as mounted pictures, maps,
graphs, photographic slides bulletin boards displays, exhibits, etc.

In a critical evaluation of the students, performance, the teacher may do the following:

(a) Suggest revision of refinement of parts of the presentation/report

(b) Show evidence of faults in the representation plans, content, procedures or

instructional materials used;

(c) Identify problems arising from unclear/ inadequate objectives, evaluation

procedures or methods;

(d) Indicate lack of student readiness;

(e) Show evidence of the need for review or remedial presentation;

(f) Show evidence of too slow/fast pace.

PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY BAYAMBANG CAMPUS Educational Technology 32

Third Phase - Evaluation of how effective learning experience is in
achieving the objectives.

The evaluative process should bear in mind the need for effective construction and
use of evaluative devices, the following are suggested for an effective evaluation
process:

1. As we go to evaluation, we will base our evaluative devices with our goal to

make our evaluation accurate and valid. In the first place we really need to
know if they have accomplished the objectives or not.

2. These are some of the observation devices: checklist, rating seals, anecdotal
records and behavioral journal.

3. We can also use objective type of exam and essay.

4. Self reports: inventories, questionnaires and ranking devices.

Fourth Phase - Improvement of the learning experiences so as better

to achieve objectives.

If the objectives are not yet totally met with the set of learning experiences, we must
modify the whole system or only certain elements of it. We must now point out the
flaws in our learning experience because there is a possibility that we have to include
some activities that does not contribute to the accomplishment of objectives. We may
also now determine if the objectives are compatible with the needs, goals or interest of
the learner for it may be a source of flaw.

Applying evaluative devices can show partial or complete non-attainment of

objectives, thus invoking the need to modify the whole system or certain elements of
it. Revision may be done, such as by changes in the media or materials employed. A
source of flaw may be the objectives which may also be assessed to determine
whether they are compatible with the needs, goals or interest of the learner.

Educational technology recycling may call for reformulation of their objectives, design
of another set of learning experiences, and evaluation of student‘s performance.

PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY BAYAMBANG CAMPUS Educational Technology 33

ACTIVITY 3 ―The Four Phases of Educational Technology Graphic Organizer”

Your Task:

Prepare a graphic organizer showing the Four Phases of Educational Technology.

Activity 4 “ The Interview”

Based on the Four Phases of Educational Technology interview an in-service teacher

on how lessons are planned and delivered. Relate how the process match or differ
with the four phases of educational technology. Prepare an interview guide. Record
the proceedings in a coupon bond. Ask the teacher to sign for authenticity.

Sample guide:

Objectives:
Subject Matter:
Materials Needed:
Methodology:
Evaluation:
Remarks:
Teacher respondent:

PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY BAYAMBANG CAMPUS Educational Technology 34

 Exercise 2

Multiple Choice
Direction: Encircle the letter of the best answer.

1.) Which of the following is not included in the Four Phases of Educational
Technology ?
a. Identification of objectives b. Design of the learning experience
c. evaluation of L.E. d. None of the above

2.) Identifying the objectives is the ___________ that needs to be accomplished.

a. First b. Third
c. Second

3.) Self report instruments are part of what phase of Educational Technology?
a. evaluation b. Identification of objective
c. Design of learning experience

4.) The__________ of the learner should always be given the prime importance.
a. Nature b. intelligence
c. physical

5.) Evaluation devices must fit the stated________.

a. Objectives b. strategies
c. Mode

6.) If essay is a non-objective test, then identification tests are ________type test.
a. Objective b. Questionnaire
c. ranking device

7.) There is a must to know/identify the objectives first, true or false?

a. True b. False

8.) Inventories, questionnaires and ranking devices are called ___________.

a. Observations b. Test items
c. Self- report instruments

9.) Improvement of teaching-learning process is based on_________.

a. The teacher itself b. The learner only
c. The teacher and the learner

10.) The number of phases of Educational Technology is_________.

a. Three b. Two
c. Four

PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY BAYAMBANG CAMPUS Educational Technology 35

 MODULE 3

The Cone of Experience

In one of the first textbooks written about the use of audio-visual materials, authors
Hoban and Zissman noted the need to understand the degree of realism which audio-
visual materials have. In explaining this idea, they arranged various communication
and teaching methods in a hierarchy of greater and greater abstraction, beginning with
what is referred to as ―the total situation‖ and culminating ―words‖ at the top of the
hierarchy.

Words
Diagrams
Maps
Flat Pictures
Slides
Films
Models Concreteness
Objects

In 1946, Edgar Dale adopted the same construct and improved on it by proposing the
―Cone of Experience‖. In the Cone of Experience, the participant- receiver of the
communication process is an observer in the actual experience. Then he moves up
the cone as observer of a mediated event (an event presented through some
medium), and finally as observing symbols that represent an event.

The Cone of Experience is a pictorial device used to show the progression of learning
experiences from a direct first – participation to a purely abstract verbal symbol. It
classifies various types of instructional materials according to the relative degree of
experiential concreteness that each type provides.

PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY BAYAMBANG CAMPUS Educational Technology 36

Dale said the participant-receiver can make profitable use of more abstract
communication activities to the extent that they had built up a stock of more concrete
experiences to give meaning to the more abstract representations of reality.

Audio-visual media help to provide the necessary concrete experiences, while helping
the participant-receiver to integrate their prior experiences. For example, a film may
show how highways are being constructed. The viewer integrates this film to what he
may actually have seen by way of the asphalting of streets in the city.

Illustration for the Cone of Experience

We can select instructional methods more appropriately by thinking of our options in

terms of concreteness and our audience/learner‘s readiness to profit from more and
less middle level are audio-visual materials, substituting visual images for the real
thing, leading to ionic learning, Printed materials, with their verbal symbols, are most
abstract.

Verbal symbols ABSTRACT

Visual symbols

Recordings, radio ICONIC

Still pictures
Motion Pictures

Television ENACTIVE
Exhibits
Field trips
Demonstrations
Dramatized experience
Contrived experiences
Direct, purposeful experiences

Children today, because of television and movies, acquire many mediate experiences
at a much earlier age than children in previous generations. The communicator must
weigh carefully whether these mediate experiences are truly helpful by the way of the
irrelevance, mediocrity and distorted views of life that they may portray.

PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY BAYAMBANG CAMPUS Educational Technology 37

ACTIVITY 5
“Inventory of Instructional Materials”

Based on the Cone of Experience, write some samples found in the schools‘ Learning
Resource Center for each category.

Abstract Iconic Enactive

Exercise 3
“Cone of Experience Sample Material/Activity”

Given the topic “Cultural Heritage of the North‖ you will provide sample
material/activity that will fall in each category of the Cone of Experience. Write your
answers opposite each category.

The first category has been answered for you.

Verbal symbols - utter the words ―cañao‖, ―ifugao‖, ―igorot‖, etc.

Visual symbols
Recordings, radio
Still pictures
Motion Pictures
Television
Exhibits
Field trips
Demonstrations
Dramatized experience
Contrived experiences
Direct, purposeful experiences

PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY BAYAMBANG CAMPUS Educational Technology 38

 MODULE 4

Classification of Media
As future educators, you are expected to be versatile in your teaching methods
and be familiar with various types of instructional materials. Your choice of media
materials will certainly depend on the number of factors. Among these factors are the
needs and nature of your learners, practicality in the use if the media of our choice in
terms of learning effectiveness, time, cost, availability and the like. In this module, you
are going to know more about the different types of media and their usage in the
classroom.

Your Goal:

At the end of the module you should be able to:

 Differentiate the various types of media

 Identify the factors influencing a technology of instruction
 Explain in a broader and wider perspective about a teacher‘s role in educational
technology

Media can provide the learner ―experience‖ about his ―environment‖. The bulk of the
learner‘s experience in school tends to be vicarious nature, except in some laboratory
situations. Mush of learning is presented as representations of real life. There are
many classifications of media that can be used in teaching-learning process.

Classification of Media

The following are the general classification of media resources:

 Audio materials- radio, recordings, telephone, language laboratories.

 Visual materials- pictures and photographs, flash cards, flip books, charts,
maps, posters, exhibit, bulletin boards, dioramas, models, mock-ups, slides,
filmstrips, transparencies, chalkboard, cartoons.
 Audio- visual materials-televisions, sound films, video tapes, sound filmstrips,
demonstration, study strips, printed materials with recorded sound.

PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY BAYAMBANG CAMPUS Educational Technology 39

A more detailed approach toward media classification was done by Rossi and Biddle
which examines the following media dimensions:

Literacy- some forms of media such as books, chalkboard, teaching machines, or

computers requires the ability to manipulate and understand symbols.

Audio and visual- the common available media makes use of one or combination of
two sense modalities seeing and hearing.

Static and Dynamic- media may be classified a s static when they are presented
discretely and not flow spontaneously as in the case of filmstrips, books, slides. They
are dynamic when they portray a continuous sequence of events as in the case of TV
and motion pictures and audio recordings.

Solo and group use- some media allows use by only one person as in the case of
modules and programmed learned while others allow as any small audiences or large
groups as in the case of projected media, radio and recordings.

Cost and spread- some media are extremely cheap as in the case of newspaper,
while others are far from expensive as in case of computers. Others have widespread
as in the case of mass media while some are individual and narrow spread.

Factors influencing Technology of Instruction

According to Hayden and Torkelson, the following are the factors influencing a
technology of instruction:

 Trend toward a science of education.

 Shift from what to teach to how to teach.
 Improved performance and productivity.
 Focus on the learner.

The Teachers Role

The following are the suggested guidelines for teachers and administrators who are
seriously looking into the potentials of educational technology.

 Be open to innovation
 Use media effectively.
 Cultivate a commitment to continuous assessment.
 Promote the humanizing aspects of educational technology.
 Think

PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY BAYAMBANG CAMPUS Educational Technology 40

The Learners Role

 Take personal responsibility of your own learning.

 Self feedback provides the motivation and reinforcement to do better.

It has actually taken a long time before educators realized the importance of
instructional media and began to accept and integrate it within instructional programs.
Recently, there has been increasing evidence that positive results take place when
carefully designed, high quality instructional media are used as an integral part of
classroom instruction or as principal means of direct instruction.

The outcomes often realized are the following:

 The delivery of instruction can be more standardized.

Each student seeing and hearing a media presentation receives more or less
the same message. This is because the variations in subject content are
reduced through the use of media. Media serves to communicate the same
information to all students as the basis for further study, practice and
application.

 The instruction can be more interesting.

The attention-getting factor associated with instructional media keeps learners

alert during the learning process.

 Learning becomes more interactive through applying accepted learning

theory.

Media design can see to it that the subject content can be organized and
presented in a manner that represents good instruction. Attention is also given
to psychological principles which can enhance learner participation, feedback
and reinforcement.

 The length of time required for instruction can be reduced.

Most media presentation requires a short time to transmit their message while
communicating a large amount of information which can be more easily
absorbed by the learner.

PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY BAYAMBANG CAMPUS Educational Technology 41

  The quality of learning can be improved.

Through careful integration of pictures and words, instructional media can

communicate elements of knowledge in a well-organized, specific and clearly
defined manner. Learning reaches and acceptable competency level resulting
from suitable study effort on the part of the student and appreciate follow-up
activities.

 The instruction can be provided when and where desired or necessary.

Instructional media may be designed for individual use. In this manner, a

student can study at a time and place that is personally convenient.

 The positive attitude of student toward what they are learning and to the
learning process itself can be enhanced.

Students generally prefer the use of media as a means of studying. This is

due to motivational aspect and the contribution that media can make to a
person‘s effective learning.

 The role of the instructor can be appreciably changed in positive directions.

The use of media is also advantageous to the instructor. First, much of the
burden for repeated explanations of content and skills is eliminated. Second,
by not having to present as much information verbally, other possible more
important aspects of a subject can be given attention. Third, the instructor can
increase the opportunity for him to fulfil the role of being a consultant and
advisor to students.

These outcomes indicate that the use of media brings both the efficiency of learning
and enhancement of positive attitudes toward learning. To satisfy the outcomes
specified, instructional media have to be of high quality and should be selected,
designed or produced as an integral part of an instructional program.

PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY BAYAMBANG CAMPUS Educational Technology 42

 Exercise 4

Matching type

Direction: There are three columns, A, B and C. Match the words in column A to the
words in column B, then match the words in column B to the words in column C. The
matching depends on the classification of instructional materials as presented in the
module. The words in column A will be the fix words, column B and C can be
rearranged. Write the actual words in each column.

If you are ready you can now start.

A B C

1. ―The Holy Bible‖ exhibit audio-visual

2. ― Art Angel‖ picture dynamic
3. ―Madagascar‖ the movie three dimensional model visual
4. Microsoft Encarta visual aid group use
5. Farmville motion films projected media
6. the portrait of ―Monalisa‖ reference material audio
7. Filipino English Dictionary on-line game literacy
8. Animal sounds on CD transparency material still
9. DZ Double B Balita ETV Program non-projected media
10. Human Anatomy Poster Computer Aided Instruction solo
11. A Doll house miniature model non-broadcast media
12. tree trunk cut across AM Program broadcast media
13. ―Life Cycle of a Butterfly‖ chart Graphics pictorial media
14. Parts of a Cell in acetate recorded audio material internet based
15. actual objects book non-literacy

PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY BAYAMBANG CAMPUS Educational Technology 43

 MODULE 5

Photography
I INTRODUCTION

Photography, development of the art and technique of producing images known as

photographs. Photography is so much a part of life today that the average person in
the world may encounter more than 1000 camera images a day. Photographs
preserve personal memories (family snapshots) and inform us of public events (news
photos). They provide a means of identification (driver‘s license photos) and of
glamorization (movie-star portraits); views of far-off places on Earth (travel
photographs) and in space (astral photographs); as well as microscopic scenes from
inside the human body (medical and scientific photos). Many specialized commercial
categories, including fashion, product, and architectural photography, also fit under the
broad umbrella that defines photography‘s function in the world today.

As future teachers, you need to understand some principles of photography for

educational purposes. Pictures undeniably play a great part in the lives of many
people in the different stages of their lives. If used properly by the teacher, pictures
can be used to help learners understand various topics.

Your Goal:

At the end of the module you should be able to:

 define photography and state it‘s historical development

 identify the different types of camera used in photography
 create photographs to convey ideas, concepts and academic content

PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY BAYAMBANG CAMPUS Educational Technology 44

To mid-19th-century observers, photography seemed capable of capturing the world
whole rather than describing and interpreting it as drawing did. They called it the
―mirror with a memory.‖ But 20th-century critics have argued whether photography is
indeed a direct trace of experience, like the mark of a footprint in the sand, or instead
a reflection of the photographer‘s particular point of view. To be sure, some of the
truths that photography seemed to tell at one time were later shown to be biased.
These arguments have brought attention to the ways photography has been used as a
tool in support of industrial progress, colonialism, government propaganda, social
reform, and various disciplines in the social sciences, especially ethnology (the study
of human cultures) and criminology (the study of criminal behavior).

Photography‘s role in the visual arts is equally a matter of debate. From the start, the
photographer‘s camera was seen as a challenger to the painter‘s brush. Its ability to
effortlessly render tones, detail, and perspective effectively put an end to the practice
of certain forms of painting, such as portrait miniatures. Moreover, it is widely believed
today that photography created an impetus for painters to forsake straightforward
description in favor of more interpretive or abstract styles, such as impressionism,
cubism, and abstract expressionism. Photography itself has been defined as an
essentially modern art because of its relative newness and its reliance on the
machinelike camera. A fascinating subplot within the story of photography is its
complex and still-evolving role as a medium of art like painting, it‘s supposed
antagonist.

This module traces the progress of photography from its invention in the 1830s until
today, focusing on its role in shaping modern Western visual culture and following its
development as both an art form and a practical tool for documentation. It also looks
at the effects of photography‘s evolution from a technically complex process requiring
considerable skill to one that is available to anyone who can press a button.

PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY BAYAMBANG CAMPUS Educational Technology 45

II ORIGINS

Pinhole Camera
A simple camera can be built by making a pinhole in a box. Light passes through the hole and forms an inverted,
backwards image of the subject on the back of the box. Artists of the Renaissance used a similar device, called
the camera obscura, as an aid to drawing. The earliest camera obscura was a small room, on the back wall of
which the artist could trace the projected scene.
© Microsoft Corporation. All Rights Reserved.

Photography is a method for producing lasting images by means of a chemical

reaction that occurs when light hits a specially prepared surface. It was invented
during the first three decades of the 19th century as a direct consequence of
advances in chemistry and optics (the science of the behavior of light). The word
photography comes from two Greek words that mean ―writing with light.‖

Although the technology is fairly recent, the origins of photography lie in an artistic
technique known as single-point or linear perspective, which was developed in the
early 1400s. Pioneered in Italy by architect Filippo Brunelleschi and others, the system
of single-point perspective provided painters with a method for depicting three-
dimensional space on a flat surface. It is based on the notion of a single observation
point and results in lines that appear to recede into the distance by converging on a
fixed point on the horizon, called the vanishing point.

In the 16th century many artists employed a boxlike device known as a camera
obscura (Latin meaning ―dark room‖) as an aid to depicting space with single-point
perspective. This consisted of a box with a pinhole on one side and a glass screen on
the other. Light coming through this pinhole projected an image onto the glass screen,
where the artist could easily trace it by hand. Artists soon discovered that they could

PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY BAYAMBANG CAMPUS Educational Technology 46

obtain an even sharper image by using a small lens in place of the pinhole. The
camera obscura was used by Renaissance artists such as Michelangelo and
Leonardo da Vinci.

Also essential to the invention of photography was knowledge of the light sensitivity of
certain materials. More than 2000 years before the invention of the camera obscura,
the ancient Phoenicians knew that a certain snail, the purpura, left a yellow slime in its
wake that turned purple in sunlight. In the 18th century a German anatomy professor,
Johann Heinrich Schulze, observed that silver salts darkened when exposed to light.
But the idea of making pictures using this phenomenon did not occur to him. That
innovation required the talents of a later generation of scientists.

By 1800 a young English chemist, Thomas Wedgwood, had succeeded in producing

images of leaves on leather that he had treated with silver salts. However, he could
find no way to halt the darkening action of light and his leaf images eventually faded
into blackness. His attempts to capture the image displayed by a camera obscura also
proved unsuccessful. For the birth of photography two key discoveries were still
needed: a way to combine a light-sensitive material with the camera obscura, and a
way to fix, or make permanent, the resulting image.

III INVENTION

Early photography

French inventor Joseph Niépce made

the first fixed photographic images.
In 1827 he used a primitive camera
and a bitumen-coated pewter plate
to capture this image of a Set Table,
which is one of his earliest
photographs.
Hulton Deutsch Collection/Corbis

In the 1820s French scientist Joseph Nicéphore Niépce was experimenting with
improvements to the new printmaking technique of lithography. In the process he
discovered a way to copy engravings onto glass and pewter plates using bitumen, a
form of asphalt that changes when exposed to light. He first coated a drawing or
PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY BAYAMBANG CAMPUS Educational Technology 47
etching with oil so that light would shine through it more easily, then placed it on a
bitumen-coated plate and exposed the plate to light. Light shining through the paper
burned an image into the dark bitumen, creating a nearly perfect copy of the original.
Niépce could then etch and print this image using traditional printmaking techniques.
In 1826 he put a bitumen-coated plate in a camera obscura, which he then placed with
its lens facing the window of his estate in central France for eight hours. The resulting
image, View from the Window at Le Gras (Gernsheim Collection, University of Texas
at Austin), is the earliest camera photograph still in existence.

In 1826 Niépce began sharing his findings with Louis Jacques Mandé Daguerre, an
artist and theatrical designer who owned a theater in Paris. This theater, the Diorama,
provided a popular spectacle consisting of large, painted scenes that were shown in
succession, changing before the viewers‘ eyes. Like Niépce, Daguerre hoped to find a
way to create images from the camera obscura, but he had little luck until the two
decided to become partners in 1829. Even then, Daguerre‘s most important discovery
came only in 1835, two years after Niépce‘s death. Daguerre found that the chemical
compound silver iodide was much more sensitive to light than Niépce‘s bitumen, and
he placed a copper plate coated with silver iodide in a camera obscura. After exposing
this plate to light for a relatively short time and then to fumes of mercury, an image
appeared. One problem remained: The image darkened over time. But in 1837
Daguerre solved this final obstacle by washing away remaining silver iodide with a
solution of warm water and table salt.

On January 7, 1839, Daguerre‘s process, called the daguerreotype, was announced to

the French Academy of Sciences, and hence to the world. The announcement by
respected French scientist François Arago was brief but nonetheless created a
sensation. Newspaper accounts spoke of pictures 'given with a truth which nature
alone can give to her works.' Half a year later the French government gave Daguerre
and Niépce‘s son, Isidore, lifetime pensions in exchange for their release of all rights
to the invention and public disclosure of the process. The daguerreotype was to
become France‘s gift to the world.

PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY BAYAMBANG CAMPUS Educational Technology 48

First Negative Image
British amateur scientist William Henry Fox Talbot invented an early method of photography in 1835. Talbot’s
method, which he called “photogenic drawing,” involved coating a sheet of paper with light-sensitive chemicals
and exposing it to light through a simple pinhole camera. This produced a paper negative, which he then used to
create a positive image. Talbot had difficulty at first in preventing the paper from continuing to darken when
exposed to light. As a result his method was not initially successful. However, it was later refined into the
calotype process, and became the basis for most modern negative-to-positive photography.
William Henry Fox Talbot/Stringer/Getty Images

Just three weeks after Arago‘s announcement in Paris, William Henry Fox Talbot, an
English amateur scientist, read a translated account of the discovery. Perturbed, if not
distraught, Talbot recognized Daguerre‘s invention as similar to his own unpublicized
process, which he called photogenic drawing. Talbot moved quickly to claim priority
over Daguerre, writing to members of the French Academy and presenting his process
in a paper to the Royal Society in London, England.

Daguerreotype of Daguerre

In 1839 French inventor Louis Jacques

Daguerre announced his development of
the first photographic process suitable
for widespread use. Called the
daguerreotype, Daguerre’s process
involved recording an image on a metal
plate coated with special chemicals.
Daguerre is shown here in a
daguerreotype from 1846.
Corbis

To create a photogenic drawing, Talbot first coated a sheet of drawing paper with the
chemical compound silver chloride and, placing it inside a camera obscura, produced

PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY BAYAMBANG CAMPUS Educational Technology 49

an image of the scene with the tones reversed (a negative). He then placed the
negative against another coated sheet of paper to produce a positive image. Talbot
did not find a way to make the image permanent until a month after Daguerre‘s
announcement. But his photogenic drawing process—later refined and renamed the
calotype—forms the basis for most modern film technology, which relies on negatives
to produce multiple positive prints.

For a number of reasons, including the imperfections of Talbot‘s process, the

daguerreotype was the method of photography that first took the world by storm. The
low-cost daguerreotype became so popular that, by the end of 1839, Paris
newspapers were referring to a new disease called Daguerreotypomania. With
improvements in its sensitivity to light, the daguerreotype quickly proved ideal for
portraiture. By 1840 daguerreotype studios throughout Europe and in the United
States were producing unique, detailed likenesses that were set inside hinged leather
cases. An emerging middle class gazed in amazement at its own image in these
'mirrors with a memory.'

Photography arrived in the United States due to the enthusiasm of Samuel F. B.

Morse, an American artist and inventor. Morse visited Daguerre in Paris in March
1839 and observed a demonstration of the daguerreotype process. Morse returned to
the United States to spread the news, and by year‘s end new practitioners such as
John Plumbe of New York City and the Langenheim brothers (William and Frederick)
of Philadelphia had mastered the daguerreotype process and set up successful
portrait studios. The yen for daguerreotypes persisted in America well into the 1850s,
long after European photographers had switched to a much improved
positive/negative process derived from Talbot‘s method. Most pictures of the California
Gold Rush of 1849, for example, are daguerreotypes.

IV GENERAL PRINCIPLES

Light is the most essential ingredient in photography. Nearly all forms of photography
are based on the fact that certain chemicals are photosensitive—that is, they change

PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY BAYAMBANG CAMPUS Educational Technology 50

in some way when exposed to light. Photosensitive materials abound in nature; plants
that close their blooms at night are one example. The films used in photography
depend on a limited number of chemical compounds that darken when exposed to
light. The compounds most widely used today are silver halide crystals, which are
salts consisting of silver and chemicals called halogens (usually bromine, chlorine, or
iodine).

For the purpose of producing a photograph, these silver salts are distributed in gelatin
to make a mixture called an emulsion, which is applied to film or another supporting
material in a thin layer. When the emulsion is exposed to light, the silver halide
crystals undergo chemical changes and, after further processing, an image becomes
visible. The stronger the light that strikes the crystals, the denser or more opaque that
part of the film becomes. Most types of film produce a negative image, from which a
positive final copy can be printed on sensitized paper. The dense (or dark) areas of
the negative translate into light areas on the final photograph. Almost all modern
photography relies on this negative-to-positive process.

In most cases the camera and its lens determine the appearance of the photographic
image. Cameras work on the basic principle of the camera obscura, a device that
artists once used to project a temporary image of something they wanted to draw. In
both the camera obscura and the modern camera, light passes through a lens fitted
into an otherwise lightproof box. Light passing through the lens casts an image of the
camera‘s subject—the object, person, or scene in front of the camera—onto the inside
of the box, which in a modern camera contains film. The camera and lens control how
much light strikes the film in what is called an exposure.

The purpose of the lens is refraction, the bending of light. The camera‘s glass or
plastic lens bends the light rays reflected from the subject so that these rays cross and
reappear upside-down on the other side of the lens. The area where they re-form an
image of the subject inside the camera is called the plane of focus. The photographer,
or an automatic mechanism in some cameras, must adjust the distance between the

PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY BAYAMBANG CAMPUS Educational Technology 51

lens and the film so that the plane of focus falls exactly where the film lies, making the
resulting image appear in focus.

Various types of lenses admit different amounts of light and permit different angles of
view. Lenses that take in a wide angle of view make the subject seem farther away;
lenses that take in a narrow angle make the subject seem magnified. The
photographer can switch a modern zoom lens from wide to narrow angles of view by
turning a collar or pressing a button.

The amount of light that a lens allows to fall on the film is controlled by a lens
diaphragm, a mechanism built of overlapping metal blades. The diaphragm controls
the size of the aperture, or circular opening of the lens. A device called a shutter
controls how long light strikes the film; the shutter speed can range from a small
fraction of a second (1/1000 or less) to minutes or even hours.

The combination of choices that a photographer makes—film type, camera size,

focus, angle of view, lens aperture, shutter speed—influences the appearance of the
photograph as much as the choice of subject and the time of day. To take one
example, thousands of people have stood in the same spot to take photographs of the
Grand Canyon over the years, but their photographs look different because the
photographers made different choices with these controls.

V PHOTOGRAPHIC FILMS

Modern film consists of a transparent material, usually acetate, which has been coated
with one or more light-sensitive emulsions. It is available in a variety of shapes and
sizes determined by the format of the camera. Typical formats are 35-millimeter and 6-
centimeter roll films, 4-by-5 and 8-by-10 inch sheet films, and most recently, Advanced
Photo System (APS), a type of roll film that incorporates various conveniences for
amateur photographers. Within each film format there are a range of film types (black
and white, color print, or color transparency) and sensitivity levels, called film speeds
that are appropriate for different lighting conditions.

PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY BAYAMBANG CAMPUS Educational Technology 52

A A Brief History of Film

Scientists recognized the photosensitivity of certain silver compounds, particularly

silver nitrate and silver chloride, during the 18th century. In the early 19th century
English scientists Thomas Wedgwood and Sir Humphry Davy used silver nitrate in an
attempt to transfer a painted image onto leather or paper. While they succeeded in
producing a negative image, it was not permanent; the entire surface blackened after
continued exposure to light.

A French inventor, Joseph Nicéphore Niépce, is credited with having made the first
successful photograph in 1826. He achieved this by placing a pewter plate coated with
bitumen, another light-sensitive material, in the back of a camera obscura. Niépce
later switched from pewter to copper plates and from bitumen to silver chloride.
French painter Louis Jacques Mandé Daguerre continued Niépce‘s pioneering work
and in 1839, after Niépce's death, announced an improved version of the process,
which he called the daguerreotype.

Because the wet collodion (or wet plate) process required photographers to coat the
glass support just before taking a picture, experimenters sought a dry version of the
same process. Dry plates, pieces of glass coated in advance with an emulsion of
gelatin and silver bromide, were invented in 1878. A few years later American inventor
George Eastman devised a flexible version of this system, a long paper strip that
could replace the glass plate. In 1889 he improved on this by using a type of plastic
called celluloid instead of paper, producing the first photographic film. Eastman's
invention paved the way for all modern films, which are made of acetate or polyester,
plastics that are less flammable than celluloid.

Except for some isolated experiments, color films were not invented until the 20th
century. The first commercially successful material for making color photographs,
called Autochrome, became available in 1907 and was based on a process devised by
French inventors Auguste and Louis Lumière. But the era of color photography did not
really begin until the advent of Kodachrome color film in 1935 and Agfacolor in 1936.

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Both of these films produced positive color transparencies, or slides. The Kodak
Company introduced Kodacolor film for color negatives in 1942, which gave amateurs
the same negative/positive process they had long enjoyed in black and white.

B How Film Works

Visible Spectrum
Light from many sources, such as the Sun, appears white.
When white light passes through a prism, however, it
separates into a spectrum of different colors. The prism
separates the light by refracting, or bending, light of
different colors at different angles. Red light bends the
least and violet light bends the most.
Clayton J. Price/Corbis

To understand how film works, it is first necessary to understand a few things about
light. Light is the visible portion of a broad range of energy called electromagnetic
radiation, which also includes invisible energy in the form of radio waves, gamma rays,
X rays, and infrared and ultraviolet radiation. The narrow band of electromagnetic
waves that the human eye can detect is called the visible spectrum, which we see as
colors. Our eyes perceive the longest wavelengths as red, the shortest as violet, with
orange, yellow, green, and blue in between. (A rainbow or a prism shows all the colors
of the visible spectrum.)

B1 Dyes and Emulsions

Emulsion Colors
Emulsions are thin, gelatinous, light-sensitive coatings on film that
react chemically to capture the color and shadings of a scene. The
four layers pictured here show the same image as it would appear
on different emulsions in photographic film after the first stage of
developing. For black-and-white photographs, only one emulsion is
required, because it is the amount of light, not the color that
activates the chemical reaction. Color film requires three layers of
emulsions, each of which is sensitive to only one of the primary
colors of light: blue, green, or red. As light passes through the
layers, each emulsion records areas where its particular color
appears in the scene. When developed, the emulsion releases dye
that is the complementary color of the light recorded: blue light
activates yellow dye, green light is magenta, and red light is cyan
(bluish-green). Complementary colors are used because they
produce the original color of the scene when the film is processed.
Eastman Kodak Company

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Photographic films vary in the way they react to different wavelengths of visible light.
Early black-and-white films were sensitive to only the shorter wavelengths of the
visible spectrum, primarily to light perceived as blue. So, for example, in a picture of
blue, red, and orange flowers, the blue flowers would appear too light, whereas the
red and orange flowers would look unrealistically dark. To correct this, specialized
compounds called dye sensitizers were incorporated into the emulsion.

Today, with a few specialized exceptions, films are sensitive to all colors of the visible
spectrum. Even black-and-white films record colors as different shades of gray. Most
color films are coated with three emulsions, typically cyan (a greenish blue), yellow,
and magenta (a purplish red). Each emulsion responds to only one color of light and is
coupled with a dye layer, which produces the actual color that resembles what the eye
sees. Other layers act as filters to screen the light these emulsions receive, and to
prevent light from scattering within the film.

Color transparency films produce a positive color image for viewing with the help of a
slide projector or an illuminated surface called a light table. These films are also
known as reversal films because the initial developed image is chemically reversed
during processing, turning what would otherwise be a negative image into a positive
one. The dyes in some brands of transparency film are added during development; in
others, they are built into the film itself.

Color negative films, also known as print films, produce positive prints. As with some
transparency films, dyes built into the emulsion chemically react with the silver salts
that form the image. The colors on the processed negative are the complements of the
colors in the original scene. For instance, if you took a picture of the Ecuadorian flag,
which is red, yellow, and blue, the colored dyes on the negative would be a blue-green
color called cyan (the complement of red), blue (the complement of yellow), and
yellow (the complement of blue). When light shines through this negative onto color-
sensitive print paper, the colors return to positive form, and the print shows a flag
properly striped with red, yellow, and blue.

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One type of black-and-white film, called chromogenic film, makes use of color-film
technology to produce a negative that has just a single dye layer. When exposed to
conventional black-and-white photo paper, the negative provides an image nearly
identical to that of conventional black-and-white film. But when exposed to paper for
printing color photographs it produces an image composed of different shades of a
single color.

B2 Positive/Negative Development

When film is processed in a chemical agent called a developer, large particles of

metallic silver form in areas of the film that were exposed to light. Exposure to lots of
light causes many particles to form, while exposure to dim light or exposure for a very
short time causes just a few particles to form. The resulting image produced on the
film is called a negative because the tonal values of the subject photographed are
reversed; areas in the subject that were dark appear light on the negative, and areas
that were bright appear dark. The tonal values of the negative are reversed again in
the printing process—or in the case of transparencies (slides), during the development
of the film—creating a positive image.

Chromogenic color films, in which the dye is built in, exhibit dye images rather than
silver images, although silver is also essential to the process. During processing, the
chemical action of the developer creates initial images in metallic silver, just as in
black-and-white processing. But in color processing the developer also stimulates dye
couplers (chemicals that react to a specific color of light and cause corresponding
dyes to be released) to form cyan, magenta, and yellow dye images. The silver is then
removed, leaving a negative image in the three colors. Different combinations of those
colors create the more complex colors visible on the final print. In color transparency
films, unexposed silver halide crystals that are not converted to metallic silver and
washed away during the initial development remain to be converted during a second
development. As these remaining silver halides are converted to metal, they again
combine with dye couplers to form the final color image, before the second layer of
metallic silver is also washed away.

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Photographic print papers are constructed much like films, but generally require fewer
layers. The so-called paper support (today, commonly made of plastic or paper) is
coated with a light-sensitive emulsion, just as films are. Black-and-white papers have
a single layer of emulsion; color papers have at least three layers. When these papers
are exposed to light shone through a negative, the end result is a positive.

IV CAMERAS

The most important tool of photography is the camera itself. Basically, a camera is a
light tight box with a lens on one side and light-sensitive film on the other.
Improvements in camera technology over the years have given photographers more
control over the quality of their photographs.

A A Brief History of Cameras

Folding Camera
Folding cameras, favored for their compact design and
movable bellows, have been in use for many years. The
camera’s lens is incorporated into the bellows, which is
slid back and forth along a rail to change focus. The dark
cloth covering the photographer and the box body of the
camera blocks out undesirable light, which might
otherwise interfere with the picture.
Hans Namath/Photo Researchers, Inc.

Today‘s cameras all derive from the 16th-century camera obscura. The earliest form
of this device was a darkened room with a tiny hole in one wall. Light entered the room
through this hole and projected an upside-down image of the subject onto the opposite
wall. Over the course of three centuries the camera obscura evolved into a handheld
box with a lens replacing the pinhole and an angled mirror at the back. The mirror
reflected an image onto a ground-glass viewing screen on the top of the box. Long
before film was invented artists used this device to help them draw more accurately.
They placed thin paper onto the viewing screen and could easily trace the reflected
image.

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The inventors of photography in the early 19th century adapted the camera obscura
by adding a device for holding sensitized plates in the back of the box. This kind of
camera, with some improvements, was used throughout the 19th century. One notable
enhancement for the box, pleated leather sides called bellows, allowed the
photographer to easily adjust the distance between the lens and the plane of focus.
Professional photographers still use a similar camera today, a large-format camera
known as the view camera.

In the 1880s the invention of more sensitive emulsions and better lenses led to the
development of lens shutters, devices that could limit the time of exposure to a fraction
of a second. At first the shutter was simply a blind dropped in front of the lens by the
force of gravity, or by a spring. Later designs featured a set of blades just behind the
optical lens. In 1888 George Eastman introduced the first Kodak camera, which used
a cylindrical shutter that the photographer turned by pulling a string on the front of the
camera. The Kodak was one of the earliest handheld cameras. It made photography
available to amateurs for the first time and created a snapshot craze at the turn of the
20th century.

In 1925 the Leitz Company in Germany introduced the Leica, one of the first cameras
to use 35-millimeter film, a small-sized film initially designed for motion pictures.
Because of its compactness and economy, the Leica and other 35-millimeter cameras
became popular with both amateur and professional photographers. All but the earliest
Leicas used a focal-plane shutter, located just in front of the film. Because it blocks
light from the film even when the lens is removed, the focal-plane shutter allows
photographers to switch lenses safely in the middle of a film roll.

B Modern Camera Types

Cameras come in a variety of forms. Whereas cameras once required many decisions
on the part of photographers, most of today‘s cameras offer a range of automated
features that greatly simplify picture taking and reduce the likelihood of error.

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B1 Box Cameras
Brownie Box Camera
Box cameras like the Kodak Brownie were the
earliest cameras used by the general public.
Relatively simple in design and operation,
they consisted of a wooden or plastic box, a
drop-blade shutter, and a holding device for
the film. Disposable cameras are the modern
equivalent of early box cameras.
NMPFT/SSPL/The Image Works

The Eastman Kodak Company introduced one of the first box cameras in 1888, and
the simplicity of this easy-to-use design has assured its popularity ever since. Box
cameras consist of a rigid box or body; a fixed, simple lens; a viewfinder window,
through which the photographer looks to frame the scene; and a shutter with one or
possibly two speeds. On most box cameras, the lens is set to an aperture and focus
that produce reasonably sharp pictures of a subject at least 2 m (about 6 ft) away,
when the camera is used outdoors in the sun. But because these settings are not
adjustable, the photographer can do little to control the results.

The modern-day equivalents of the old Kodak box cameras are the disposable
cameras now sold at drugstores and tourist shops. These cardboard-covered, plastic
cameras come loaded with 35-millimeter color print film. After taking a roll of pictures,
the user turns over the entire camera to a processing lab for development.
Manufacturers now reuse or recycle many of the parts inside these cameras. Single-
use cameras are also available in several advanced models—offering built-in flash, a
waterproof body, or the ability to show panoramic views in extra-wide prints.

B2 View Cameras

View Camera
View cameras are used for portrait and
still-life photography. A geared track,
precision lenses, and a long bellows
make the cameras fairly cumbersome,
but they are capable of capturing
difficult subjects such as architecture
with a minimum of distortion.
You Levy/Phototake NYC

View cameras are larger and heavier than most amateur cameras but allow for
maximum precision in focus, aperture, and framing. They use large-format films, which

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are able to capture far greater detail than 35-millimeter films. The body configuration
of the view camera, unlike that of most general-purpose cameras, is extremely
adjustable. It has two independently moveable elements that ride on a track: The front
element holds the lens and shutter, the rear holds a ground-glass panel, and the
space in between is enclosed in an expandable leather bellows. The photographer
frames and focuses the scene that appears in the glass panel at the back, then inserts
a film holder in front of the glass, and takes the picture. The gap in time between
framing and exposure makes the view camera useless for action shots, but it is ideal
for carefully arranged studio shots, landscapes, or architectural photography. The
photographer can shift, tilt, raise, or swing the front and rear elements separately,
allowing for great variation in perspective and focus.

B3 Rangefinder Cameras

Rangefinder cameras were the first cameras to have an optical viewfinder—that is, a
separate, window-like lens through which the photographer sees and frames the
subject. The viewfinder is paired with an adjacent window called a rangefinder. To
focus the camera, the photographer adjusts a ring or collar until the two views appear
as one, at which point the camera has set the focus to precisely match the distance of
the subject. Since the viewfinder window does not show the scene through the lens,
but only one that closely approximates it, rangefinder cameras can be inaccurate for
framing close-up shots.

Rangefinder cameras were once very popular with amateur photographers, but
today‘s point-and-shoot cameras have largely replaced them. Nevertheless, the
modern rangefinder camera works well under certain circumstances, and some
professionals still use it. Rangefinders are available in two formats, for use with either
35-millimeter film or the larger format 6-centimeter film. Unlike point-and-shoot
cameras, modern rangefinders feature lenses that can be removed from the camera
body so that photographers can choose a lens specifically suited to the subject.

B4 Point-and-Shoot Cameras

Autofocus Camera
Some cameras are able to automatically
adjust themselves, focusing on the main
figure in the field view. The autofocus
mechanism usually bounces infrared
light beams or ultrasonic waves off of a
subject, taking rangefinding samples
which are processed electronically.
Minolta Corporation

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The most popular camera type today is the point-and-shoot camera. It has a number
of automatic features that make it practically foolproof to operate while producing
pictures of high quality. Point-and-shoot cameras feature battery-operated electronic
systems that may include automatic controls for exposure, focusing, flash, film
winding, and film rewinding. They are available with a fixed single-focal-length lens or
a zoom lens; the lenses cannot be removed from the body. The cameras work with all
types of 35-millimeter film; some also use a newer film type called Advanced Photo
System (APS).

B5 Single-Lens-Reflex Cameras

Early SLR
Forerunner to many modern cameras,
the 1937 Exacta single-lens reflex (SLR)
model featured a viewfinder, a film-
winder, and precision action.
Dorling Kindersley

With the single-lens-reflex (SLR) camera, the photographer uses a single lens for both
viewing the scene and taking the picture. Light comes through the lens onto a mirror,
which then reflects it through a five-sided prism into the viewfinder. The mirror is
hinged; at the moment the photographer snaps the picture, a spring automatically
pulls the mirror out of the path between lens and film. Because of this system, the
image recorded on the film is almost exactly what the photographer sees in the
viewfinder, a great advantage in many picture-taking situations.

Single-Lens Reflex Camera

Single-lens reflex cameras use mirrors to
form an image of the scene to be
photographed in the viewfinder. The 35-
mm single-lens reflex (SLR) camera is
one of the most popular cameras on the
market today because of its compact
size, speed, and versatility. Most models
offer a combination of automatic and
manual options.
You Levy/Phototake NYC

Most SLRs are precision electronic instruments equipped with fast focal-plane
shutters, precise automatic exposure systems, and built-in flash controls. Increasingly,
camera manufacturers are producing SLRs with automatic focusing, an innovation
originally reserved for less sophisticated cameras.

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C Modern Camera Features
SLR Camera Anatomy
Single-lens reflex, or SLR,
cameras are among the most
common in use today. Single-lens
reflex means that the same lens is
used for viewing and taking the
photograph. The moveable mirror
between the lens and the film
reflects the image on a ground-
glass viewing screen while the
user adjusts the focus. When the
shutter release button is
depressed, a spring pushes the
mirror out of the way, and the
image is recorded on the film. The
cameras are popular because
users have the option to control
elements such as shutter speed,
focus, and aperture manually or
automatically. This option allows
photographers to achieve a wide
variety of effects with relative
ease. The quality of SLR camera
pictures is generally superior to
that of the so-called point-and-
shoot camera.
© Microsoft Corporation. All Rights
Reserved.

Modern cameras feature several components to help photographers control their

results under widely varying conditions. In today‘s cameras many of these features are
automated.

C1 Viewfinders

A viewfinder enables photographers to frame their subject the way they would like it to
appear in the finished photograph. Some viewfinders consist of a simple window on
top of the camera that only approximates the view through the lens. A more complex
and more accurate view finding system is the single-lens-reflex system, described
above.

C2 Shutters

The shutter, a spring-activated mechanical device, keeps light from entering the
camera except during the interval of exposure. Most modern cameras have focal-

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plane or leaf shutters. The focal-plane shutter consists of a black shade with a
variable-size slit across its width. When released, the shade moves quickly across the
film, exposing it progressively as the slit moves. In the leaf shutter, at the moment of
exposure, a cluster of meshed blades springs apart to uncover the full lens aperture
and then springs shut.

C3 Built-in Meters and Automatic Exposure

With the development of handheld photoelectric exposure meters in the 1930s,

photographers were able to take precise readings of the light level and adjust the
exposure accordingly. By the 1960s camera companies had begun to build exposure
meters right into the camera body; such systems typically required the user to center a
needle over a pointer inside the viewfinder. In the 1980s this process became
automated: With built-in electronics, the camera could adjust itself to produce an
appropriate exposure. Today all but the most inexpensive cameras feature such a
system of automatic exposure.

C4 Autofocusing

Autofocus cameras use electronics and a small computer processor to automatically

sample the distance between camera and subject and from this determine the exact
plane of focus. The computer then signals a small mechanism that turns the lens
barrel to this point.

There are two widely used methods for determining the focus automatically, called
active and passive. An active autofocus system, used in most point-and-shoot
cameras, emits either an infrared light beam or high-energy (ultrasonic) sound waves.
When the light or sound waves bounce off the subject and return to the camera, they
give an accurate reading of the distance to that subject. Passive systems, used in
more sophisticated cameras, automatically adjust the focus of the lens until sensors
detect that maximum contrast has been reached inside a rectangular target at the
center of the focusing screen. The point of maximum contrast corresponds to the point
of greatest sharpness.

Neither method is foolproof. If the primary subject is off to one side of the frame, for
example, most autofocusing systems will ignore it. Active systems can be fooled by
window glass, which interrupts their beams. Passive systems require a certain amount
of detail—usually there must be discernable lines present in the target zone for this
system to determine maximum contrast in the subject. A passive system would have
trouble setting the correct focus, for instance, for a photograph in which the plain white
sails of a boat took up the center of the frame.

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C5 Film Loading and Transport

Most people today buy film in the form of light tight cartridges or cassettes that they
can insert into the camera in daylight; only professional photographers using sheet
films still need to load their cameras in the dark. With 35-millimeter film, the user
attaches a leader extending from the cartridge to a spool at one side of the camera,
then drops the cartridge into a slot on the other side. Automatic cameras wind the film
into position when the back is closed and rewind the exposed film into the cartridge
when all exposures have been taken. With older cameras, the user must use a crank
to rewind the film.

Most cameras now automatically advance the film to the next frame after an exposure
has been made. Some cameras come with a motor drive, a more rapid way of
advancing the film. Motor drives allow the photographer to snap a sequence of
exposures in rapid succession while holding a finger on the shutter-release button; as
many as three to five pictures per second can be taken this way.

V LENSES
Assorted Lenses
Interchangeable lenses allow a photographer
to capture a variety of pictures that would
otherwise be difficult or impossible to obtain
with a single camera. For instance, a zoom
lens may be used to photograph individual
drops of dew on a spider’s web. A telephoto
lens might be used to shoot a close-up view of
a dangerous or flighty wild animal. Other
options provided by special lenses are wide-
angle views, including the fisheye view in
which the lens curves outward, showing a
180-degree range, but creating a distorted
image.
You Levy/Phototake NYC

The lens is the eye of the camera. Its function is to bring light from the subject into
focus on the film. A camera can have a single lens or a complex set of lenses.
Together with the shutter, the lens controls the amount of light that enters the camera.

A A Brief History of Lenses

The modern camera‘s predecessor, the camera obscura, consisted of a simple

pinhole in the side of a room or box. In the 17th century people discovered they could
produce a brighter, sharper image by fitting a camera obscura with a convex (outward-

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curving) lens. The first such lens came from a pair of eyeglasses. Over the next 300
years, interest in telescopes and microscopes led to the development of better and
brighter lenses.

With the invention of photography in the 19th century, the need for camera-specific
lenses increased, leading to rapid developments in the field of lens making. These
developments took place along two fronts: The first was the invention of new types of
glass that refracted light more effectively; and the second was the discovery of ways
to combine several pieces of glass, or elements, to control optical distortion.

Quality modern lenses are made of many individual elements of ground and polished
glass (6 to 14 elements is common). These elements, each of a different shape and
purpose, are cemented into groups; each group is then assembled in what is called a
lens barrel. On a manually controlled camera, the lens barrel incorporates an aperture
ring and a focusing ring. By turning the aperture ring, the photographer adjusts the
opening of the lens diaphragm, which determines how much light reaches the film.
The focusing ring is used to focus the image on the film plane by changing the
distance between the element groups.

B Focal Lengths
Accessories
Photographers may create a
complicated-looking arrangement by
accessorizing a basic camera
according to their personal taste and
desired photographic effects. Here,
the photographer has added a
telephoto lens and a tripod to a basic
single-lens reflex (SLR) camera.
E. Purcell/Photo Researchers, Inc.

Camera lenses are categorized according to their focal lengths and maximum
apertures. The longer the focal length, the larger the image inside the camera will be.
The greater the size of the aperture, the more light the lens will admit. Focal length is
the distance from the optical center of the lens to the image formed inside the camera.
Because this distance varies depending on how the camera is focused, focal length
ratings are defined by measuring the distance when the focusing ring is set for
photographing a distant subject (indicated on the focusing ring with the symbol ∞,
called infinity). A lens with a short focal length is commonly called a wide-angle lens;
with a long focal length, a telephoto lens. Lenses that approximate the angle of view of
the human eye are called normal lenses.

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Focal length determines the magnification and angle of view of the image. With the
camera in a fixed position, objects photographed with a wide-angle lens will seem
farther away than with a normal lens; seen through a telephoto lens, the same objects
will seem closer (and closer together). The wide-angle can take in a broader angle of
view than the eye can see, while the telephoto narrows this view.

The zoom lens offers a range of focal lengths, and is one of the most popular types of
lenses today. The user can change the focal length by simply pushing a button or
turning a ring on the lens barrel. So-called true zooms maintain focus while changing
the focal length; this allows photographers with single-lens-reflex cameras to focus
precisely at high magnification before framing the picture at a different focal length.
Another type of zoom lens, the varifocal lens, must refocus as the focal length
changes—a disadvantage only if the camera does not offer automatic focusing.

C Macro Lenses

Some photographic subjects require task-specific optics. The most common

specialized task is close-up photography, for subjects ranging from flowers to coins.
To cope with these small subjects, macro lenses were developed for single-lens-reflex
cameras. Macro lenses for 35-millimeter cameras extend the focusing range to a
matter of inches. On their own they can reproduce an object on film at one-half its
actual size; with the addition of an extension ring, the camera can picture an object at
life size.

Many modern zoom lenses come with a macro setting that allows a limited range of
close-up focusing. However, these are no substitute for a true macro lens because, at
best, they only reproduce an object at one-fifth its actual size. Extension rings or
simple close-up lenses also can attach to a normal lens to allow close-ups.
Magnification of a subject to greater than its actual size calls for more specialized
equipment, such as a microscope, and is called photomicrography.

D Aperture

The lens diaphragm controls the size of the aperture, or lens opening, and thus the
amount of light that passes through the lens. It operates in conjunction with the
shutter. The aperture size is measured by numerical settings called f-stops. On a
traditional, manually controlled camera the f-stops are inscribed on an adjustable ring
that fits around the lens. Typical f-stops are f/2, f/2.8, f/4, f/5.6, f/8, f/11, and f/16. The
setting f/2 represents a large aperture, f/16 a small aperture. With simple automatic-
exposure cameras, a computer sets the aperture size; thus the aperture ring has
disappeared from many of today's lenses.

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Lenses come with a rating for their maximum aperture, indicating how much light can
reach the film when the lens diaphragm is wide open. With single-lens-reflex cameras,
the maximum aperture also influences how bright the image appears in the viewfinder.
Within lens types, a lens with a large maximum aperture will have a larger diameter
and weigh more than a lens with a smaller aperture. A telephoto lens requires a larger
lens diameter and greater length to let in the same amount of light as a normal or
wide-angle lens. Like telephoto lenses, zoom lenses are also physically large. To
reduce their bulkiness and complexity, many manufacturers now design zoom lenses
with a variable maximum aperture: The size of the aperture changes as the focal
length of the lens goes from wide-angle to telephoto settings.

E Focusing

Technically, film captures only one plane of a picture in perfect focus. However, in
practice we call a picture ―in focus‖ when it appears reasonably sharp at a given
magnification and viewing distance. Until recently photographers had to bring an
image into focus manually, by turning a ring or a focusing collar on the camera lens.
But most of today's cameras with built-in lenses will adjust the lens automatically,
through use of a mechanism connected to an autofocusing sensor. Cameras with
interchangeable lenses still have focusing collars to allow for manual adjustment. Most
lenses will focus from a few feet in front of the camera to a point in the far distance,
called infinity.

F Depth of Field

Cathedral Peak and Lake

Photographer Ansel Adams is known
for his ability to capture a large depth
of field in his photographs, that is,
both background and foreground
appear in sharp focus. Pictured is
Cathedral Peak and Lake, Yosemite
National Park, one of many images he
recorded in the California park where
he resided for many years.

This term refers to a zone of focus—that is, the area between the closest and farthest
objects that will appear sharply focused in the photograph. A picture with a deeper
zone of focus might be a landscape in which both the trees in the foreground and the
mountains in the background appear in sharp focus. A picture with a shallow depth of
field might be a close-up portrait, in which objects in the background are purposely
blurred.
PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY BAYAMBANG CAMPUS Educational Technology 67
The factors that determine depth of field are lens aperture, focusing distance, and
focal length. All other factors being equal, depth of field will be greatest when
photographing a distant subject, using a short focal length (wide-angle) lens, and a
small aperture. Conversely, depth of field will be most shallow when photographing a
subject at close range, using a long focal length (telephoto) lens, with a wide aperture.

Focusing precisely on a central subject, however, does not necessarily provide the
greatest depth of field. With manual focusing, photographers can obtain the maximum
depth of field by turning the focusing collar until the infinity sign aligns with the outside
depth-of-field mark for the f/stop they have chosen. A variant of this manual-focusing
technique is called zone focusing: The photographer chooses an aperture and a
focusing distance that together cover the range of distances at which the subject is
likely to appear. Zone focusing is especially useful for candid photography.

G Lens Hoods and Coatings

One of the worst enemies of photographers is flare, unwanted light that enters the lens
and causes strange reflections and a loss of contrast on the film. Flare is especially
obvious when photographing with the sun in front of or just to the side of the lens. To
decrease the incidence of flare, photographers can shade the front of the lens with a
collar called a lens hood that prevents sunlight from striking the glass surfaces. Hoods
for zoom lenses are less effective because they must angle away from the lens
enough to accommodate the lens's widest angle of view.

Lens makers also combat the more subtle effects of flare by coating the exterior and
interior surfaces of the lens‘s glass elements with thin layers of reflection-absorbing
material. These coatings enhance the contrast of the film image and account for the
characteristic green and purple hues visible when one looks into the front of a modern
lens.

VI EXPOSURE

All light-sensitive photographic materials—film or photographic print paper—produce

their finest results when given the optimum exposure. Precise exposure, coupled with
consistent development, is the technical key to excellent photographs.

PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY BAYAMBANG CAMPUS Educational Technology 68

A photographer can change the amount of exposure the film receives by adjusting
either the shutter speed or the aperture setting. A one-stop change in shutter speed is
equivalent to an aperture change of one f-stop, and vice versa. Thus, for a given
lighting situation several different combinations of f-stop and shutter speed result in
the same amount of light hitting the film.

Flash Photography

High-Speed Photography
High-speed flash units coupled with
motion or sound detectors allow cameras
to “stop time” and capture the details of
events that happen too quickly to be
seen with the unaided eye. An electronic
device capable of sensing motion
triggers a high-speed flash unit to
capture the explosive action of a .22-
caliber bullet piercing a raw egg.
Gary S. Settles/Photo Researchers, Inc.

In the absence of adequate daylight, photographers use artificial light to illuminate

scenes, both indoors and outdoors. The most commonly used sources of artificial
illumination are electronic flash, tungsten lamps called photofloods, and quartz lamps.
Another once-popular light source, the flashbulb, a disposable bulb filled with oxygen
and a mass of fine magnesium alloy wire, has gone the way of the dinosaur.

Flash units vary in size from small, battery-powered, camera-mounted units to large
studio units that plug into an electric wall socket. Generally speaking, the larger the
unit, the greater the intensity of light produced. Camera-mounted flashes are adequate
for snapshots of family and friends, but to illuminate a large scene evenly and with a
single burst of light, a powerful studio unit is needed.

An electronic flash unit consists of a glass quartz tube filled with an inert gas—usually
xenon. When a brief jolt of electricity is applied to the electrodes sealed at the ends of
the tube, the gas produces an intense burst of light of very short duration. The process
can be repeated thousands of times, sometimes in rapid succession, without wearing
out the tube. Most flash exposures last from 1/1000 to 1/5000 second, although a
duration of 1/100,000 second is now readily available. In 1931 the inventor of the
electronic flash, American engineer Harold Eugene Edgerton, developed an electronic
strobe light (see Stroboscope) with which he produced flashes of 1/500,000 second,
enabling him to capture the image of a bullet in flight.

PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY BAYAMBANG CAMPUS Educational Technology 69

Flash units are designed either as part of the camera mechanism or as accessories.
Some designs, called dedicated flash units, are made for use with a particular camera
model and have circuitry that sets the shutter speed and illuminates a light in the
viewfinder when the tube is ready to fire again. Setting the shutter speed is important
because the shutter and the flash need to be synchronized—that is, the shutter must
be open for the duration of the flash. In cameras with a focal-plane shutter (this
includes most commonly used cameras), the maximum speed at which
synchronization is possible is usually 1/125 second.

Flash aimed directly at the subject usually produces harsh, flat lighting. When
photographing people or animals in very dim conditions, using flash also causes a
condition known as red eye, making the centers of the subject‘s eyes appear red. With
some flash units it is possible to achieve more pleasant results indoors by aiming the
flash at the ceiling. As light bounces from ceiling to subject, it produces a softer, more
even light and eliminates red eye.

Flash can also be used in daylight to fill in foreground areas where shadows may be
too strong. For this type of picture, the exposure generally should be set to half of
what would be required for the existing light. This technique, called fill-flash, lightens
shadows without overriding the main source of light. The color temperature of
electronic flash is practically the same as daylight so the two light sources do not
produce noticeable color differences.

VII DARKROOM PROCESSING

A darkroom is a room for processing photography materials. It must completely seal

out light from outside the room. In the early days of the medium, many photographers
traveled with portable darkrooms, which were housed in horse-drawn wagons or
carried by servants. Today many people have a home darkroom built in their
basement, laundry room, or closet.

A darkroom is divided into a dry side and a wet side. The dry side is used for loading,
enlarging, and preparation; the wet side contains a sink with temperature-controlled
running water, and is used for the chemical processing of films and prints. Because
many processing chemicals are toxic, certain precautions are necessary: the
darkroom should have an exhaust fan to expel fumes and dust, and the photographer

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should always wear latex gloves when handling wet materials and a dust mask when
mixing powdered chemicals with water.

During the process of exposing and developing black-and-white printing paper, a

special orange-colored light bulb called a safelight can provide some illumination. But
during the processing of black-and-white films, color films, and color printing papers,
the darkroom must be totally dark, because these materials are panchromatic—that is,
they are sensitive to all types of light.

A Developing the Film

Developing Film
Developing photographic film requires a series of chemical baths that cause the latent image on the exposed film
to become visible as a negative. The process begins with the developer (1), which causes metallic silver to form
where the film has been exposed to light, in densities that depend on the amount of exposure. To stop the action
of the developer, film goes into a stop bath (2). After a rinse in water, the film goes into a fixer (3) to removes
any silver salts not converted to metallic silver. After a short rinse, the film is submerged in fixer remover (4) to
clear any remaining fixer from the film. The final bath (5) is a thorough rinse in water. The developed negative is
then allowed to dry.
© Microsoft Corporation. All Rights Reserved.

Photographers develop film by treating it with an alkaline chemical solution called a

developer. This solution reactivates the process begun by the action of light when the
film was exposed. It encourages large grains of silver to form around the minute
particles of metal that already make up the latent (not yet visible) image.

As large particles of silver begin to form, a visible image develops on the film. The
density of silver deposited in each area depends on the amount of light the area
received during exposure. In order to arrest the action of the developer, photographers
transfer the film to a solution called the stop bath, which chemically neutralizes the
developer. After rinsing the film, they apply another chemical solution to the negative

PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY BAYAMBANG CAMPUS Educational Technology 71

image to fix it—that is, to remove residual silver halide crystals unexposed to light. The
solution used for this process is commonly referred to as hypo, or fixer.

After a short rinse, a fixer remover, or hypo-clearing agent, is applied to clear any
remaining fixer from the film. The film must then be thoroughly washed in water, as
residual fixer tends to destroy negatives over time. Finally, bathing the processed film
in a washing aid promotes uniform drying and prevents formation of water spots or
streaks.

B Printing the Photos

Printing Photographs
Producing a photographic print from a developed negative also requires a series of chemical baths. The process
begins by projecting light from an enlarger through the negative and onto a piece of photographic paper (paper
treated with a light-sensitive coating). A developer bath (1) makes the positive image visible on the paper; a
stop bath (2) stops the action of the developer so the print won't continue to darken; and a fixer bath (3) and a
thorough rinse in water (4) remove any remaining reactive chemicals. The finished print then dries.
© Microsoft Corporation. All Rights Reserved.

Photographers produce prints by either of two methods: contact or projection. The

contact method works for making prints of exactly the same size as the negative.
Using this method, they place the emulsion side of the negative in contact with the
printing material and expose the two together to a source of light. Photographers with
35-millimeter cameras commonly use this method to print what is called a contact
sheet, which shows all the exposures from a single roll of film in small size.

For projection printing, photographers first place the negative in the enlarger and place
a piece of sensitized printing material on the flat easel at its base. Switching on the
enlarger light source projects an enlarged image of the negative onto the paper. An
aperture on the enlarging lens controls the exposure, along with a timer connected to

PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY BAYAMBANG CAMPUS Educational Technology 72

the enlarger light. The exposure commonly lasts from ten seconds to a minute. By
blocking part of the light source with hands or small tools, the photographer can
reduce or increase the amount of light falling on selected portions of the image, thus
lightening or darkening those areas in the final print. This technique is known as
dodging when used to lighten an area and as burning when making it darker.

For either printing process, prints are made on sheets of paper or plastic that have
been coated with a light-sensitive emulsion. This coating is similar to that used for film
but is much less sensitive to light. After exposing the print, the photographer can then
develop and fix the positive image by a process very similar to that used for
developing film. To process black-and-white prints, the paper is usually placed in a
series of open trays; for color prints, a drum or automatic roller processor is preferred.

VIII RECENT DEVELOPMENTS

The technology of photography continues to develop rapidly. Electronic technologies

have not only changed the way that most cameras work, but are changing
photography in such fundamental ways that the distinction has begun to blur between
photography and other image-making systems, such as computers and the graphic
arts.

A APS

In the early 1990s the Eastman Kodak Company introduced a new line of cameras
and film designed for amateur photographers. Called the Advanced Photo System
(APS), this technology challenges conventional 35-millimeter photography on several
fronts. APS film is easier to load, since the APS film cartridge has no leader to thread
into a take-up spool. And APS cameras magnetically encode information onto the
exposed film that automated photofinishing machines can read. According to Kodak,
this results in a higher percentage of well-exposed prints than with 35-millimeter
processing. And although APS film is of a smaller format than 35-millimeter film, it is
capable of results that nearly match the precision and sharpness of the older format.
PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY BAYAMBANG CAMPUS Educational Technology 73
Soon after Kodak‘s introduction of APS, other film and camera makers also adopted
the system; dozens of APS cameras are now available, including several single-lens-
reflex models. However, the target market for APS remains the point-and-shoot
camera user. In comparison to 35-millimeter point-and-shoot models, APS cameras
are slightly smaller and lighter.

One of the biggest differences between APS and conventional photography is that
photographers can have their pictures processed conventionally or have them
scanned onto a compact disc (CD) for use with a computer. APS is not a digital
photography system; unlike digital systems, which are explained in the next section,
APS employs well-established color film technology, including silver halides and dye
couplers.

B Digital Photography
Digital Camera
A digital camera owner displays the back of
a digital camera with its liquid crystal screen
showing his own image being captured.
Once the shutter is snapped, images are
stored on memory devices, such as floppy
disks or memory cards, so that users can
review the photographs they have taken and
determine immediately if the image they
captured is what they want.
Paul Sakuma/AP/Wide World Photos

Digital photography is a method of making images without the use of conventional

photographic film. Instead, a machine called a scanner records visual information and
converts it into a code of ones and zeroes that a computer can read. Photographs in
digital form can be manipulated by means of various computer programs. Digital
photography was widely used in advertising and graphic design in the late 1990s, and
was quickly replacing conventional photographic technology in areas such as
photojournalism.

Digital cameras are now available for both professional photographers and amateur
enthusiasts. The more expensive professional cameras function as sophisticated 35-
millimeter cameras but record the picture information as pixels, or digital dots of color
(see Computer Graphics). There can be several million pixels in a high-resolution, full-

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color digital photograph. Some digital cameras are able to transfer their large picture
files directly into a computer for storage. Others accept a disc or similar portable
storage unit to achieve the same purpose. The original high-resolution image can later
be reproduced in ink (in a magazine, for example) or as a conventional silver halide
print.

Digital cameras aimed at the amateur photography market function much as point-
and-shoot cameras do, with automatic focus, automatic exposure, and built-in
electronic flash. Pictures from these cameras contain fewer pixels than those from a
more expensive camera and are therefore not as sharp. After taking pictures, the user
can connect the camera directly to a television set or video cassette recorder, so the
whole family can look at snapshots together. Alternatively, image files can be
transferred to a home computer, stored on disks, or sent to friends via electronic mail.

Now you are aware of how photography works. Just about everyone who uses a
camera wants to take better pictures. Here are practical advices that can help you
become a better photographer.

TAKING BETTER PICTURES

Modern cameras, film, and processing make it easier than ever to create well-exposed,
sharply focused photographs. Even so, photography is not foolproof and probably never will
be. In many photographs the colors come out all wrong, the subject is out of focus, or the
composition doesn‘t do justice to the original scene. Knowledge and control are the
fundamental tools that will help you create better pictures.

1. Understand the Limits of Your Equipment

When you see the fans in the upper deck at a basketball game in Araneta Coliseum taking
flash pictures of the action in the court? Do you know that the light from their flashes has
absolutely no effect on their pictures? Understanding your equipment—both its potential
strengths and its limitations—is the first step to better photography.

Cameras and Lenses

No camera is capable of handling every picture-taking situation. Cameras are designed to
perform specific tasks, and you should be aware of what these are. You need to pick both a
camera and lens appropriate for the subject you want to shoot. Conversely, you need to stay
within the capabilities of your camera and lens.

The best all-around cameras are called point-and-shoots because they are versatile and easy
to use. They set exposure and focus automatically, fire a built-in flash unit when more light is
needed, and wind and rewind the film with a built-in motor. They use either 35-millimeter or
APS-format film. Point-and-shoots are great for family snapshots or for keeping a visual diary
of life's events. They often come with a zoom lens that can go from a telephoto setting (for

PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY BAYAMBANG CAMPUS Educational Technology 75

magnifying a distant subject) to a wide-angle setting. But for a subject closer than a few feet,
(those flowers, for instance) a zoom lens still won‘t give very good results. For close-ups like
that you will need a macro lens, which allows you to shoot from within inches of your subject.
Read your camera's instruction booklet to find out how it sets the exposure, how fast and slow
its shutter can operate, how close it focuses, and how its automatic focusing system works.

Film
Films differ in color rendition and color density, graininess, and contrast range. These factors
interrelate. Pick a film that's appropriate to your subject, then seek out light that will help the
film perform at its best. Remember that most film is designed for daylight. To avoid the orange
cast that shows up when film is used indoors in incandescent light (from ordinary light bulbs),
and the green or purple casts caused by fluorescent light tubes, use electronic flash, which
imitates sunlight.

2. Control How Photographs Happen

With all the automation built into today's cameras, you might think that all the picture-taking
decisions have been made for you. That's true with some cameras, but many of even the most
automated models provide some possibility for operator control. If you take advantage of
these controls, you can enhance your chances for successful pictures.

Exposure: Just Two Things to Remember (Almost)

Exposure is determined by the lens aperture, which controls how much light comes through
the lens, and by the shutter, which controls the duration of the light. With old-style manual
cameras you could set the apertures and shutter speeds manually, which allowed for plenty of
creative control as well as lots of mistakes. Automatic cameras use a built-in metering system
and miniature motors to ensure more consistent results. But even the most sophisticated
automatic system doesn't know how you want the picture to look; at best it tries to guess what
you are looking at and adjusts the exposure accordingly.

Focusing: It Isn't Totally Automatic

Automatic focusing is like automatic exposure: it works well for 95 percent of your pictures but
it misunderstands the other 5 percent. Most automatic focusing errors occur when your main
subject is not in the middle of the frame. The focusing system locks onto whatever is at the
center of the frame—the background, for example—and everything closer to the camera goes
out of focus. To avoid this effect, most cameras allow you to preset the focus by pointing
directly at the main subject, pressing the shutter button down halfway, and then reframing
without letting go of the button. The focus will remain set for the closer subject as you push
the button completely down to take the picture.

Flash: Take the Short View

It's a marvel that tiny electronic flash units can be built into today's cameras and linked via
microchip to their exposure and focusing systems. What isn't marvelous is our idea that we
can illuminate the pyramids with such a limited light source. In most cases, a built-in flash can

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provide decent exposures out to about 4 to 5 m (13 to 15 ft) from the camera. Check your
manual to see what maximum distances are recommended for the film speeds you use, then
test them against reality.

3. Learn What Makes a Good Picture Good

Some photographers master all the technical aspects of picture taking and still aren't happy
with their images. Chances are, for them, the issue has to do with what a picture looks like,
not with how it gets made.

Framing

When taking a picture, most of us look to see what our main subject is doing, or whether
everyone in the group fits into the viewfinder. But the picture we make is a rectangle with four
edges and lots of space in between that requires thoughtful arrangement. All the contents of
the picture compete for our visual attention; if something bright but irrelevant is lurking down in
the lower right corner, the viewer‘s eyes will go there and not to the center. If there's a tree
growing behind your best friend's head in the original scene, it will look like a plumed
headpiece in the picture.

Lighting
Sunlight looks best in photographs at the beginning of the day and again at day's end.
(Coincidentally, this is when the light is most yellow.) These are also the times when you are
most likely to find unusual conditions like fog or mist. For more drama, try photographing just
before or after a storm.

Subject Placement
Main subjects tend to be central subjects. Automatic camera systems are designed for
photographing this way. But often a more interesting picture can result if the subject is off to
the side. Don't be a slave to the centering urge; experiment with different angles and
approaches while bearing in mind that you may need to adjust the camera's automatic
controls. Also, the camera does not always need to be held at standing eye-level. Try kneeling
down, or climbing a hill, to bring new perspective to your photographs. Remember that if your
pictures seem to look all the same, it's not your camera's fault!

Subject distance
So maybe you do need to be closer to make your pictures better. It can't hurt to try something
new. Then again, maybe you would do just as well to stand much farther away for a change.
The point is, always taking pictures of people standing 2 to 3 m from the camera is boring.
Unless you are trying to make a radical statement that everyone is ultimately the same, vary
the ways you photograph people. The same goes with other subjects.

PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY BAYAMBANG CAMPUS Educational Technology 77

ACTIVITY 6
“Campus Photo Taking”

This activity will give you the chance to enjoy photography right inside your own
campus. You will be showcasing your campus thru your picture taking.

You will need the following:

A digital camera
Conceptual planning (determine your pictorial theme)
Camera accessories (tripod, additional lenses, filter, flash)

Your objective:

Showcase your campus thru digital photographs of your campus features.

It‘s like advertising your campus thru digital photography.

Mechanics:

1. Your class will agree on the criteria for the evaluation of your group output. A rubric
will be prepared to serve as the basis for evaluation.

2. Your class will be grouped based your own criteria for grouping ( ex. availability of
digital camera, major/specialization, interest, etc...)

3. Your group will decide on your pictorial theme (ex. campus buildings, facilities,
student‘s activities, beautiful landmarks etc...) and your objective for the picture
taking.

4. Your group will plan and decide on your schedule of picture taking.

5. Prepare the materials needed.

6. Coordinate and ask permission for the activity to authorities concern.

7. Start your picture taking.

8. Preview your photographs, critique on the quality of the pictures taken.

9. Make the final revisions for the final output.

10. Submit the output for evaluation. Each will group output will be evaluated by the
rest of the group in the class.

PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY BAYAMBANG CAMPUS Educational Technology 78

 Exercise 5

Part I IDENTIFICATION

Direction: Identify the word or group of words being referred to by the following
statements.

___________________ 1. A method of picture taking using the principles of light,

optics and chemistry.
___________________ 2. Latin term meaning ―dark room‖ forerunner of camera.
___________________ 3. The French inventor who made the first fixed
photographic image.
___________________ 4. The French inventor who developed the first
photographic process suitable for widespread use.
___________________ 5. He invented the first negative image by coating a sheet
of paper with light sensitive chemicals and exposing it to
light through a simple pin hole camera.
___________________ 6. The most essential ingredient in photography.
___________________ 7. Materials/elements that change when exposed to light.
___________________ 8. The general term applied to chemical compounds that
darken when exposed to light.
___________________ 9. Silver salts distributed in gelatine applied to film or
another supporting material to form a thin layer that
undergoes changes when exposed to light.
___________________ 10. It simple means bending of light.
___________________ 11. It is the amount of light that strikes the film.
___________________ 12. The circular opening of the lens.
___________________ 13. It controls how long light strikes the film.
___________________ 14. The American inventor who invented a plastic called
celluloid instead of paper producing the first photographic
film.
___________________ 15. The visible portion of a broad range of energy called
electromagnetic radiation.
___________________ 16. The narrow band of electromagnetic waves that the
human eye can detect.
___________________ 17. A film that makes use of color film technology to
produce a negative that has just a single dye layer.
___________________ 18. What type of camera is the Kodak Brownie?
___________________ 19. Camera used for portrait and still-life photography.
___________________ 20. The first camera to have an optical view finder.

PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY BAYAMBANG CAMPUS Educational Technology 79

Part II PARTS OF A CAMERA

Direction: Identify the parts of the camera. Write each part on the corresponding box.

3 1

MODERN CAMERA FEATURES

Part III HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF PHOTOGRAPHY

Direction: Prepare a short essay on the historical development of photography.

Your essay will be rated based on the following: Content (50%), Sequence and
Organization (30%) and Technical Workmanship (20%). The essay will be given 20
points.

PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY BAYAMBANG CAMPUS Educational Technology 80

 MODULE 6

Graphics

Given the diversity of learners and variety of learning styles, using mere words and
numbers to convey information is insufficient in teaching. Thus, the need for teachers
to be knowledgeable in the various ways of presenting concepts and ideas.

One of the ways of presenting ideas and concepts is thru the use of graphics. We see
graphics all around us – in newspapers, magazines, posters, television and internet –
but we often take them for granted. This module will focus on the graphics commonly
used in instruction, and how they help us enhance the teaching-learning process.

Your Goal:

At the end of this module, you are expected to:

1. be able to define graphics, its value and underlying principles of production.

2. enumerate the different types of graphics and give samples of each type.
3. to be able to produce each type and subtype in an instructional setting.

Graphics

The word graphics is derived from the Greek word ―graphein‖ which means ― to write,
to draw, or to represent using lines. This has come to mean a variety of visual
instructional materials which summarize information through drawings, words, pictures
and symbols.

Principles in Producing Graphics

Factors like size and dimensions of visual material, design and layout features,
backgrounds, as well as the resources, skills, techniques, materials and facilities
should be considered in planning and production of graphics.

PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY BAYAMBANG CAMPUS Educational Technology 81

The following are the design principles in producing graphics.

A. Simplicity
 Try to limit your design to the presentation of one idea at a time. This is to say
that the information to be presented is in symbols that convey the particular
message.
 For projected visuals - or visual aids that are shown through a projector – the
verbal content must be limited to 15 to 20 words.
 Simple lettering styles are easy to comprehend .The use of different styles in
the same visuals should be kept to the minimum.
 Every part of the visual should relate and function together.

B. Emphasis
 Every element of the graphics should represent an idea.
 Emphasizing a single element may be done by using size relationships,
perspectives, and other visual tools like color and space.

C. Balance
 Formula – identified by an imaginary axis running through the center of the
design dividing it equally into halves.
 Informal – systematic or diagonal in layout, resulting in a creative or daring
design.

Advantages of Graphics

Graphics are a valuable means of communicating ideas between teachers and

learners. They focus attention and convey certain types of information in considered
form .They help clarify concepts of the learner by showing relationships in terms of
time of time, space, size, depth, or other dimensions.
Teachers, when producing graphics, contribute significantly to the
understanding concepts, and their critical thinking is put to use as well.

Types of Graphics

Graphs

A graph is usually defined as visual representation of numerical data. Graphs

are considered to be flat pictures which employ dots, lines, circles to visualize
numerical and statistical data.

PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY BAYAMBANG CAMPUS Educational Technology 82

Graph, a diagram that shows relationships between numbers. Graphs arrange
numerical information into a picture from which it is often possible to see overall
patterns or trends in the information.

Graphs are commonly classified into the following:

 Line graph – it is the most abstract and the most mathematically correct
of all graphs.

500
400
300 Item 1
200 Item 2

100
0
Category 1 Category 2 Category 3
 Bar graph – a series of bars or rectangles whose lengths are
proportional to the represented data. Simple and easy to read, bar
graphs may be horizontal or vertical and are used for comparative
purposes.

Growth Chart Fern

3 Cactus

2.5 Flower
2
Height (cm)

1.5
1
0.5
0
Week 1 Week 2 Week 3

Time

 Area graph – an area graph consist of square, circles or other outline

figures of different sizes. It shows proportions or differences in amounts
through the means of size and area.

 Segmented circle graph – more known as pie graph wherein the circle
is divided into segments. Each segment represents a percentage of the
total area.

PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY BAYAMBANG CAMPUS Educational Technology 83

 Daily Budget

13% Transportation
25% Medicines
13%
Food
Miscellaneous
12%
Fuel
37%

 Pictorial-statistics graph – also pictogram, this type uses pictures or

conventionalized drawings of data themselves. Its development is
credited to [Link] Neurath of Vienna who began his work in the 1920‘s
on developing an international picture language or picture Esperanto.

Stone Tablets from Mohenjo-Daro

These stone tablets were found at
Mohenjo-Daro, an archaeological site in
modern Pakistan. The city of Mohenjo-
Daro flourished during the Indus Valley
civilization (2500?-1700 bc). Merchants
use the stone tablets, which show
examples of pictographic writing, to
mark their goods.
Charles and Josette Lenars/Corbis
Microsoft ® Encarta ® 2008. ©
1993-2007 Microsoft Corporation.
All rights reserved.

Diagrams and Sketches

 Diagram – often classified as a chart, a diagram makes use of lines and

symbols that outline relationships or key features of a process, an object
or area. Its chief purpose is to clarify meaning.

PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY BAYAMBANG CAMPUS Educational Technology 84

  Phase Diagram for Water
 Phase diagrams, such as this one for water, show whether a substance exists as a vapor,
liquid, or solid at a given temperature and pressure. The line separating the liquid from the
solid shows the freezing points for water under different pressures. The point where the
three lines intersect in a phase diagram shows the pressure and temperature where the
solid, liquid, and vapor all exist in equilibrium. This point, which occurs for water at 0.01
°C (32 °F), is known as the triple point.
 © Microsoft Corporation. All Rights Reserved.

 Sketch – defined as ―a brief outline of something‖, a sketch is a rough

drawing showing the chiefs features of an object or scene. They are
often made for preliminary study.

FBI Sketch of the Unabomber

The FBI distributed this sketch of the
Unabomber after a bomb exploded
outside a computer store in Salt Lake
City, Utah, in 1987. A forensic artist
drew the sketch from a description
provided by a woman who saw the
bomber place the explosive behind the
store. Glasses and a hooded sweatshirt
similar to those in the sketch were
found in the cabin of Unabomber
suspect Theodore Kaczynski

REUTERS/Archive Photos

Microsoft ® Encarta ® 2008. © 1993-2007 Microsoft Corporation. All rights

reserved.

PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY BAYAMBANG CAMPUS Educational Technology 85

 Cartoons and comics strips

 Cartoon – representational or symbolic drawing that makes a satirical, witty, or

humorous point. It gives a point of view about news, events, and situations. Usually
hand-drawing, cartoons are built around a single idea and make use of
symbolization, caricature, satire, and bold exaggeration.

Cartoon of the Carpetbaggers

This cartoon is critical of the so-called
carpetbaggers, government agents and
others from the North who often took
advantage of the South after the
American Civil War ended in 1865. It
was published to ridicule the
administration of United States
President Ulysses S. Grant.
Culver Pictures

 Comic strips – a series of drawing arranged to tell a story. Most comics also
include some text, which appears as dialogue or captions. The term ―comics‖
comes from the first examples of the forms, which were all humorous. While many
comics remain focused on humor, others involve politics, human interest,
suspense, adventure, or serious treatments of relationships.

Mutt and Jeff

Mutt and Jeff first appeared as Mr. A. Mutt in a November 1907 issue of the San Francisco Chronicle. Bud Fisher’s
comic strip subsequently was introduced to a wide audience by newly formed newspaper syndicates, and it
became the first successful daily comic strip in the United States. To satisfy demand, newspapers published
collections of the cartoons, and a 1911 Mutt and Jeff collection was one of the first comic books to be published.
THE BETTMANN ARCHIVE

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 Posters
A poster is a mass-produced advertisement or announcement usually
printed on large sheets of paper, for public display .poster ordinarily consist of a
colorful picture or illustration along with a short identifying text or trademark .used
primarily for public education announcements.

Uncle Sam Poster

American artist James Montgomery Flagg
designed this poster, which was used to
encourage enlistment in the armed forces of
the United States during World War I (1914–
1918). The poster features the character
known as Uncle Sam, a well-known symbol
of the U.S. government, recruiting young
men with the words “I WANT YOU.” The
Uncle Sam poster is the most famous
example of the political posters developed
during World War I to aid in the war effort.
THE BETTMANN ARCHIVE

In poster making, factors like simplified but forceful messages, clear

presentation of facts, proper selection of words, and good lettering need to be
considered to ensure the poster‘s effectiveness.

A poster is a large piece of paper that is generally used for promotional purposes or
for decoration. Posters often use colorful, eye-catching graphics to communicate
messages or themes quickly.

Guidelines in Poster Making

1. Review all of the information you have about the assignment and verify that you can
answer the following questions. If you don‘t know, ask your instructor.

When is your poster due?

Are you required to do your poster on a particular topic?
Did your instructor provide any guidelines regarding how you conduct
your research or how your final poster should look?

2. Choose a theme/topic. Your goal is to pick a topic that is specific enough to cover in
a poster, but not so limited that you won‘t be able to find research sources.

Choose a broad topic that interests you and falls within your assignment guidelines. If
you‘re having trouble coming up with ideas, think about recent experiences you‘ve
had. Pick up a magazine or skim a newspaper for stories about people, events, or
issues that intrigue you.

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Example: For biology class, you are required to create a poster on an organism found
in the ecosystem behind your school. You decide to create an FBI-style ―wanted‖
poster about Scotch broom, the invasive plant species that threatens to take over the
whole ecosystem.

3. Define your objective—that is, what you intend to accomplish with your poster.

Example: Your poster on an organism found in the ecosystem behind your school is
supposed to educate viewers about the unique characteristics of the organism. Your
objective for your poster, then, is to convey the unique characteristics of Scotch
broom—what it looks like, its biological classification, what makes it invasive—in an
interesting and visually appealing way.

4. Identify your sources. Do some digging to get a feel for your topic. Skim an
encyclopedia article or read a few newspaper articles related to your topic. This will
introduce you to the major areas of interest in your subject.

Move beyond your preliminary investigation to find more specific reference sources.
Track down library books, periodicals, and Web sites, then read, read, read.

5. Take notes. As you read, note any information you encounter that supports your
objective. Each time you take a note, cite the reference—that is, jot down exactly
where you found the information, including the title of the source, its author and
publisher, publication date and place, and a page number. You‘ll need this information
if you‘re required to compose a bibliography.

6. Organize your ideas. Put your objective at the top of a sheet of paper, then, working
from your research notes, list the key concepts you must convey in your poster to
achieve your objective.

7. Sketch out your poster. Make a list of the materials you‘ll need for your poster
(pictures from magazines, construction paper, pens, glue, lettering stencils, etc.) and
gather them in your workspace.

Create a design mock-up. Make a rough sketch of your poster and plan how you‘ll
convey your key concepts visually.

8. be creative. Using your mock-up as a guide, create your poster. Refer back to your
objective often to keep yourself on track. This is your chance to let your creative side
take over. You might want to draw on the following rules of thumb about visual
presentation, but don‘t let convention limit your creativity.

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  Keep it simple. Support a key concept with two or three important facts,
rather than many small details.
 Use contrasting colors to make your poster more readable. If you‘re using
light-colored paper, choose a dark color for your graphics and text.
 Draw attention to important information by drawing a border around it or
using a different background color.
 Give your poster a professional, polished look by trimming jagged edges,
securing loose pieces with glue or double-sided tape, wiping away
excess glue, and erasing any pencil guidelines.

Maps and Globes

Maps, drawn –to-scale representations of the earth‘s surface, are among the
oldest and most widely used aids to instruction. The word map is derived from the
Latin word mappa which means napkin, cloth or sheets .maps are generally classified
into three, globes, relief maps, and flat maps.

As a representation of a geographic area, usually a portion of the earth's

surface, drawn or printed on a flat surface. In most instances a map is a diagrammatic
rather than a pictorial representation of the terrain; it usually contains a number of
generally accepted symbols, which indicate the various natural, artificial, or cultural,
features of the area it covers.

Topographic Map
In addition to showing general locations and political boundaries, topographic maps depict the geology and
special features of an area. This type of map offers many advantages. For instance, most backpackers use
topographic maps to navigate through wilderness, planning their routes with obstacles and landmarks in mind. If
they should get lost, they can find their bearings again by aligning their map and compass to a prominent
feature observed nearby. A key on each map indicates the distance scales and special symbols (for features such
as railroads, schools, airstrips and water towers) used to create it. Generally, the green on a topographic map
indicates forest or vegetation, while the white areas indicate areas that are bare of growth. Series of brown lines
indicate mountains and hills, showing elevation and relative steepness. Each line represents a specific unit of
elevation; where the lines are very close together, the terrain is quite steep.
© Microsoft Corporation. All Rights Reserved.

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  Globe – a map presented on the surface of an artificial sphere either made of
metal, plaster, paper, or pasteboard. On its surface is a drawn map of the
earth‘s surface (terrestrial globe), or occasionally, a representation of a
heavens (celestial globe)

 Cylindrical Projection
 If you imagine a paper cylinder wrapped around an illuminated globe, the projection onto the
cylinder would resemble a cylindrical projection map. The shape of the continents near the middle
of the cylinder would be relatively free of distortion, but the regions near the poles would be
stretched out of proportion as in a cylindrical projection map.
 © Microsoft Corporation. All Rights Reserved.

 Relief Map – a map confined to a smaller area, like continent, country, region,
or any other locality which show the inequalities and depression of the earth‘s
surface through exaggeration of land forms.

Relief Map
Relief maps are three-dimensional models of the terrain in an area; on them, color and scale are used to indicate
geographical features rather than simply to delineate political boundaries. Because of this feature, relief maps
are extensively used in engineering and the military. This map shows portions of Alaska and northwestern
Canada.
United States Geological Survey

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  Flat map – these are maps that are highly symbolical and abstract. Flat maps
have four classifications, namely:

a. Physical-Political map – this is the most common type of maps found in

classrooms. The layout of this type consists of political boundaries
superimposed on geographical data like bodies of land and water.

b. Simulated relief map – in this type, a relief map is stimulated on a flat

surface, using photography, coloring, shading, or other techniques.

c. Pictorial-Statistical Map – this map makes use of pictures, drawings,

photography, and similar figures to build up meaningful relationships between
regions and population, products, ethnic distribution, etc….

d. Miscellaneous Map – the purpose of this kind of map is to connect a

geographic location with a thing, event or circumstances.

A map has four basic features: grid or network of latitudes and longitudes; scale,
which is commonly represented by a fraction or ratio; based data symbol, like political
boundaries, which provide background information; and lettering and names.

There are some principles to be followed in selecting maps. They should be

clear, simple, and meaningful, and have minimum specifications. Accuracy should
never be compromised.

A map should be free from useless detail. Its insets should be placed below the
main map, not the center. It should be mounted or housed in a dustproof case with
spring roller.

Physical- political map have high priority, as well as globes. As globes, they
must be at least sixteen inches in diameter, with a scale of one inch to 500 miles; they
should be of the physical- political type with movable meridian. It should be simple and
legible, and well- mounted.

 Charts

A chart is defined as information in list, pictures, tables, or diagrams. It is designed to

show time, place, and factual relationships through symbols and numerical data.
Selecting the most effective chart type will make your data clearer, stronger, and more
informative.

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There are Six Types of Charts:

 Developmental chart- this is often referred to as frequency graph and is quite

commonly used.
 Pictorial chart- this type of chart is interesting but requires considerable time
and skill to make.
 Table chart- a type of chart used to bring together in a summary a mass of
related data.
 Genealogical chart- this type is most frequently used in history textbooks to
show cause and effects, as well as lines of descent.
 Flow chart- this form of chart is commonly used in discussing politics,
government, economics, military, and other fields.

Lettering and Cut outs

Letters may be cut out from newspapers by young and old alike; they also may use
squares of folded paper. Freehand lettering is attractive but difficult; by using lettering
pens are brushes require effort and skills. It should always be remembered that letters
should be correctly spaced and proportionate.

Chinese Script
Done with a brush, Chinese
handwriting developed into an art
form in its own right. Calligraphy,
artistic handwriting or lettering,
was important in China before the
Tang dynasty, which began in
618.
THE BETTMANN ARCHIVE/Corbis

That ends our discussion of Graphics. Accomplish the following exercise and activity.

PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY BAYAMBANG CAMPUS Educational Technology 92

Activity 7 “POSTER MAKING”

Direction: Your class will organize a poster making contest. Schedule a class meeting
on the mechanics on how you could conduct your poster making contest. Post the
winners in your assigned bulletin board.

Decide on the following:

a. Theme
b. Objectives of the Poster Making Contest.
c. Mechanics of the Contest.
d. Rubrics (Performance Based Evaluation System)
e. Panel of Evaluators (Peer Evaluators)
f. Declaration of Winners
g. Prizes (If your budget is available).

Exercise 6 “Production of Graphics”

Direction: Create/produce samples of the following graphic materials.

1. Graphs a. Line
b. Bar
c. Pie
d. Pictograph

2. Charts a. organizational
b. tree
c. flow/cycle/process

3. Map (any type)

4. Diagram (any type)

5. Cartoon

6. Comic Strip

7. Sketch

Your output will be based on your class agreed rubrics for evaluation.

PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY BAYAMBANG CAMPUS Educational Technology 93

 MODULE 7

Three Dimensional Materials

Introduction

Learners are said to be the most important elements in the teaching and
learning process and it is important to know their nature as learners. Learners are said
to be diversified. It is important that teachers must know and be familiar with their
background knowledge and experiences. Teachers must recognize multicultural
background of learners when providing learning opportunities. This module will
provide you the various types of three dimensional materials that can be used to
provide learners the most appropriate materials suited to the diversity of their learning
needs.

Your Goal:

At the end of this module, you are expected to:

1. be able to define specimen, samples/objects, artifacts, models, dioramas,

and exhibits/displays.

2. prepare at least one among the different types of three dimensional

materials.

3. show how the material can be used in an actual instructional setting.

Teaching with Contrived

Teaching with contrived experiences allows the learners to actually acquire the
sensations provided by the learning situation. The acquisition of knowledge, values
and skills directly involves the senses of the learner thus providing a more meaningful
interaction between the learner and the learning environment. The following terms are
defined for you to better understand the concept of contrived experiences as utilized in
the teaching process. This will enable you to understand how these materials can help
learners provide the opportunity to learn among learners.

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1. Experience – as a general concept compromises knowledge of or skill in or
observation of something or some event gained through involvement in or exposure
to that thing or event. The history of the word experience aligns it closely with the
concept experiment.

The concept of experience generally refers to know-how or procedural knowledge,

rather than propositional knowledge. Philosophers dub knowledge based on
experience ―empirical knowledge‖ or ―a posteriori knowledge‖

The interrogation of experience has a long tradition in continental philosophy.

Experience is an important aspect of philosophy of Soren Kierkegaard. The German
term Erfahrung, often translated to English as ―experience‖ has a slightly different
implication, connoting the coherency of life‘s experiences.

A person with considerable experience in a certain field can gain a reputation as

an expert.

2. Specimen – an individual, item, or part considered typical of a group, class, or

whole; a portion or quantity of material for use in testing, examination, or study. It is
something that obviously belongs to a particular category but is noticed by reasons of
individual distinguishing characteristics.

Baby Mammoth
Paleontologists rarely find such perfect
specimens from the past as this baby
mammoth, discovered frozen in an
excavation site of northeastern Siberia in
1977. The sketch shows an artist’s idea
of the mammoth’s appearance during its
lifetime during the Pleistocene Epoch,
more than 10,000 years ago. More
frequently, drawings are based only on
fossils because no other evidence exists.
Dorling Kindersly/UPI/THE BETTMANN
ARCHIVE

3. Samples/Objects

In general, a sample is a part of the total, such as one individual or a set of

individuals from a population ( of people and things), a small piece or amount of
something larger, a number of function values of a function, or part of a song.
Sampling, then, is the selection of a subset from a larger whole.

Objects on the other hand, are things that form an element of or constitute the
subject matter of an Investigation or science; a thing that forms an element of or

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constitutes the subject matter of an investigation or science; something physical that
perceived by an individual and becomes an agent for psychological identification.

4. Artifacts – In archaeology, is any object made or modified by a human culture, and

often one later recovered by some archaeological endeavor. Examples include stone
tools such as projectile, points, pottery vessels, metal objects such as buttons or guns,
and items of personal adornment such as jewelry and clothing. Other examples
include bone that shows signs of human modification, fire cracked rocks from a hearth
or plant material used for food.

Thule Artifacts
Arctic peoples of the early aboriginal
Thule culture made many kinds of tools
from stone, bone, ivory, and antler. The
Thule culture developed between 1,100
and 400 years ago and was based around
the hunting of whales, seals, walrus, and
caribou, as well as fishing. One Thule
technological innovation was the use of
harpoon heads that were attached by
lines to floats of sealskin.
Lithic Casting Lab

The study of these objects is an important part of the field of archaeology,

although the degree to which they represent the social groupings that created them is
a subject over which archaeological theoreticians argue. Focusing on the artifact alone
can produce very intensive and enlightening work on the subject itself but can ignore
surrounding factors which may shed further light on the manufacturing society.
Traditional museums are often criticized for being too ‗artifact-led‘, that is by displaying
items without any contextual information about their purpose or the people who made
them.

Artifacts can come from any archaeological context or source such as:

 Buried along with a body (grave goods).

 From any feature such as hidden or other domestic setting
 Hoards
 Votive offerings

Artifacts are distinguished from the main body of the archaeological records
such as stratigraphic features, which are non-portable remains of human activity such
as hearths, rods, or deposits and remains, and from biofacts or ecofacts, which are
objects of archaeological interest made by other organisms, such as seeds or animal
bone.
PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY BAYAMBANG CAMPUS Educational Technology 96
 Natural objects which have been moved but not changed by humans are called
manuports. Examples would include seashells moved inland or rounded pebbles
placed away from the water action that would have fashioned them.

These distinctions are often blurred: for instance, a bone removed from an
animal carcass is a biofact, but a bone carved into a useful implement is an artefact.
Similarly there can be debate over early stone objects which may be crude artifacts or
which may be occurring phenomena that only appear to have been used by humans.

5. Model – is a pattern, plan representation (especially in miniature),or description

designed to show the main object or workings of an object, system, or concept.

Model for Freedom Tower

New designs for a rebuilt
World Trade Center in New
York City were unveiled in
2006. The tallest structure,
known as Freedom Tower,
rises a symbolic 1,776 feet,
reflecting the date of American
independence. Smaller office
towers arise around Freedom
Tower. The World Trade
Center buildings were
destroyed by terrorist attacks
in September 2001.
Daniel Acker/Bloomberg
News/Landov

6. Dioramas

The word diorama can refer either to a nineteenth century mobile theatre
device, or, in modern usage, a three-dimensional full-size or miniature model,
sometimes enclosed in a glass showcase from a museum. Dioramas are often built by
hobbyist as part of related hobbies such as military vehicle modelling, miniature figure
modelling or aircraft modelling.

The current, popular understanding of the term ―diorama‖ denotes a

partially three-dimensional, full-size replica or scale model of a landscape typically
showing historical events, nature scenes or cityscapes, for purposes of education or
entertainment.

Miniature dioramas are typically much smaller, and use scale models and
landscaping to create historical or fictional scenes. Such a scale model based diorama
PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY BAYAMBANG CAMPUS Educational Technology 97
is used, for example, in Chicago‘s museum of science and industry to display
railroading. This diorama employs a common model railroading scale of 1:87 (HO
Scale). Hobbyist dioramas often use popular scales such as 1/35 or 1/48.

Frank M. Chapman, a curator at the American museum of natural History

during the late nineteenth and early twentieth century‘s, helped popularize the full-size
style commonly seen today. Shepard Paine, a prominent hobbyist, popularized the
modern miniature diorama beginning in the 1970s.

Full size Dioramas

Modern museums dioramas may be seen in most major natural history

museum. Typically, these displays use a titled plane to represent what would
otherwise be a level surface, a painted background of distant object, and may often
employ false perspective, carefully modifying the scale of objects on the plane to
reinforce the illusion through depth perception of viewing a larger space-
representation of objects (of identical real-world size) placed further from the observer
are smaller than those closer. Often the distant painted background or sky will be
painted upon a continuous curved surface so that the viewer is not distracted by
corners, seams, or edges. All of these techniques are means of representing a
realistic view of a large scene in a compact space. A photograph or single-eye view of
such a diorama can be especially convincing since in this case there is no distraction
by the binocular perception of depth.

Neandertal Man Building Fire

Scientists believe that Neandertals regularly

used fire. It would have provided them with
heat, light, a way to cook food, and
protection from carnivores. In this diorama
from the Field Museum in Chicago, Illinois, a
Neandertal man prepares to start a fire.

Tom McHugh/Photo Researchers, Inc.

Miniature Dioramas

Miniature dioramas may be used to represent scenes from historic events. A

typical example of this type is the dioramas to be seen at Norway‘s Resistance
Museum in Oslo, Norway.

PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY BAYAMBANG CAMPUS Educational Technology 98

 Landscape built around model railways, although they often have to
compromise scale accuracy for better operating characteristics, can also be
considered dioramas.

Hobbyist also build dioramas of historical or quasi-historical events using a

variety of materials, including plastic models of military vehicles, ships or other
equipment, along with scale figures and landscaping.

In the 19th and beginning 20th century, building dioramas of sailing ships had
been a popular handcraft of seamen. Building a diorama instead of a normal model
had the advantage that the model was protected inside the frame and it could be
easily stowed below the bunk or behind the sea chest. Nowadays, such antique sailing
ship dioramas are valuable collector‘s items.

One of the largest Dioramas ever created was a model of the entire state of
California Built for the Panama-Pacific International exposition and that for a long time
was installed in San Francisco‘s Ferry Building.

7. Exhibits – are designed to display visual and written information on topics in an

attractive and easily understood manner. They are similar to exhibits found in a
museum. People walking by should be attracted to an exhibit‘s main idea and,
therefore, stop to learn more about the topic. To be successful, an exhibit must create
an effective balance between visual interest and historical explanation.

The most common form of exhibit entry is a three-panel display. This style is
the least complicated to design and build and is a very effective way to represent
information.

Puppets

I INTRODUCTION

Puppets, objects used as characters in theatrical performances. Audiences perceive

life and spirit from their movement, their shape, and other aspects of their
performance. Gifted puppeteers (puppet operators) can bring to life even apparently
ordinary objects such as bricks, handkerchiefs, spoons, or tennis balls. There are
many kinds of puppet performances. Some puppetry is technically very simple, while

PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY BAYAMBANG CAMPUS Educational Technology 99

some is remarkably complicated. Technical complexity is only one element of a
performance, however; other components of puppet performances include character,
theme, plot, movement, and design.

Punch and Judy

Punch and Judy are characters in an English
hand puppet show that first appeared in
1662. Punch, the main character (left), is an
English buffoon who banters with his wife,
Judy, who is characterized by a high-pitched,
squeaky voice.
Chris North/Cordaiy Photo Library Ltd./Corbis

Puppetry has been popular for thousands of years. In some regions it developed as a
traditional and highly stylized form of entertainment for a wealthy or aristocratic
audience. In other areas it was a form of folk theater presented to people of all
classes. Traditional and folk performances typically involve stock characters, standard
bits of stage business, lively plots and raucous, good humor. The traditional or folk
puppeteers themselves are often anonymous, obscured by the theatrical traditions of
which they are only a part. In the past, such performers were often known for where
they performed—which village, street corner, or marketplace—rather than by name.

The puppets themselves are often superb examples of artistic craft, whether they are
delicately fashioned to suit the tastes of the rich and powerful or boldly created for the
rigors of popular performances. They include the exquisitely frail and intricately
articulated shadow figures of China; the regal and subtle rod puppets of Japan's
bunraku theater; the elemental crudeness of Turkey's Karagöz shadow puppets; the
lovable, internationally known Muppets created by American puppeteer Jim Henson;
and the vigor and grotesque humor of Punch and Judy and their many variations in
Europe, Australia, and the Americas. Along with puppeteers, theaters, and techniques
of performance, the puppets themselves are significant elements of the long
puppeteering tradition.

PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY BAYAMBANG CAMPUS Educational Technology 100

II TYPES

The most common types of puppets are string puppets, rod puppets, hand or glove
puppets, shadow puppets, and ventriloquists‘ figures. Puppets have been made out of
nearly every imaginable material, including paper, cloth, wood, metal, and plastic.

Marionettes
These colorful Indian marionettes are
made to move by means of strings
attached to their arms, legs, and
head. Marionette artists usually stand
above or behind the puppet stage
while manipulating the figures during
a peformance.
Richard T. Nowitz/Corbis

String puppets, also known as marionettes, are manipulated by means of strings

attached to a jointed puppet from a so-called control—usually a wooden device held
above the stage by the puppeteer. Some marionette artists work their puppets in full or
partial view of their audiences, while others conceal the mechanics of their
performances. In consequence, some marionette stages are large structures that
allow puppeteers to manipulate their figures from behind and above the playing area.
In such situations, the puppeteers are partially or fully concealed from the audience.

Rod puppets are controlled by rods attached to their limbs, heads, and bodies.
Although the traditional rod puppets of Belgium and Sicily are worked from above, like
marionettes, most contemporary rod figures are operated from below. In theaters, rod
puppeteers are frequently concealed from view by drapery or stage flats (fabric
stretched across frames). On television and in films, rod and hand puppeteers usually
hold their figures either above their heads or in front of their faces. In the latter
instance, the stage is usually a relatively small area that the puppeteer can view
through a piece of cloth that lets light through. Because of the way the light strikes the
cloth, the puppeteer can see out even though the audience cannot see the puppeteer.

PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY BAYAMBANG CAMPUS Educational Technology 101

 Edgar Bergen
American ventriloquist Edgar Bergen, right,
performed with his famous hand-manipulated
dummy Charlie McCarthy in vaudeville, radio,
television, and motion pictures during the mid-
1900s. In his act Bergen would serve as the
straight man for the dummy’s irreverent
wisecracks. One of the most successful
ventriloquists of all time, Bergen possessed agile
vocal skills and a creative stage demeanor.
THE BETTMANN ARCHIVE

Hand or glove puppets are worn like a glove over a puppeteer's hand and arm. Much
of a hand puppet's movement is controlled by the fingers and wrist of the operator. As
with other types of puppets, some hand puppeteers prefer to appear in full view along
with their puppets. Other hand puppeteers are hidden behind drapery or beneath the
stage.

In shadow puppetry the shadows or translucent silhouettes of two- or three-

dimensional figures are cast onto a white fabric screen. Usually the audience sits on
one side of the screen while the puppeteer manipulates the puppets on the other side
of the screen in front of a light source. Variations on this style of puppetry have been
especially popular in Asia for hundreds, and possibly thousands, of years.

Ventriloquists‘ figures can be made of many kinds of material, and they usually share
the stage with their animators. Ventriloquists delight their audiences by mastering
techniques of speech and of puppet manipulation that gives the impression their
figures are talking with them. Most ventriloquists‘ puppets are manipulated by hand.
Shari Lewis and her hand puppet Lamb Chop are a good example. Another is Edgar
Bergen‘s puppet Charlie McCarthy.

III HISTORY

Puppets have been used in religion, as entertainment, as toys, as therapy, and to

amuse or educate people around the world. The history of puppetry has been both
plagued and enriched by deeply contrasting attitudes. Some people regard it as a

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trivial and childish amusement. Others see it as a powerfully symbolic and deeply
evocative art. Hundreds of unique puppetry traditions and thousands of talented
puppet artists exist throughout the world. The theory, history, and practice of puppetry
have become fertile and complex fields for study and artistic endeavor.

Wayang Kulit
Wayang Kulit is a form of Indonesian puppetry
dating from the 10th century and using stories
from Hindu epics. The puppet operator, known as
the dalang, also narrates the story, speaks the
dialogue, does the sound effects, and leads the
orchestra in a performance that lasts from dusk
until dawn.
Charles and Josette Lenars/CORBIS-BETTMANN

Scholars believe that puppetry originated thousands of years ago, perhaps when
prehistoric people placed their hands near a fire to cast shadows resembling animals,
people, and imaginary creatures on cave walls. Most scholars agree that puppetry
predates written language, and so we will never be certain how, why, or in what form
the first puppets were created or used.

Despite the uncertainty surrounding the origins of puppetry, there is no shortage of

references to puppetry from ancient times. Greek philosopher Plato, in his Republic
(4th century BC), referred to shadow puppetry, making the point that people should not
look at shadows to understand truth. His use of shadow puppetry to illustrate this point
indicates that the art form was well known in Greece more than 2000 years ago.

Jim Henson
A talented puppeteer and entertainer, Jim Henson created some
of the world’s most beloved puppet characters, the Muppets.
Henson’s Muppets play several starring roles in the highly
acclaimed children’s educational program, “Sesame Street,” and
starred in various movies. Henson’s death in 1990 was mourned
worldwide, and the loss of his talents continues to be felt in the
realm of children’s TV programming. Henson is shown here with
his character “Rowlf the Dog.”

REUTERS/THE BETTMANN ARCHIVE

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Elsewhere in the world, however, people have believed that shadow puppets
represent spiritual essences rather than illusions. This view is held in many Asian
cultures, including those of India, Thailand, and Malaysia. Partly because of the
special value given to shadow puppets, two ancient epics of the Hindu religion, the
Mahabharata and the Ramayana, have been staged as shadow puppet plays for
many centuries. Most Asian cultures have a rich history of puppetry and consider it a
high art form.

The major puppet traditions of Indonesia resist easy classification. For instance, both
wayang kulit (shadow puppets) and wayang golek (wooden rod puppets) are used for
profoundly sacred as well as secular purposes. They provide satiric and sometimes
even bawdy entertainment but also offer enlightenment on social, cultural, religious,
and moral issues.

In Vietnam, water puppets provide the substance of and the justification for traditional
village celebrations. Puppeteers control these unique figures while standing concealed
behind a bamboo screen in a shallow pond. The figures are controlled from below by
strings threaded through hollow bamboo poles that extend beneath the water. The
surface of the pond serves as the stage.

James and the Giant Peach

The motion picture James and the Giant
Peach is an adaptation of a 1961 children’s
book by British author Roald Dahl. The film
uses stop-motion animation to bring the
book’s characters to life. In stop-motion
animation, technicians painstakingly
change the position of each figure from
frame to frame. When the film is played,
this creates the illusion of uninterrupted
motion.
Walt Disney Co./The Everett Collection,

Bunraku, which originated in the early 17th century, is Japan‘s best-known form of
puppetry. Seventeenth-century writer Chikamatsu Monzaemon, widely regarded as
Japan's greatest playwright, spent much of his professional life writing for bunraku. In
this form of puppetry, three puppeteers manipulate each figure: The senior puppeteer
controls the head and right arm, the second puppeteer is responsible for the left arm

PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY BAYAMBANG CAMPUS Educational Technology 104

and some of the body and costume movement, and the third puppeteer manipulates
the legs and feet. A highly trained chanter sitting to one side of the stage speaks all of
the lines of the play.

Folk puppetry has been quite popular in Europe, and many European cultures have
developed their own national characters. These include Punch and Judy in England,
Guignol in France, and Kasperle in Germany. These lively characters typically appear
in performances of low comedy, farce, and crude satire. In addition, church officials
have employed puppets to tell Bible stories and instruct the public in Christian
doctrine. From the 18th century on, performers have used puppets to perform operas
and classic plays. Today, these performances typically use recordings of music or
dialogue. In Eastern Europe during the 20th century, puppetry flourished as a state-
supported enterprise under Communist governments.

In North America, Native American puppetry, especially in the Southwest and Pacific
Northwest, was often ceremonial and sacred. But ever since Europeans began to
settle in North America in the 17th century, most puppetry has followed European
traditions. In recent years, the work of Jim Henson, popularized through the television
shows ―Sesame Street‖ (1969- ) and ―The Muppet Show‖ (1976-1981), has sparked a
new interest in puppets. The highly individualistic works of late 20th-century artists
such as Julie Taymor of the United States (director of the stage version of The Lion
King), Philippe Genty of France, and Albrecht Roser of Germany have enriched the
craft and brought attention to puppetry as an art form.

Today puppeteers are redefining and challenging ideas about what a puppet or
puppeteer is supposed to be. In recent years, artists have explored new and inventive
ways to animate their creations, commonly combining traditional technologies with
new ones. For instance, some people identify certain kinds of stop-motion animation
as puppetry, because the director and various technicians act as puppeteers by
posing figures in frame after frame of a motion picture, creating the illusion of
uninterrupted movement. Examples of such animation include The Nightmare Before
Christmas (1993), directed by American filmmaker Tim Burton, and the Gumby and

PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY BAYAMBANG CAMPUS Educational Technology 105

Pokey cartoon series. Special-effects artists working on motion pictures frequently
create electrically or mechanically powered puppets, such as the terrifying insects in
the movie Mimic (1997) and the speaking animals in the film Babe (1995). Several
companies are developing systems in which sensors attached to a human performer
are translated by computers into the movement of two- or three-dimensional figures.
All of these technologies help artists expand their definitions of what puppetry is and
can be.

(The article was adopted from the article contributed by Michael R. Malkin published by Microsoft ® Encarta ®
2008. © 1993-2007)

Now you already know the different types of three dimensional materials. The
following activity will give you the opportunity to develop your creativity in the
preparation of three dimensional materials which you can use to facilitate the
presentation of a particular topic.

Activity 8

“Construction and Production of Three Dimensional Materials”

Direction: Divide the class into groups with 5-8 members each depending on your
class size. Decide which among the three dimensional materials discussed will be
constructed. Each group will be assigned a particular material to prepare. Each group
will prepare the following:

 A three dimensional material that can be used to present a particular topic.

 The mechanics/procedure in the production of the material.
 The rubrics in the evaluation of the material produced.

Each group will showcase the produced material and present to the class how
to effectively utilize it given a particular lesson. The class will rate the material based
on the rubrics prepared by the group.

PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY BAYAMBANG CAMPUS Educational Technology 106

Exercise 7 “Three Dimensional Materials”

Direction: Identify the following terms/concepts being referred to by the

following statements.

_____________ 1. An individual, item, or part considered typical of a group, class, or

whole; a portion or quantity of material for use in testing,
examination, or study.
_____________ 2. A part of the total, such as one individual or a set of individuals
from a population ( of people and things), a small piece or amount
of something larger, a number of function values of a function, or
part of a song.
_____________ 3. In archaeology, is any object made or modified by a human
culture, and often one later recovered by some archaeological
endeavor.
_____________ 4. Is a pattern, plan representation (especially in miniature), or
description designed to show the main object or workings of an
object, system, or concept.
_____________ 5. Ddenotes a partially three-dimensional, full-size replica or scale
model of a landscape typically showing historical events, nature
scenes or cityscapes, for purposes of education or entertainment.
_____________ 6. Are designed to display visual and written information on topics in
an attractive and easily understood manner.
_____________ 7. Objects used as characters in theatrical performances. Audiences
perceive life and spirit from their movement, their shape, and
other aspects of their performance.
_____________ 8. Are manipulated by means of strings attached to a jointed puppet
from a so-called control—usually a wooden device held above the
stage by the puppeteer.
_____________ 9. Are controlled by rods attached to their limbs, heads, and bodies.
Although the traditional puppets of Belgium and Sicily are worked
from above, like marionettes, most contemporary figures are
operated from below.
_____________ 10. Worn like a glove over a puppeteer's hand and arm. Much of a
hand puppet's movement is controlled by the fingers and wrist of
the operator.

PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY BAYAMBANG CAMPUS Educational Technology 107

 MODULE 8

Auditory Media

Today, many psychologists believe that there is more than one type of intelligence.
American psychologist Howard Gardner proposed the existence of multiple
intelligences, each linked to a separate system within the brain. He theorized that
there are seven types of intelligence: linguistic, logical-mathematical, spatial, musical,
bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal, and intrapersonal.

Students learning needs vary with each other brought about by so many factors. One
among the means to which some learners learn well is through auditory media.
Auditory media are materials than can be heard by the learners.

This module will show you the various types of auditory media and how these
materials can be used in teaching. It also presents the historical development of each
type to provide you enough technical background for each type of media.

Your Goal:

At the end of this module, you are expected to:

1. be able to present the nature and meaning of auditory media

2. discuss how the radio works and how it can be used in the classroom.

3. define the various types of audio recording and

4. prepare auditory recordings that can be used in an actual instructional setting.

PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY BAYAMBANG CAMPUS Educational Technology 108

Let us start with the most common and available household gadget, the radio. Let us
first define radio and show how it works.

Radio, system of communication employing electromagnetic waves propagated

through space. Because of their varying characteristics, radio waves of different
lengths are employed for different purposes and are usually identified by their
frequency. The shortest waves have the highest frequency, or number of cycles per
second; the longest waves have the lowest frequency, or fewest cycles per second. In
honor of the German radio pioneer Heinrich Hertz, his name has been given to the
cycle per second (hertz, Hz); 1 kilohertz (kHz) is 1000 cycles per sec, 1 megahertz
(MHz) is 1 million cycles per sec, and 1 gigahertz (GHz) is 1 billion cycles per sec.
Radio waves range from a few kilohertz to several gigahertz. Waves of visible light are
much shorter. In a vacuum, all electromagnetic waves travel at a uniform speed of
about 300,000 km (about 186,000 mi) per second. For electromagnetic waves other
than radio.

Radio waves are used not only in radio broadcasting but in wireless telegraphy,
telephone transmission, television, radar, navigational systems, and space
communication. In the atmosphere, the physical characteristics of the air cause slight
variations in velocity, which are sources of error in such radio-communications
systems as radar. Also, storms or electrical disturbances produce anomalous
phenomena in the propagation of radio waves. Because electromagnetic waves in a
uniform atmosphere travel in straight lines and because the earth's surface is
approximately spherical, long-distance radio communication is made possible by the
reflection of radio waves from the ionosphere. Radio waves shorter than about 10 m
(about 33 ft) in wavelength—designated as very high, ultrahigh, and superhigh
frequencies (VHF, UHF, and SHF)—are usually not reflected by the ionosphere; thus,
in normal practice, such very short waves are received only within line-of-sight
distances. Wavelengths shorter than a few centimeters are absorbed by water

PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY BAYAMBANG CAMPUS Educational Technology 109

droplets or clouds; those shorter than 1.5 cm (0.6 in) may be absorbed selectively by
the water vapor present in a clear atmosphere.

Radio Frequency and Wavelength Ranges

Radio waves have a wide range of applications, including communication during emergency rescues (transistor
and shortwave radios), international broadcasts (satellites), and cooking food (microwaves). A radio wave is
described by its wavelength, the distance from one crest to the next, or its frequency, the number of crests that
move past a point in one second. Wavelengths of radio waves range from 100,000 m (270,000 ft) to 1 mm (.004
in). Frequencies range from 3 kilohertz to 300 gigahertz.

A typical radio communication system has two main components, a transmitter and a
receiver. The transmitter generates electrical oscillations at a radio frequency called
the carrier frequency. Either the amplitude or the frequency itself may be modulated to
vary the carrier wave. An amplitude-modulated signal consists of the carrier frequency
plus two sidebands resulting from the modulation. Frequency modulation produces
more than one pair of sidebands for each modulation frequency. These produce the
complex variations that emerge as speech or other sound in radio broadcasting, and
in the alterations of light and darkness in television broadcasting.

II Transmitter

Essential components of a radio transmitter include an oscillation generator for

converting commercial electric power into oscillations of a predetermined radio
frequency; amplifiers for increasing the intensity of these oscillations while retaining
the desired frequency; and a transducer for converting the information to be

PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY BAYAMBANG CAMPUS Educational Technology 110

transmitted into a varying electrical voltage proportional to each successive
instantaneous intensity. For sound transmission a microphone is the transducer; for
picture transmission the transducer is a photoelectric device.

Other important components of the radio transmitter are the modulator, which uses
these proportionate voltages to control the variations in the oscillation intensity or the
instantaneous frequency of the carrier, and the antenna, which radiates a similarly
modulated carrier wave. Every antenna has some directional properties, that is, it
radiates more energy in some directions than in others, but the antenna can be
modified so that the radiation pattern varies from a comparatively narrow beam to a
comparatively even distribution in all directions; the latter type of radiation is employed
in broadcasting.

The particular method of designing and arranging the various components depends on
the effects desired. The principal criteria of a radio in a commercial or military airplane,
for example, are light weight and intelligibility; cost is a secondary consideration, and
fidelity of reproduction is entirely unimportant. In a commercial broadcasting station,
on the other hand, size and weight are of comparatively little importance; cost is of
some importance; and fidelity is of the utmost importance, particularly for FM stations
(see Frequency Modulation); rigid control of frequency is an absolute necessity. In the
U.S., for example, a typical commercial station broadcasting on 1000 kHz is assigned
a bandwidth of 10 kHz by the Federal Communications Commission, but this width
may be used only for modulation; the carrier frequency itself must be kept precisely at
1000 kHz, for a deviation of one-hundredth of 1 percent would cause serious
interference with even distant stations on the same frequency.

III Receiver

The essential components of a radio receiver are an antenna for receiving the
electromagnetic waves and converting them into electrical oscillations; amplifiers for
increasing the intensity of these oscillations; detection equipment for demodulating; a
speaker for converting the impulses into sound waves audible by the human ear (and
in television a picture tube for converting the signal into visible light waves); and, in
most radio receivers, oscillators to generate radio-frequency waves that can be
―mixed‖ with the incoming waves.

Components in a Transistor Radio

This circuit board illustrates the complexity of the modern radio
receiver. The six black rectangular components are the
Integrated Circuits (ICs) which contain hundreds of transistors.
The remaining components are resistors (small, flat, round
objects), capacitors (tall, black cylinders), and inductors (coils of
wire). Newer circuits have fewer parts, often only one IC and a
few resistors. These improvements are due to the development of
more advanced ICs and the shift from LC (inductor-capacitor)
PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY BAYAMBANG CAMPUS Educational Technology 111
tuning to PLL (phase-locked loop) tuning. The latter, in addition
to providing a digital display of the frequency, requires no
discrete components.
The incoming signal from the antenna, consisting of a radio-frequency carrier
oscillation modulated by an audio-frequency or video-frequency signal containing the
impulses, is generally very weak. The sensitivity of some modern radio receivers is so
great that if the antenna signal can produce an alternating current involving the motion
of only a few hundred electrons, this signal can be detected and amplified to produce
an intelligible sound from the speaker. Most radio receivers can operate quite well with
an input from the antenna of a few millionths of a volt. The dominant consideration in
receiver design, however, is that very weak desired signals cannot be made useful by
amplifying indiscriminately both the desired signal and undesired radio noise. Thus,
the main task of the designer is to assure preferential reception of the desired signal.

Most modern radio receivers are of the superheterodyne type in which an oscillator
generates a radio-frequency wave that is mixed with the incoming wave, thereby
producing a radio-frequency wave of lower frequency; the latter is called intermediate
frequency. To tune the receiver to different frequencies, the frequency of the
oscillations is changed, but the intermediate frequency always remains the same (at
455 kHz for most AM receivers and at 10.7 MHz for most FM receivers). The oscillator
is tuned by altering the capacity of the capacitor in its tank circuit; the antenna circuit is
similarly tuned by a capacitor in its circuit. One or more stages of intermediate-
frequency amplification are included in all receivers; in addition, one or more stages of
radio-frequency amplification may be included. Auxiliary circuits such as automatic
volume control (which operates by rectifying part of the output of one amplification
circuit and feeding it back to the control element of the same circuit or of an earlier
one) are usually included in the intermediate-frequency stage. The detector, often
called the second detector, the mixer being called the first detector, is usually simply a
diode acting as a rectifier, and produces an audio-frequency signal. FM waves are
demodulated or detected by circuits known as discriminators or radio-detectors that
translate the varying frequencies into varying signal amplitudes.

Immense developments in radio communication technology after World War II helped

make possible space exploration, most dramatically in the Apollo moon-landing

PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY BAYAMBANG CAMPUS Educational Technology 112

missions (1969-72). Sophisticated transmitting and receiving equipment was part of
the compact, very-high-frequency, communication system on board the command
modules and the lunar modules. The system performed voice and ranging functions
simultaneously, calculating the distance between the two vehicles by measuring the
time lapse between the transmission of tones and the reception of the returns. The
voice signals of the astronauts were also transmitted simultaneously around the world
by a communications network.

Now that you know how the radio works, let us discuss the other form of auditory
media, sound recording and how these materials are produced.

Studio Recording Session

A jazz artist listens to a playback with an
audio engineer. Sophisticated recording
equipment allows performers to
emphasize various aspects of their
music; for instance, a multi-track
recording allows performers to
accompany themselves.
Jack Jones/Photo Researchers, Inc.

Sound Recording and Reproduction Technology used to record, store, and play back
sounds. Sound recording and reproduction are two separate processes. Sound
recording uses microphones to pick up sound waves in the air. The pressure changes
associated with the waves are converted into electrical signals, which can be coded
and stored for future access. Sound reproduction, or playback, uses additional devices
to retrieve the stored information and convert it back into electrical signals. The signals
are then sent to a loudspeaker, which converts them back into sound.

To record sound, a microphone changes the acoustic energy of sound waves in the air
into electrical signals. Inside a microphone is a thin, flat, metallic surface, called a
diaphragm, that is suspended in a magnetic field. When a sound wave reaches the
microphone, the air pressure changes around the diaphragm, causing the diaphragm
to move. This movement within a magnetic field creates an electrical signal. The
signal is then moved through a ―signal chain‖ and finally transferred to a storage
medium, such as a computer hard disc, a multitrack tape, a compact disc (CD), or a
phonograph record.

PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY BAYAMBANG CAMPUS Educational Technology 113

The signal chain for recording has the signal move from the microphone through a
microphone preamplifier to a mixer that can combine the microphone signal with
others. It can also send the signal to one or more output channels for stereo playback,
and can alter the sound‘s quality by signal processing. The final signal is then
controlled for loudness level and sent to the storage medium. This signal chain has
the potential to greatly change the original live performance.

To reproduce sound, a playing device—such as a CD player, MP3 player, or

phonograph—accesses the stored data. The playing device reads the data and
converts the information back into electric energy. The electrical signal is sent to a
loudspeaker, which has a diaphragm housed in a magnetic field in much the same
way as a microphone‘s diaphragm is housed. The electrical signal creates a
disturbance in the magnetic field. These resultant variations in the magnetic field
cause the diaphragm to move. As the diaphragm moves, it pushes out and pulls in,
creating changes in air pressure to recreate the sound that was originally recorded.

Sound recording and reproduction form the foundation of many industries, including
entertainment, communications, and multimedia businesses. Recording and
reproduction of sound allow people to play their favorite music, whether it was
recorded yesterday or many years ago. Radio networks rely on sound recording and
reproduction for storing news and other types of programming. Television and motion
pictures combine images with music, speech, and sound effects to provide the viewer
with an enriched experience. Computer programs, multimedia software, and video
games also use sound to make programs more engaging.

SOUND RECORDING
Stereophonic Recording
In stereophonic sound recording, two or more microphones
record the sound on separate channels. The electronic signals
from each microphone are slightly different because the
microphones are in different positions relative to the sound
source. The electronic signals are then amplified and recorded
on various types of media, such as compact discs,
phonograph records, or cassette audio tape.
© Microsoft Corporation. All Rights Reserved.

Sound is stored in one of two basic ways, called formats. The earlier format, which is
still in use today, stores sound in a form that resembles the original sound wave and is
known as analog recording. This format is called analog because the form of the
sound wave, called the waveform, in the recording is analogous to the original
waveform. In other words, the recorded waveform is a copy of the original waveform.
A waveform has two qualities: frequency and amplitude. Frequency corresponds to
the number of times per second that the air pressure changes, and amplitude registers

PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY BAYAMBANG CAMPUS Educational Technology 114

the amount of each change. An analog signal varies in frequency and amplitude in
exactly the same way that the original waveform does.

The newer format for storing sound is digital recording, which represents a sound
wave as a series of numbers. The numbers are defined in the binary, or base-2,
numbering system, using only the numbers 0 and 1. These numbers can be
represented in many ways. Computer disk drives (including those found in MP3
players) use the position of magnetic particles to define binary numbers. Compact
discs use laser light reflected from smooth areas and interrupted by small pits on the
disc to indicate 0s and 1s. A number of digital formats exist, and they determine the
quality of the recorded sound, and the number of channels of sound playback.

The term format is also used to describe the number of channels, or streams of sound,
that are used to record and play back sound. Two of the most common formats are
monaural, or mono, and stereophonic, or stereo (see Stereophonic Sound). Early
recordings were made in mono, using a single channel to record and play back sound.
Broadcasts on AM radio are also in mono. Stereo recording, introduced in the 1960s,
uses two channels for sound. Stereo has long been the accepted format of the music
industry and for FM radio broadcast. ―Surround sound‖ became increasing popular
during the first years of the 2000s, as the motion picture industry settled on the 5.1
surround-sound format and the music industry recognized the need to align
themselves with the consumer systems being widely purchased for home theater use.
Surround sound is also used for some video games and high-definition (HD) television
broadcasts.

In stereo recording, each channel has a different form of the sound. The signals are
sent to separate loudspeakers during playback. When played, the sounds from these
two separate channels combine in the air and give the illusion of direction that the
human ear naturally perceives when hearing sound. A different percentage of each
sound might appear at each loudspeaker, giving each sound source its own location
between the two loudspeakers. The spatial qualities afforded by stereo recordings are
absent from monaural recordings.

Quadraphonic recordings, which were popular in the 1970s, use four channels. Each
channel is different, and each of four loudspeakers is placed in a separate corner of a
room. This approach expands on stereo and gives the listener a sense of sound
coming from all directions. Quadraphonic recording is the failed predecessor of
today‘s surround-sound systems, used with home theaters.

The 5.1 surround-sound playback format uses five primary loudspeakers surrounding
the listener‘s location. These five speakers are similar or the same in quality. Two
speakers are located front left and right just as in stereo playback, one speaker is
PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY BAYAMBANG CAMPUS Educational Technology 115
between those front two speakers, and two speakers are located behind the listener
left and right. The spacing and loudness balance of the five speakers must be
calibrated correctly to hear the sound as intended. A sixth speaker or subwoofer (the
―.1‖) handles the very low frequencies of all five channels. This extra speaker allows
the system to be less expensive since the other five speakers do not need to be
designed to reproduce the lowest frequency area. Mostly for logistical and musical
reasons, music recordings make little use of the subwoofer. However, the low
frequencies provided by the subwoofer are often very important for motion picture
soundtracks or video games, especially for reproducing sound effects.

A Analog Recording Systems

Analog recording is done in one of three ways, depending on the storage medium
used. Tape recording uses magnetic tape to store signals. Phonograph recording
mechanically engraves sound waves onto vinyl records. Optical recording, used for
motion-picture soundtracks, works by changing the intensity of light aimed at a
photoelectric cell.

A1 Tape Recording

In analog tape recording, electrical signals from a microphone are transformed into
magnetic signals. These signals are encoded onto a thin plastic ribbon of recording
tape. Recording tape is coated with tiny magnetic particles. Chromium dioxide and
ferric oxide are two magnetic materials commonly used. A chemical binder coats the
particles to the tape, and a back coating prevents the magnetic charge from traveling
from one layer of tape to the next.

Tape is wound onto reels, which can vary in diameter and size. Professional reel-to-
reel tape, which is 6.2 mm (0.25 in) wide, is wound on large metal or plastic reels.
Reel-to-reel tapes must be loaded onto a reel-to-reel tape recorder by hand. Cassette
tape is only 3.81 mm (0.15 in) wide and is completely self-enclosed for convenience.
Regardless of size, all magnetic tape is drawn from a supply reel on the left side of the
recorder to a take-up reel on the right. A drive shaft, called a capstan, rolls against a
pinch roller and pulls the tape along. Various guides and rollers are used to
mechanically regulate the speed and tension of the tape, since any variations in speed
or tension will affect sound quality.

As the tape is drawn from the supply reel to the take-up reel, it passes over a series of
three magnetic coils called heads. The erase head is activated only while recording. It
generates a current that places the tape's magnetic particles in a neutral position in

PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY BAYAMBANG CAMPUS Educational Technology 116

order to remove any previous sounds. The record head transforms the electrical signal
coming into the recorder into a magnetic flux and thus applies the original electrical
signal onto the tape. The sound wave is now physically present on the analog tape.
The playback head reads the magnetic field on the tape and converts this field back to
electric energy.

Unwanted noise, such as hiss, is a frequent problem with recording on tape. To

combat this problem, sound engineers developed noise reduction systems that help
reduce unwanted sounds. Many different systems exist, such as the Dolby System,
which is used to reduce hiss on musical recordings and motion-picture soundtracks.
Most noise occurs around the weakest sounds on a tape recording. Noise reduction
systems work by boosting weak signals during recording. When the tape is played, the
boosted signals are reduced to their normal levels. This reduction to normal levels
also minimizes any noise that might have been present.

Today cassette tapes have largely been eliminated from common use, replaced by
inexpensive compressed digital formats. Professional quality analog tape recording
has returned to use because of the unique sound qualities it can add to music
recordings, qualities that some artists, producers, and engineers have found attractive
and desirable.

A2 Phonograph Recording

The phonograph uses a different type of analog technology, in which the waveform
physically exists on the surface of a record. To make a phonograph recording,
electrical signals from a microphone are sent to a small cutting tool resting within a
magnetic field. The electrical signals influence the magnetic field and cause the cutting
tool to move accordingly. When a soft plastic material or a soft metal is passed
beneath the cutting tool, a groove is cut in the material. This groove reflects the
mechanical oscillations of the cutting tool and is a replica of the waveform of the
recorded sound. The groove begins at the outer edge of the record and spirals inward
toward the center.

A record is played by placing it on a turntable. A special needle, called a stylus, rides

in the groove of the record as it is spun underneath the needle at a regulated speed.
Long-playing records, or LPs, spin at 33 1/3 revolutions per minute, or rpm, whereas
smaller records, called singles, spin at 45 rpm. Part of the stylus rests in a magnetic
field. The grooves in the record cause the stylus to move within the magnetic field.
These movements are converted into electric energy and sent to loudspeakers.

Monaural and stereophonic records have different types of grooves. In mono records,
both the frequency and amplitude of the signal are stored as side movements in the
groove. Only one channel is present. In stereo records, two separate channels are
PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY BAYAMBANG CAMPUS Educational Technology 117
present in one groove. The side movements in the groove store the information for
one channel and the vertical movements in the groove store information for the other.
The grooves are angled to allow a phonograph with a mono stylus to follow the side
movements of a stereo record groove. Compatibility between mono and stereo
formats was important when stereo phonograph technology was introduced to a mono
market in the 1960s. This compatibility allowed listeners to keep their old mono
recordings and yet upgrade to the new stereo phonograph.

The phonograph continues to be important today. Once an early form of playback for
recordings, the phonograph has become a musical instrument. Mixing together short
passages from different phonograph recordings by manually moving turntables is
popular with DJs (disc jockeys) in dance clubs to create spontaneous rhythms or
musical effects. The phonograph itself can be used for making musical, rhythmic, and
percussive sounds, at times by scratching the stylus across the grooves and at other
times by dragging the record across the stylus.

A3 Optical Recording

Optical recording stores sound as a series of light and dark sections on a strip of film.
This technique was the first method used to put sound on motion-picture film, and it
remains common today. The soundtrack is printed photographically on the film near
the sprocket holes. It appears as a narrow strip of varying light and dark areas. As the
film is run through a projector, a beam of light is focused on the strip. On the other
side of the film, a photosensitive cell records the changes in light intensity as the film
moves and converts those changes into an electrical signal. The signal is then sent to
loudspeakers. Some movies use a magnetic soundtrack attached to the film, but this
process is expensive. The latest optical soundtracks store the sound signals digitally
or use the optical signals to synchronize a separate compact disc containing the
movie soundtrack. The move toward all-digital motion pictures that are not projected
from film may eventually make optical recording obsolete.

B Digital Recording Systems

Digital recording systems transform the changing values of sound waves into a series
of numbers. During playback, the numerical sequence is transformed back into electric
energy, which is sent to loudspeakers. Digital data can be stored on CDs, DVDs,
videotape, computer memory, computer hard drives, and any other computer-related
storage medium, such as a Data DVD or a memory stick.

Digital recording revolves around two concepts: sampling rate, which is the number of
times per second that a waveform is measured, or sampled, and quantization, which

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refers to the numerical size of each sample. Higher fidelity, or sound quality, results
with faster sampling rates and increased sizes of samples.

Digital recorders have an internal clock, which allows a recorder to function in evenly
spaced segments of time. At every tick of the clock, the device takes a ―snapshot‖ of
the waveform. The ―snapshot‖ is then defined as a binary number. This number
represents the sound's amplitude at that moment and is a single sample of the
waveform. The size of this number, delineated in bits for the number of 1s or 0s,
determines how close this amplitude is to the original. The more bits available, the
more accurate the value of the ―snapshot.‖ How a sample relates to the preceding and
following numbers (samples) ultimately determines the frequency and amplitude of the
waveform. The sampling rate is measured in kilohertz (kHz), or thousands of cycles
per second. At low sample rates, a digital reproduction will sound incomplete or
choppy. A sampling rate of 44,100 samples per second (44.1 kHz) is used for
commercial CDs, which are the most popular format for digital music. If the sampling
rate is lower than this, the human ear can begin to hear differences between digital
and analog sound.

Digital information is stored as a series of 0s and 1s, known as bits (short for binary
digits). The number of bits used to represent a digital sample is called the
quantization. With a high quantization, a greater range of amplitude values can be
represented. A common quantization value is 16 bits per sample, which is the
standard for commercial CDs. A 16-digit binary number can represent any of 65,536
different levels of sound, ensuring a high-quality sample. Digital recorders compile lists
of samples and store the binary number equivalents in order. To play a digital
recording, a computer within a playing device reads the numbers and creates an
electronic signal that corresponds to the value of each binary number. When the
signals are played in order, the original sound is reproduced. This process is called
digital to analog conversion.

B1 Compact Disc (CD) Recording

A CD is encoded with tiny pits that are arranged to represent the binary code of the
recorded material. A laser beam is used to read the binary code off of the reflective
surface of the disc. The light beam is either reflected back from the flat surface or
dispersed when the beam strikes a pit. A sensor records whether the light is reflected
or dispersed, and based on these changing values, the CD player reconstructs the
original binary code of the recorded sound. Commercial CDs have a sampling rate of
44.1 kHz and a 16-bit bit depth for quantization. These technical specifications for
recording CDs are called the ―Red Book Audio‖ standard and are set by the recording
industry.

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The digital audio format of a CD allows for more than one hour of stereo music (74
minutes). The diameter of a disc is 12.07 cm (4.75 in). The data are recorded from the
inside of the disc outwardly in a continuous spiral of tracks.

Recordable CDs allow the consumer to burn their own CDs using their computer‘s CD
burner or a stand-alone model. For a recordable CD (CD-R) to be playable on a
commercial CD player it must conform to the Red Book standard. This requires certain
table of contents, indexing, timing, and other information to be encoded along with the
music.

CDs can also be used to store digital audio files (music, voice, and other recordings)
in other formats, such as MP3 and AAC). These files may or may not be playable on a
certain CD player or on a computer, depending on the unit. Digital audio formats are
different in sample rate, bit-depth and other important ways that make them
incompatible. CDs can also be used as CD-ROMs for digital storage of photographs,
film and video footage, software, or any combination of these.

Digital Video Discs appeared in 1996. They have quickly been rethought to be ―digital
versatile discs‖ (DVDs) because of their many potential uses. They are a common
format for viewing movies and also popular as a format for large multimedia programs
for computers and many other uses. DVDs are the same size as CDs but have the
capacity to contain much more data. They have a number of levels of storage
capacity: for example, the single-layer DVD has a capacity of 4.7 billion bytes,
equivalent to seven CDs and the double-sided, dual-layered DVD has a potential to
hold 17 billion bytes, the same as 26 CD-ROM discs. For sound recording and
reproduction, the DVD has brought the potential of higher quality recordings and more
audio channels for surround sound.

C DVD-Audio, Super Audio Compact Disc, DualDisc, and Surround Sound

The DVD-Audio (DVD-A) disc, Super Audio Compact Disc (SACD), and DualDisc
formats allow surround-sound recordings to be contained on a disc the same size as
the CD. These channels can have improved sound quality from the CD, as ―high
resolution‖ sound with sampling rates up to 192 kHz and bit-depths of up to 24-bits are
possible. The three formats are not compatible, and each has its attractive qualities.
These discs often include content other than music: photos, music videos, lyrics,
interviews, links to websites, and additional material.

The DVD-A is formatted to be playable on any commercial DVD player. It can contain
86 minutes of 5.1 surround-sound music at 96 kHz/24-bits in single-layer, and 156
minutes in dual layer. In order to navigate many of its controls, the user must often
turn on a video monitor (television). As DVD players are now common in homes, this
format is intended for the consumer with a home theater system or a high interest in
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the quality of their music listening experience. The DVD-A is not compatible with CD
players, and some DVD-A discs will not play on some early DVD players. Therefore,
you would need to purchase a DVD-A and a CD of the same recording if you want to
use it in both ways.

SACDs are intended for the audiophile market, those that seek a very high quality
experience when listening to music recordings. It has exceptional sound quality with a
potential frequency response of 100 kHz and a loudest-to-softest sound dynamic
range of 120 dB, compared to the CD‘s 20 kHz frequency response and approximately
45 dB dynamic range. It is typically a hybrid disc that has two layers: one high-density
layer and one standard audio CD player that allows playback on standard CD players.
The high-density layer is used for surround sound in high resolution, in a proprietary
format called direct stream digital (DSD). This format encodes a digital signal into a 1-
bit format at 2.8 MHz sampling rate, resulting in the equivalent of 29-bits at 96 kHz.
DVD players must contain a DSD decoder in order to play an SACD. There are some
SACDs that only contain high-resolution two-channel recordings, and some that
contain only high-resolution surround sound recordings.

DualDisc has a similar principle as the hybrid SACD, in that each ―CD‖ provides
material that can be played back on a typical CD player and materials that can be
played back in high-resolution on a DVD-Audio player. The DualDisc is different in that
it has two sides. One side is Red Book CD format, 44.1 kHz/16-bit and is the same as
the standard release of the CD. The other side has a host of possibilities, along with
high-resolution 5.1 surround sound mixes of the other side; it can also contain photos,
videos, behind-the-scenes footage, and other content. The DualDisc is slightly thicker
than a standard CD or DVD. This difference can create problems for individual
players, and especially for computer drives.

D Mini Disc (MD) Recording and Digital Audio Tape (DAT)

A Mini Disc (MD) is a small CD that measures only 6.4 cm (2.5 in) in diameter.
Because of their small size, MDs, which can store as much information as CDs, have
slightly lower sound quality than that of CDs. The major feature of the MD is that it
allows the consumer to record music. MD technology uses two types of media for
storage and recording: prerecorded and blank MDs. A prerecorded MD stores digital
information as a series of tiny pits and smooth surfaces, just as a CD does. CDs and
prerecorded MDs cannot be changed or erased.

A blank MD is recordable. It uses what is called magneto-optical technology to record

and play music. Instead of pits and smooth surfaces, a blank MD uses tiny magnetic
particles embedded within the shiny surface of the MD to store the digital code. To
record digital data on an MD, a laser heats very small spots on the surface of the MD
for a fraction of a second. An electromagnetic recording head applies a magnetic
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charge, aligning the particles in either a north or south direction, corresponding to the
0s and 1s of the digital data. On playback, a laser beam set at a lower temperature is
aimed at the MD. The shiny surface of the MD reflects the laser light into a sensor.
The differently aligned magnetic particles reflect the laser light in different ways, and
the sensor converts the changes into a digital code. A computer uses the digital code
to reconstruct the sound that was originally recorded.

DAT recorders (also called R-DAT) were once a staple in the recording industry. In
this format, audio signals are recorded and played back using a special rotating head,
which records information in diagonal tracks on the tape. Each track of data is
recorded as the tape runs past the angled head drum, which spins rapidly at 2,000
rpm. The spinning head records digital information more efficiently than would a
stationary head. In order for a stationary head to record the enormous amounts of
digital data needed to reproduce sound, the tape would have to move by the head
very quickly. The spinning head permits a slower tape speed, so that more information
can be stored on a cassette. A cassette tape measuring 3.81 mm (0.15 in) wide was
developed for this format. The DAT format can record sounds using sampling rates
that are higher than the rate used for commercial CDs, producing improved sound
quality. For this reason, DAT was once popular for professional and high-quality
amateur recording. While still in use, it has largely been replaced by digital audio
workstations.

E Digital Audio Workstations and Home Computers

A digital audio workstation (DAW) is a recording system built around a computer, often
a home PC or desktop computer. A software program handles many of the functions
of the recording process, especially combining sounds, shaping their sound qualities
through signal processing, routing sounds to output channels, and controlling levels.
Even editing recordings and combining the recording with others are accomplished in
the DAW‘s software. The sound is recorded as digital audio on the computer‘s hard
disc, or on an external hard disc. The sound rarely, if at all, leaves the digital format
except for listening purposes. The format of the digital audio is typically CD-quality
(16-bit, 44.1 kHz) but can be higher depending on the quality of sound desired
balanced against computing power and computer hard disc and memory available.

The DAW interfaces with the remainder of the recording process with an audio
interface. This often-small unit contains a few very important components: analog-to-
digital and digital-to-analog converters, microphone preamplifiers, and volume
controls. It collects, transfers, and routes a potentially wide variety of signals including
microphone and line-level analog audio signals, MIDI (musical instrument digital
interface) data, FireWire, USB, and S/PDIF.

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Hard drives are used to store audio for a very high percentage of commercial
recordings. This requires a DAW of one sort or another, and significant hard disc
space. Computer hard discs have largely replaced traditional analog tape recorders,
except for those users who are attached to the sound qualities and working
characteristics of analog tape.

Digital audio workstations can be very sophisticated and expensive, but they also exist
at many levels of cost, flexibility and sound quality. Less expensive DAWs have made
it possible for recordings to be made in the home by users with very little training.
While these recordings may have shortcomings when compared with those form
world-class recording studios, they can be quite acceptable when made by careful
hands.

Home computers can also be used for storing, recording and sharing digital
recordings. The software involved is directly related to the professional-level DAW but
has scaled-down components. Once on a home computer a recording can be modified
as wanted, and shared with others by burning to CD or DVD. Free on-line downloads
and commercial software are available for compressing such music files so they take
less hard disc space and can be sent over the Internet in less time.

F MP3 and Other Compressed Audio

Commercial quality CD recordings take up much more hard disc space than
compressed audio files. Compressing makes the sound files smaller, so more songs
will fit on an MP3 player or on any hard drive or digital memory space such as a cell
phone. The smaller files also take less time to send and receive over the Internet,
allowing file sharing to be much easier. For example, a four-minute song of CD quality
will have a file size of 42 MB, while the same song encoded to a 128-Kbps MP3
(MPEG-1 Audio Layer 3) file would be reduced to just 3.84 MB. This version is less
than one-tenth the size of the original.

Compressed audio files are often called MP3 files. MP3 is, however, a very specific
format that is but one of many. An iPod can play MP3 and ACC format compressed
files, as well as others. These files have their own specific format from which they are
decoded, and some in the ways they are encoded and stored. They also vary in sound
quality and in the amount of compression they create.

The compression of files into MP3 format involves the sound being first encoded
(compressing the data) to create a bit stream of data that can be stored. The result is
a compressed file in the MP3 format. This bit stream is then decoded (decompressing
the data) at which point it can be converted to an electrical current and sent to ear
buds to be heard.

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There is no precise specification for the MP3 encoder, allowing for new developments
that use the decoders present in existing iPods and MP3 players. This distinction
between encoders and decoders also means that not all MP3 recordings have the
same quality, because of differences between the encoders on which they were made.
Encoders contain software that reduces data in various ways and the software makes
them better suited to certain functions than others. Some encoders also reduce file
sizes more than others. MP3 encoding is a ―loss‖ process, meaning some information
of the original sound is ―lost‖ or purposefully discarded.

MP3 uses both lossy and lossless compression techniques to reduce files sizes. The
encoder will first discard portions sound that difficult for most humans to perceive,
making what is hoped to be an ―acceptable‖ reduction in sound quality. Then it
identifies redundancies or repeating information in the bitstream for further
compression. It is the first part of the process that makes the biggest difference
between encoders and the quality of the MP3 files they create. The encoder will
analyze the incoming signal, reduce it to set mathematical patterns, and compare
those patterns to psychoacoustic models that are stored in the encoder. These
psychoacoustic models are complex algorithms (mathematical steps) that reduce
human hearing perception to a computer program. This program will reduce the
amount of data in the sound file while changing the actual sound as little as possible.

AAC represents an improvement over MP3 in signal integrity and sound quality. It has
a scalable sampling rate (SSR) that divides the signal into four frequency bands and
encodes each band as a separate bitstream. Like the MP3 it is a ―lossy‖ format,
meaning that some information of the original file is eliminated. Many people predict
this format will replace the MP3 file format. Its potential to handle up to 48 audio
channels and to support mono, stereo and 5.1 channel audio holds great promise for
future development of high-quality audio over the internet and audio in compressed
formats.

Commercial CDs can be ripped (or copied) onto the hard disc of a computer using
simple software often bundled with the computer‘s operating system, or using an
encoder from another source. The users will have an opportunity to compress the file
during this process. Many variables or a few may be present depending on the
software. File format, bitrate, sample rate, modeling algorithms, speed of transfer,
dynamics control, and other factors might need to be determined. All of these have the
potential to alter the sound of the recording.

The Recording Studio

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Mixing a Recording
While musicians perform into a microphone, a recording engineer sits at a mixing board, where individual tracks of
the performance are combined and edited into a single recording. The many switches on a mixer control different
portions of a recording, such as drums, bass, piano, and vocals. Different selections can be added, subtracted, or
changed by the engineer.
Courtesy of Brian Konzelman, Back at the Ranch Recording Studio, [Link]

A recording is made in a recording studio. Studios range from transformed garages or

basements to multimillion-dollar facilities with state-of-the-art equipment. Professional
recording studios contain two types of rooms: performance spaces and control rooms.

Performance spaces must be acoustically isolated from the rest of the world so that
external sounds are not recorded. Many studios also have small booths where
individual performers can be separated from one another. Some home studios have
no formal performance spaces but have one space that serves both as a control room
and as a performance space. MIDI (musical instrument digital interface) studios have
no need for performance spaces, as all sounds are electronically generated. It is the
size and quality of these performance spaces that has become one of the primary
differences between high-quality studios and recordings and low-end studios, which
often produce recordings that seem to be missing that little ―something.‖

The control room contains the mixing console and recording equipment. It is usually
located next to the performance space. A window between the two spaces allows eye
contact between the engineer and the performers. The mixing console is traditionally
the central component where all of the recording devices are interconnected.
Depending on the complexity of the recording, these devices might include
microphones, signal processors (devices that electronically alter sounds), multitrack
recorders, computers, and synchronization devices. Today studios can have a
computer monitor as the central fixture, with the computer containing the DAW and the
audio interface (AI) being the dominant piece of equipment visible. Sizes and styles of
control rooms and their equipment have come to vary widely in type, quality and
expense.

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III SOUND REPRODUCTION

Stereo System
Modern sound systems include a wide variety of options, including compact-disc (CD) players, clocks, AM/FM
radios, traditional record turntables, tape decks, three-way speakers, digital display, and an assortment of adjusters
and equalizers to regulate the sound to personal taste. This wood-grain RCA stereo features a 5-disc CD system,
3-way speakers, and a remote controller.
Thomson Consumer Electronics, Inc.

Sound reproduction systems for home listening combine many different formats and
technologies. Compressed audio files (such as MP3 and AAC), compact discs (CDs),
records, and tapes are the most common formats for prerecorded sound. Players for
each of these formats vary in size, quality, and price. Portable systems often combine
different playback devices for maximum convenience, whereas traditional home
systems generally connect separate components together. Portable systems such as
the iPod nano can be as small as the size of a package of chewing gum. This gives
the home listener more choice and flexibility when choosing or upgrading components.

Playback Devices

Different types of media, such as CDs, DVDs, records, and tapes, require different
devices to recall and play recorded sounds. Home theater systems are used with
television sets to simulate the experience of watching a movie in a theater.

B1 CD Player

The CD player uses a laser to retrieve the digital information from a CD and then
converts the data into an electrical signal. CD players differ in features and capacity.
Some players can hold five or more CDs at once. CDs are more durable than vinyl
records or tapes, but care must still be taken with CDs. Scratches on a CD can affect
the ability of the laser to accurately read the digital code. Some CD players use
sophisticated circuitry to calculate what the missing information might be.

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C DVD Players and Home Theater Systems ecB Title Placeholder

DVD players are used for playing more than movies. DVD players can also provide
multichannel, 5.1 surround sound for music. DVD-Audio, Super Audio CDs and Dual
Disks are played on DVD players that have the correct decoders. These formats
provide superior listening experiences when the playback system is calibrated
correctly.

Home theater is the combination of high-quality 5.1 surround sound and video
reproduction in the home. It seeks to recreate the experience of multichannel cinema
sound in the home, and superior visuals. A home theater can be as simple as a sound
system connected to a television or as complex as a video projection system and an
elaborate sound system in a dedicated room. The home theater sound system is
comprised of a six-channel integrated amplifier, DVD player and five matched
loudspeakers and a complementary subwoofer.

C1 Cassette Tape Decks and Other Analog Tape

Audiocassette decks are smaller, consumer versions of professional reel-to-reel tape

recorders. Cassettes, which are smaller and more convenient to use than reels of
tape, can also be flipped over for playing on the reverse side. This ―reverse side‖ is
actually different segments of the tape: the tape is divided into four narrow segments,
with two segments played in one direction against the playback head. When the tape
is flipped, the remaining two segments play against the tape head.

Many cassette decks are capable of recording on standard tape, chromium dioxide
tape, and other tape formulations, such as pure metal tape. The machine must be
switched for the correct type of tape, as the recorder must internally change its
processing of the signal accordingly. Metal tape provides the best overall performance
but must be recorded on machines specifically designed for it. Noise reduction
systems are nearly always used for cassette recordings and are applicable to all tape
types.

Cassette tapes have largely been eliminated from the commercial sales of music, and
are only a small fraction of the ―books-on-tape‖ sales. For home use they have largely
been replaced by recording to computer systems of some sort, whether an MP3-
related player, cell phone, or computer hard disc. Recordable CDs and DVDs are
more conveniently used to store or share these digital formats. In fact, many
automobiles no longer have cassette recorders, but instead have an input where the

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consumer can connect their iPod or MP3 player. While shrinking in the amount they
are used in the United States, cassettes remain very common in other countries.

Other analog tape systems have come and gone, such as eight-track tapes and
consumer reel-to-reel formats. In the late 1960s and early 1970s eight-track tapes
were common in automobile sound systems. Eight-track cartridges allowed the
listener to select and hear specific songs throughout the tape, but the tapes could not
be used for recording. The more popular recordable audiocassette drove the format
out of contention. Home reel-to-reel tape players could record as well as play
commercial music tapes, but the machines were expensive and bulky. The consumer
reel-to-reel format also fell out of favor after the introduction of the audiocassette.

Professional quality analog tape recording has stayed in use because of the unique
sound qualities. It can add qualities to music recordings that some artists, producers,
and engineers have found attractive and desirable. For some it has returned to be
their format of choice.

C2 Turntable

Phonograph
The most prominent feature of the early
phonographs was the horn, or bell, a megaphone-
shaped extension used to focus and amplify the
sound. Phonograph recordings were initially made on
tinfoil wrapped around the recording drum. However,
the foil only held a few minutes of sound and wore
out quickly. It was replaced with the more durable
wax cylinder. This model was designed by Thomas
Edison in 1905. It features the “new” wax cylinder as
well as a sapphire stylus.
Dorling Kindersley

Turntable is the common name for a phonograph. A turntable uses a stylus, or needle,
within a magnetic housing called a cartridge to read the grooves on vinyl records and
reproduce sounds. A widely used medium for many years, records remain available
and are still preferred by some consumers. The sound qualities of the analog grooves
and magnetic cartridge are preferred to the CD sound by many audio enthusiasts, or
audiophiles. Very high quality records continue to be made for this market, and
audiophiles commonly own high-end phonographs.

C3 Portable Stereo Systems

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 Personal Stereo System
Personal stereos and miniature
headphones allow listeners to enjoy
recordings almost anywhere. Personal
stereos are lightweight and inexpensive,
but still deliver impressive sound quality.
This system plays AM/FM radio and
prerecorded cassette tapes; other
portable systems can play compact discs.
Davies + Starr Inc./Liaison Agency

Portable or personal stereo systems are small versions of home systems. They allow
people to listen to recordings while traveling. Portable CD players run on batteries and
use headphones for listening. Larger portable stereos equipped with loudspeakers can
provide sound for rooms or outdoor areas.

D MP3 Players

iPod Digital Media Players

Three models of Apple's popular iPod
MP3 and digital media players, from left
to right: iPod shuffle, iPod nano, and
iPod with video. The special-edition red
iPod nano was issued as part of a
campaign to raise funds to fight AIDS in
Africa.
Paul Sakuma/AP/Wide World Photos

Microsoft ® Encarta ® 2008. © 1993-2007 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.

The iPod MP3 player has become the most common consumer playback device. It is
portable, able to store a person‘s entire music library, easily hidden for security, and
versatile. When not needed for music listening, it can be used to hold photos to free
up a digital camera until the user can transfer the photos to a computer. It can also
hold any computer data.

The main similarity among iPod, Zune, and other MP3 players is the ability to play
compressed audio files. The devices are usually listened to with headphones or ear
buds. The sound quality is remarkable given the size of the units, the audio files, and
the ear buds, although noticeably inferior to the CD played over a quality playback
system.

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E Home Computer and Entertainment Systems

Home audio and video can be played from the home computer. The content can be
stored on the computer‘s hard disc storage or come from a DVD or CD read from the
internal drive. The home computer can then deliver content to the home sound system
or the home theater system. Sound can even distributed throughout the house by
wireless systems to remote loudspeakers.

The home computer can handle compressed files (downloaded from the Internet or
compressed from ripped CDs) as well as full bandwidth files. These files may be
stored on hard disc in a library, in iTunes, or in some other manner. From this library
files can be played by the computer, transferred to an MP3 player, transmitted over
the Internet, used in podcasts, or incorporated into the next family movie or DVD.

INVENTIONS IN THE 19TH CENTURY

Sound recording and reproduction began in the late 19th century, as several key
inventions brought us the technology to change energy from one state to another. In
1876 American inventor Alexander Graham Bell patented the telephone, which
incorporated many of the principles used in recording today. This single device
required sound to be transferred into a different type of energy (by a microphone-type
element), required energy to be transported to another location, and then required a
loudspeaker-like device to transfer that energy back into sound.

The next year American inventor Thomas Alva Edison patented the phonograph,
creating recording technology. His cylindrical phonograph recorded sounds by
converting vibrations of air into a groove engraved on a foil-covered rotating cylinder.
Future models used special wax as a recording surface. German-born American
inventor Emile Berliner improved the phonograph with his invention of flat-disk
recording in 1887. Modern records are based on his design. In 1898 Danish inventor
Valdemar Poulsen patented the first device to record sound magnetically.

VI ELECTRONIC RECORDINGS

The refinement of the vacuum tube in the early 1900s made possible the conversion
of sound into electrical impulses and the amplification of these signals. In 1928 coated
magnetic tape was first developed in Germany. German inventors made refinements

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to magnetic tape throughout the 1930s and 1940s and developed an early tape
recorder called the Magnetophon. The technology was brought to the United States
after World War II (1939-1945), and in 1946 the Ampex Corporation began work on its
first tape recorder. In 1947 and 1948 American entertainer Bing Crosby used a
Magnetophon to record 26 radio shows for delayed broadcast over the ABC radio
network.

Other important events and developments occurred in the 1940s. In 1940 Walt Disney
Studios released the animated movie Fantasia. This film used a new sound process
called Fantasound, in which three speakers were placed across the front of the stage
and two at the rear corners of the auditorium. The film won a special Academy Award
for its creative use of sound. In 1949 the American musical duo Les Paul and Mary
Ford devised the recording technique of overdubbing, in which one person performs
many parts in a recording.

The 1960s brought another surge of development, beginning with FM stereo

broadcasts in 1960. The development of three- and four-track tape recorders and one-
inch recording tape began in the early 1960s. By 1967 high-quality four-track
recording was possible. This new technology spurred artistic growth in popular music
with albums such as The Beatles‘ Sgt. Pepper’s Lonely Hearts Club Band, and
emphasized the recording and processing of music as much as the music itself.

THE INTERNET AND MUSIC PIRACY

Commercially recorded music has been available online since the mid-1990s, when
the MP3 format made file-sharing feasible over the Internet. MP3 files can be easily
copied and transferred from one user to another. However, illegal downloading and
sharing of such files have led to copyright infringement and intellectual property
lawsuits. Among the most publicized was that of A&M Records v. Napster (2000-
2001), which resulted in the Internet company Napster being fined and forced to shut
down in its original form. Napster provided software and a website that allowed users
to post MP3 files of music that other users could download. The company was sued
for facilitating Napster users in the illegal copying and distribution of copyrighted
property, referred to as ―music piracy.‖

Major court cases up though the Supreme Court have addressed the issue of ―fair
use‖ and copyright infringement, and the U.S. Congress has passed laws such as the
Audio Home Recording Act (AHRA) of 1992 and the Digital Millennium Copyright Act
(DMCA) of 1998 that place restrictions on the copying and distribution of intellectual
property in digital formats—including recorded music. Current copyright law allows a
consumer to make a copy of a commercial CD for personal use, including encoding as
MP3 files for use in their own MP3 player, but it is not legal for the person who the

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purchased a CD to give or sell a copy of a copyrighted song or any other CD content
to another person.

The legal controversies over file-sharing on the Internet have made record labels
hesitant to sell music as data files—whether MP3 or another format—over the
Internet. In 2003 Apple Inc. established the online iTunes Store to allow owners of its
iPod players to download music files legally. However, over 70 percent of commercial
music recordings are distributed globally by four major companies: Universal, Sony
BMG, Warner, and EMI. These companies would only allow Apple to license the rights
to distribute their music legally over the Internet if Apple would guarantee to protect
their music from being illegally copied.

Apple‘s solution was to envelop each song purchased from the iTunes store with a
secret software element so it cannot be played on unauthorized devices. This is a
―digital rights management‖ system (DRM). Apple has an agreement that should the
DRM system (that Apple calls ―FairPlay‖) be compromised so people can make
unauthorized copies, Apple will have to fix the problem within a few weeks. Users who
purchase songs from iTunes Store can play their DRM-protected music on up to five
computers and on an unlimited number of iPods. CDs do not contain this DRM, and
they can be freely encoded into AAC or MP3 formats in a series of steps, then
transferred to an iPod.

Other companies have set up online stores to sell protected music files for their own
MP3 players, computers, and other devices. However, the files have different digital
rights management (DRM) systems that make them incompatible with devices
manufactured by other brands. The software designed to protect the music from theft
restricts how the files can be transferred from one device (or person) to the next. As a
result, the music purchased on Microsoft‘s Zune store will only play on Zune players,
music purchased from Apple‘s iTunes store will only play on iPods, and music
purchased from Sony‘s Connect store will only play on their players.

IX FUTURE OF THE RECORDED MUSIC INDUSTRY

In addition to being a means of sharing or downloading music files, the Internet has
become a venue to provide all kinds of performances or broadcasts in audio and video
form. Users of the World Wide Web can listen to or view personal podcasts, online
video postings, personal websites, online radio, online television and motion pictures,
archived music and video performances, and other kinds of Webcasts. Different types
of royalties are paid to performing artists, composers, publishers, and record labels
when songs or recordings are broadcast on television and on the radio, when songs or
recordings are used to accompany motion pictures and television programs, and when
songs or recordings are performed on stage. There is currently no clear agreement

PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY BAYAMBANG CAMPUS Educational Technology 132

about how to pay royalties on copyrighted music or performances listened to or
viewed over the Internet.

Music consumers have changed their listening and buying habits because of the
Internet and other digital technology. Some people have also accepted the ready
availability of ―pirated‖ music recordings. As a result, the commercially recorded music
industry has seen significant drops in profit. The downturn has affected both record
labels that produce and distribute commercial music and the retailers who sell
recorded music in the form of CDs. It has also become more difficult for young artists
to break onto the music scene, for young people to enter the recording industry, and
for people to make a living making music. Ultimately pirated music limits the health of
the industry, and the opportunities it provides for careers. The people who create,
produce, and distribute music deserve to be compensated, to recoup their
investments, and to make a living from their efforts.

(Adopted from an article by William D. Moylan published by Microsoft ® Encarta ® 2008. © 1993-2007 Microsoft
Corporation. All rights reserved.)

Activity 9

“Audio Recording”

Direction: Divide the class into groups with 5-8 members each depending on your
class size. Each group will prepare an audio recording of their own choice. The
material should have educational value and can be used for instructional purposes.
Each group will prepare the following:

 An audio recording (digital or analog) that can be used to present or develop a

particular topic/lesson.
 The mechanics/procedure in the production of the material.
 The rubrics in the evaluation of the material produced.

Each group will showcase the recorded auditory material and present to the
class how to effectively utilize it given a particular lesson. The class will rate the
material based on the rubrics prepared by the group.

Exercise 8 “Auditory Media”

PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY BAYAMBANG CAMPUS Educational Technology 133

PART 1
Direction: Complete the missing components of the following table.

TYPE OF RECORDING Recording Device Decoding Device Audio Player

1. Magnetic Tape
2. Mechanical means
3. CD Player
4. Computer software

PART 2

Direction: Illustrate how a RADIO works, you can use drawing to show the
components of the system and label it for better understanding.

MODULE 9

Educational TV and Motion Pictures

Television has a variety of applications in society, business, and science. The
most common use of television is as a source of information and entertainment for
viewers in their homes. Security personnel also use televisions to monitor buildings,
manufacturing plants, and numerous public facilities. Public utility employees use
television to monitor the condition of an underground sewer line, using a camera
attached to a robot arm or remote-control vehicle. Doctors can probe the interior of a
human body with a microscopic television camera without having to conduct major
surgery on the patient. Educators use television to reach students throughout the
world.
This module will help you understand the nature of television and motion
pictures and how teachers can benefit from this popular technology.

Your Goal:

At the end of this module, you are expected to:

PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY BAYAMBANG CAMPUS Educational Technology 134
1. be able to present the nature and meaning of educational television
and
2. discuss how the television works and how it can be used in the
 Let us now define Television. It is a system of sending and receiving pictures
and sound by means of electronic signals transmitted through wires and optical fibers
or by electromagnetic radiation. These signals are usually broadcast from a central
source, a television station, to reception devices such as television sets in homes or
relay stations such as those used by cable television service providers. Television is
the most widespread form of communication in the world. Though most people will
never meet the leader of a country, travel to the moon, or participate in a war, they can
observe these experiences through the images on their television.

How Television Works?

A television program is created by focusing a television camera on a scene.

The camera changes light from the scene into an electric signal, called the video
signal, which varies depending on the strength, or brightness, of light received from
each part of the scene. In color television, the camera produces an electric signal that
varies depending on the strength of each color of light.

Three or four cameras are typically used to produce a television program (see
Television Production). The video signals from the cameras are processed in a control
room, then combined with video signals from other cameras and sources, such as
videotape recorders, to provide the variety of images and special effects seen during a
television program.

Audio signals from microphones placed in or near the scene also flow to the
control room, where they are amplified and combined. Except in the case of live
broadcasts (such as news and sports programs) the video and audio signals are
recorded on tape and edited, assembled with the use of computers into the final
program, and broadcast later. In a typical television station, the signals from live and
recorded features, including commercials, are put together in a master control room to
provide the station's continuous broadcast schedule. Throughout the broadcast day,
computers start and stop videotape machines and other program sources, and switch
the various audio and visual signals. The signals are then sent to the transmitter.
PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY BAYAMBANG CAMPUS Educational Technology 135
 The transmitter amplifies the video and audio signals, and uses the electronic
signals to modulate, or vary, carrier waves (oscillating electric currents that carry
information). The carrier waves are combined (diplexed), then sent to the transmitting
antenna, usually placed on the tallest available structure in a given broadcast area. In
the antenna, the oscillations of the carrier waves generate electromagnetic waves of
energy that radiate horizontally throughout the atmosphere. The waves excite weak
electric currents in all television-receiving antennas within range. These currents have
the characteristics of the original picture and sound currents. The currents flow from
the antenna attached to the television into the television receiver, where they are
electronically separated into audio and video signals. These signals are amplified and
sent to the picture tube and the speakers, where they produce the picture and sound
portions of the program.

The Television Camera

The television camera is the first tool used to produce a television program.
Most cameras have three basic elements: an optical system for capturing an image, a
pickup device for translating the image into electronic signals, and an encoder for
encoding signals so they may be transmitted.

Transmission of television signals

The audio and video signals of a television program are broadcast through the
air by a transmitter. The transmitter superimposes the information in the camera's
electronic signals onto carrier waves. The transmitter amplifies the carrier waves,
making them much stronger, and sends them to a transmitting antenna. This
transmitting antenna radiates the carrier waves in all directions, and the waves travel
through the air to antennas connected to television sets or relay stations.

The Transmitter

The transmitter superimposes the information from the electronic television

signal onto carrier waves by modulating (varying) either the wave's amplitude, which
corresponds to the wave's strength, or the wave's frequency, which corresponds to the
number of times the wave oscillates each second. The amplitude of one carrier wave
is modulated to carry the video signal (amplitude modulation, or AM) and the
frequency of another wave is modulated to carry the audio signal (frequency
modulation, or FM). These waves are combined to produce a carrier wave that
contains both the video and audio information. The transmitter first generates and
modulates the wave at a low power of several watts. After modulation, the transmitter
amplifies the carrier signal to the desired power level, sometimes many kilowatts

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(1,000 watts), depending on how far the signal needs to travel, and then sends the
carrier wave to the transmitting antenna.

The frequency of carrier waves is measured in hertz (Hz), which is equal to the
number of wave peaks that pass by a point every second. The frequency of the
modulated carrier wave varies, covering a range, or band, of about 4 million hertz, or 4
megahertz (4 MHz). This band is much wider than the band needed for radio
broadcasting, which is about 10,000 Hz, or 10 kilohertz (10 kHz). Television stations
that broadcast in the same area send out carrier waves on different bands of
frequencies, each called a channel, so that the signals from different stations do not
mix. To accommodate all the channels, which are spaced at least 6 MHz apart,
television carrier frequencies are very high. Six MHz does not represent a significant
chunk of bandwidth if the television stations broadcast between 50 and 800 MHz

The high-frequency waves radiated by transmitting antennas can travel only in

a straight line, and may be blocked by obstacles in between the transmitting and
receiving antennas. For this reason, transmitting antennas must be placed on tall
buildings or towers. In practice, these transmitters have a range of about 120 km (75
mi). In addition to being blocked, some television signals may reflect off buildings or
hills and reach a receiving antenna a little later than the signals that travel directly to
the antenna. The result is a ghost, or second image, that appears on the television
screen. Television signals may, however, be sent clearly from almost any point on
earth to any other—and from spacecraft to earth—by means of cables, microwave
relay stations, and communications satellites.

Cable Transmission

Cable television was first developed in the late 1940s to serve shadow areas—
that is, areas that are blocked from receiving signals from a station's transmitting
antenna. In these areas, a community antenna receives the signal, and the signal is
then redistributed to the shadow areas by coaxial cable (a large cable with a wire core
that can transmit the wide band of frequencies required for television) or, more
recently, by fiber-optic cable. Viewers in most areas can now subscribe to a cable
television service, which provides a wide variety of television programs and films
adapted for television that are transmitted by cable directly to the viewer's television
set. Digital data-compression techniques, which convert television signals to digital
code in an efficient way, have increased cable's capacity to 500 or more channels.

Microwave Relay Transmission

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 Microwave relay stations are tall towers that receive television signals, amplify
them, and retransmit them as a microwave signal to the next relay station. Microwaves
are electromagnetic waves that are much shorter than normal television carrier waves
and can travel farther. The stations are placed about 50 km (30 mi) apart. Television
networks once relied on relay stations to broadcast to affiliate stations located in cities
far from the original source of the broadcast. The affiliate stations received the
microwave transmission and rebroadcast it as a normal television signal to the local
area. This system has now been replaced almost entirely by satellite transmission in
which networks send or uplink their program signals to a satellite that in turn downlinks
the signals to affiliate stations.

Satellite Transmission

Communications satellites receive television signals from a ground station,

amplify them, and relay them back to the earth over an antenna that covers a
specified terrestrial area. The satellites circle the earth in a geosynchronous orbit,
which means they stay above the same place on the earth at all times. Instead of a
normal aerial antenna, receiving dishes are used to receive the signal and deliver it to
the television set or station. The dishes can be fairly small for home use, or large and
powerful, such as those used by cable and network television stations.

Satellite transmissions are used to efficiently distribute television and radio

programs from one geographic location to another by networks; cable companies;
individual broadcasters; program providers; and industrial, educational, and other
organizations. Programs intended for specific subscribers are scrambled so that only
the intended recipients, with appropriate decoders, can receive the program.

Television Tower

Television antennas are built on tall towers so that

high-frequency signals (which only travel in a straight
line) can reach viewers without being blocked by
nearby hills or buildings. Small dishes on this tower
send and receive microwave signals from other
stations or from reporters broadcasting live from
nearby locations.
Mark Joseph/Tony Stone Images

Microsoft ® Encarta ® 2008. © 1993-2007

Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.

PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY BAYAMBANG CAMPUS Educational Technology 138

 Direct-broadcast satellites (DBS) are used worldwide to deliver TV
programming directly to TV receivers through small home dishes. The Federal
Communications Commission (FCC) licensed several firms in the 1980s to begin DBS
service in the United States. The actual launch of DBS satellites, however, was
delayed due to the economic factors involved in developing a digital video
compression system. The arrival in the early 1990s of digital compression made it
possible for a single DBS satellite to carry more than 200 TV channels. DBS systems
in North America are operating in the Ku band (12.0-19.0 GHz). DBS home systems
consist of the receiving dish antenna and a low-noise amplifier that boosts the antenna
signal level and feeds it to a coaxial cable. A receiving box converts the super high
frequency (SHF) signals to lower frequencies and puts them on channels that the
home TV set can display.

The Television Receiver

The television receiver translates the pulses of electric current from the antenna
or cable back into images and sound. A traditional television set integrates the
receiver, audio system, and picture tube into one device. However, some cable TV
systems use a separate component such as a set-top box as a receiver. A high-
definition television (HDTV) set integrates the receiver directly into the set like a
traditional TV. However, some televisions receive high-definition signals and display
them on a monitor. In these instances, an external receiver is required.

Tuner

The tuner blocks all signals other than that of the desired channel. Blocking is
done by the radio frequency (RF) amplifier. The RF amplifier is set to amplify a
frequency band, 6 MHz wide, transmitted by a television station; all other frequencies
are blocked. A channel selector connected to the amplifier determines the particular
frequency band that is amplified. When a new channel is selected, the amplifier is
reset accordingly. In this way, the band, or channel, picked out by the home receiver is
changed. Once the viewer selects a channel, the incoming signal is amplified, and the
video, audio, and scanning signals are separated from the higher-frequency carrier
waves by a process called demodulation. The tuner amplifies the weak signal
intercepted by the antenna and partially demodulates (decodes) it by converting the
carrier frequency to a lower frequency—the intermediate frequency. Intermediate-
frequency amplifiers further increase the strength of the signals received from the
antenna. After the incoming signals have been amplified, audio, scanning, and video
signals are separated.

Audio Systems

PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY BAYAMBANG CAMPUS Educational Technology 139

 The audio system consists of a discriminator, which translates the audio portion
of the carrier wave back into an electronic audio signal; an amplifier; and a speaker.
The amplifier strengthens the audio signal from the discriminator and sends it to the
speaker, which converts the electrical waves into sound waves that travel through the
air to the listener.

The Picture Tube

The television picture tube receives video signals from the tuner and translates
the signals back into images. The images are created by an electron gun in the back
of the picture tube, which shoots a beam of electrons toward the back of the television
screen. A black-and-white picture tube contains just one electron gun, while a color
picture tube contains three electron guns, one for each of the primary colors of light
(red, green, and blue). Part of the video signal goes to a magnetic coil that directs the
beam and makes it scan the screen in the same manner as the camera originally
scanned the scene. The rest of the signal directs the strength of the electron beam as
it strikes the screen. The screen is coated with phosphor, a substance that glows
when it is struck by electrons. The stronger the electron beam, the stronger the glow
and the brighter that section of the scene appear.

In color television, a portion of the video signal is used to separate out the three
color signals, which are then sent to their corresponding electron beams. The screen
is coated by tiny phosphor strips or dots that are arranged in groups of three: one strip
or dot that emits blue, one that emits green, and one that emits red. Before light from
each beam hits the screen, it passes through a shadow mask located just behind the
screen. The shadow mask is a layer of opaque material that is covered with slots or
holes. It partially blocks the beam corresponding to one color and prevents it from
hitting dots of another color. As a result, the electron beam directed by signals for the
color blue can strike and light up only blue dots. The result is similar for the beams
corresponding to red and green. Images in the three different colors are produced on
the television screen. The eye automatically combines these images to produce a
single image having the entire spectrum of colors formed by mixing the primary colors
in various proportions.

Computer and Internet Integration

As online computer systems become more popular, televisions and computers

are increasingly integrated. Such technologies combine the capabilities of personal
computers, television, DVD players, and in some cases telephones, and greatly
expand the kinds of services that can be provided. For example, computer-like hard
drives in set-top recorders automatically store a TV program as it is being received so

PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY BAYAMBANG CAMPUS Educational Technology 140

that the consumer can pause live TV, replay a scene, or skip ahead. For programs
that consumers want to record for future viewing, a hard drive makes it possible to
store a number of shows. Some set-top devices offer Internet access through a dial-up
modem or broadband connection. Others allow the consumer to browse the World
Wide Web on their TV screen. When a device has a hard drive and a broadband
connection, consumers may be able to download a specific program, opening the way
for true video on demand.

Consumers may eventually need only one system or device, known as an

information appliance, which they could use for entertainment, communication,
shopping, and banking in the convenience of their home.

Another form of popular dynamic media is motion pictures. Let us discuss about it,
starting with its definition.

Motion Picture, a series of images that are projected onto a screen to create
the illusion of motion. Motion pictures—also called movies, films, or the cinema—are
one of the most popular forms of entertainment, enabling people to immerse
themselves in an imaginary world for a short period of time. But movies can also
teach people about history, science, human behavior, and many other subjects.
Some films combine entertainment with instruction, to make the learning
process more enjoyable. In all its forms, cinema is an art as well as a business,
and those who make motion pictures take great pride in their creations.

Mobile Panavision Camera Crew

In order to make their Panavision

camera setup mobile, this film crew
fastened it to a dolly. Here, the crew
prepares to shoot a scene.
Tom McHugh/Photo Researchers, Inc.

The images that make up a motion picture are all individual photographs. But
when they appear rapidly in succession, the human eye does not detect that they are
separate images. This results from persistence of vision, a phenomenon whereby the
eye retains a visual image for a fraction of a second after the source has been
removed. Although we do not experience the images as individual photographs, we do
notice the differences between them. The brain then perceives these differences as
motion.
Motion pictures are recorded using specially designed cameras that capture the
images on rolls of film. After being processed and printed, the film is run through a

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projector, which shines light through the film so that the images are displayed on a
screen. Most movies have accompanying sound.

Types of Motion Films

There are many types of motion pictures, but the most significant categories
are feature films, animated films, documentaries, experimental films, industrial films,
and educational films.
Scene from The Godfather
American actor Marlon Brando is shown
in the title role in a scene from The
Godfather (1972). Brando won an
Academy Award for his portrayal of Don
Vito Corleone, the head of a crime
family. The film also won Academy
Awards for best picture and best
screenplay.
Corbis

Microsoft ® Encarta ® 2008. © 1993-2007 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.

Feature films are the movies most commonly shown in large movie theaters. They
typically last at least one and one-half hours and tell a fictional story or a story based
on real events but portrayed by actors. The list of prominent feature films is far too
long to recount in this article, but some of the best-known include The Birth of a Nation
(1914), Metropolis (1926), Citizen Kane (1941), Casablanca (1942), On the Waterfront
(1954), The Sound of Music (1965), The Godfather (1972), Star Wars (1977), Gandhi
(1982), Jurassic Park (1993), and Titanic (1997).

Scene from Snow White

Walt Disney pioneered the animated feature-length film
with his screen adaptation of a Grimm fairy tale, Snow
White and the Seven Dwarfs (1937). The film was
produced from more than 400,000 sketches, and
Disney introduced a number of technical innovations
that revolutionized the production of animation for
feature-length films.

Archive Photos
Microsoft ® Encarta ® 2008. © 1993-2007 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.

Animated movies follow the same format as features, but use images created by
artists. These films create the illusion of movement from a series of two-dimensional
drawings, three-dimensional objects, or computer-generated images. The first
animated feature was the German film Die Abenteuer des Prinzen Achmed (The
Adventures of Prince Achmed, 1926). Other notable ones include Snow White and the
Seven Dwarfs (1937), Dumbo (1941), Sleeping Beauty (1959), Yellow Submarine

PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY BAYAMBANG CAMPUS Educational Technology 142

(1968), Heavy Traffic (1973), the Czech film Neco z Alenky (Alice, 1988), the
Japanese film Majo no Takkyubin (Kiki‘s Delivery Service, 1989), Beauty and the
Beast (1991), and The Lion King (1994). In some films, animated characters interact
with human actors, as in Who Framed Roger Rabbit (1988).

Another form of film is the documentary, which deals primarily with fact, not fiction.
Documentaries do not often appear in theaters, but they are seen regularly on cable
and broadcast television. Some well-known documentaries are Nanook of the North
(1922), The Silent World (1956), Harlan County, U.S.A. (1976), Eyes on the Prize
(1987), and Hoop Dreams (1994).

An experimental film is a sequence of images, literal or abstract, which do not

necessarily form a narrative. An experimental film can be animated, live action,
computer generated, or a combination of all three. Five noteworthy experimental films
are the French film Un Chien Andalou (An Andalusian Dog, 1929), Meshes of the
Afternoon (1943), A Movie (1958), Eraserhead (1978), and Privilege (1991).

Industrial films are made by companies that wish to publicize their products or
generate a favorable public image.

Educational films are specifically intended to be shown in classrooms. Their aim is

to instruct, on subjects from history to driving skills.

Who are the people who make a motion picture?

Many different people contribute their skills and talents to the making of a film. The
stars and other actors who appear on the screen are only part of the story; most of
those who work on a production do not appear on camera. The most prominent roles
behind the scenes are the producer, screenwriter, director, unit production manager,
casting director, director of photography, designers, assistant directors, film and sound
editors, and music composer. Because every film is a unique project, the roles may
overlap or differ depending on the individuals involved.

Producer

The producer is responsible for turning a film idea into a successful motion picture.
The producer must find money to pay for the production, hire actors and the
production team, supervise the production process, and make arrangements for
distributing the finished film to theaters.

If the producer has obtained financing from a studio or film distributor, that
organization may want a representative to be on hand during production. This person
is called the executive producer. In addition, anyone who contributes substantially in
PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY BAYAMBANG CAMPUS Educational Technology 143
any manner to the motion picture—with their time, money, or influence—may receive
the credit of associate producer or some similar title.

The Screen Writer

Screenwriters develop original ideas for the screen or adapt previously written pieces
of work as motion pictures. Adaptations may come from novels, stage plays, musicals,
or many other sources. Screenwriters work in two ways. They can be commissioned
to write a script or they can write a script on spec (short for ―on speculation‖), meaning
that the screenwriter is hoping that someone will like the independently written script
enough to buy the rights to it and arrange for production. Once a screenplay has been
purchased, the producer may decide to have it rewritten either by the original writer or
by new writers.

The first step in writing a script is to create an outline, which is a one- or two-page
description of the action or plot. This is followed by a treatment, which is a detailed
description of the film, containing some passages of dialogue with all the scenes
sketched out and the subplots developed. Then the writer begins the script itself,
which fills in all the details. It sets forth the time and place of the action, describes the
characters‘ physical appearances, and supplies all the dialogue and action. Scripts
also indicate where cameras should be positioned and what camera movements
should occur while filming. Scripts indicate transition devices between scenes such as
dissolves (when one image gradually replaces another), fade-ins (when an image
gradually replaces the blank screen), fade-outs (when a blank screen gradually
replaces the image), and straight cuts from one scene to the next.

The Director

The director analyzes the script, visualizes how the film should look, and guides the
actors and the production crew as they carry out that vision. Many people imagine the
director as the person who controls every aspect of film production, but the director‘s
role is usually not quite this broad. Instead, a film is a cooperative project between the
director, the producer, the actors, and the crew members. A good director balances
his or her desires with other people‘s to produce the best film possible, while all the
time remaining as true as possible to his or her initial vision.

During the production process, several factors can influence how the director‘s vision
of the film is carried out. If negotiations with an actor break down, then another actor
may have to be found for the part. If much of the film takes place outside and the
weather does not cooperate, the film‘s settings may have to be changed. And if a key
actor or crew member interprets a scene differently than the director does, the director

PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY BAYAMBANG CAMPUS Educational Technology 144

may ultimately accept that vision of the scene. Ideally, the producer and director share
a vision for the film and agree on how to make the film. (If they do not, and the
differences are great, the director may be fired from the project.) When the film is
ready to be edited, the director supervises the first cut (the name given to the edited
film). After that, however, the producers can come in and re-edit the film, if they want.
Very few directors have the right to approve the final cut of a film.

The Unit Production Manager

The unit production manager (UPM), who reports to the producer, is responsible for
scheduling, budgeting, selecting many of the crew members, and arranging for
permits from various authorities and owners to shoot at locations outside the studio.
The UPM also oversees the purchase of goods and services, handles the day-to-day
business of running the production office, and ensures that the project stays within its
budget.

The Casting Director

The casting director selects actors and negotiates contracts during the hiring process,
although the final choice—particularly when selecting stars for lead roles—usually falls
to the director and the producer. When selecting actors for a film, casting directors
take many factors into account, such as an actor‘s suitability for the role, box-office
appeal, acting ability, and experience.

The Actors

The actors play the roles of the film. To create believable characters, they rely on the
details in the script, the director‘s vision, and their own sense of the role. In most films,
the actor‘s job is to make the audience believe that the character is a real person
speaking unrehearsed lines in a natural setting. An actor normally accomplishes this
through voice, movement, and the portrayal of emotion. But other artistic qualities also
affect the audience's judgment. These qualities are often difficult to describe or define,
but they include charm, depth of feeling, originality, plausibility, and physical
appearance.

The actors play the roles of the film. To create believable characters, they rely on the
details in the script, the director‘s vision, and their own sense of the role. In most films,
the actor‘s job is to make the audience believe that the character is a real person
speaking unrehearsed lines in a natural setting. An actor normally accomplishes this
through voice, movement, and the portrayal of emotion. But other artistic qualities also
affect the audience's judgment. These qualities are often difficult to describe or define,

PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY BAYAMBANG CAMPUS Educational Technology 145

but they include charm, depth of feeling, originality, plausibility, and physical
appearance.
Acting is a complex art. The mastery of voice projection, various manners of speaking,
gesture, movement, and other abilities is only part of the craft. Other basic acting skills
include an ability to memorize lines, develop a sense of timing, and express a
character‘s social status, age, and temperament.

Stunt People

Jackie Chan
Chinese actor and director Jackie Chan became the highest
paid film star in Asia in the late 1970s, due in part to his
extremely risky stunt work. In 1996 Chan achieved
widespread success in the United States with the American
release of Hong Faan Kui (1995; Rumble in the Bronx).
Lisa Rose/Globe Photos, Inc.
Microsoft ® Encarta ® 2008. © 1993-2007
Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.

Many films involve actions that could result in injury. These actions may be as
dramatic as jumping off a cliff or as commonplace as tripping and falling down. During
many potentially dangerous scenes, specially trained stuntmen and stuntwomen fill in
for the actors. This ensures that the stunt will be performed as safely as possible, and
that the actors will not risk injury. Nevertheless, some stars, such as Chinese actor
Jackie Chan, insist on doing their own stunts.

Animal Actors

For scenes in which animals must perform, specially trained animal ―actors‖ appear.
These animals obey commands from their trainer while being filmed. In many cases,
multiple animals appear in the same part, because of long hours of filming or because
the animal grows or changes in appearance or in some other way during a filming
schedule. Animals that act in films range from ducks to elephants. Memorable roles
played by animals include the dog Lassie (in Lassie Come Home, 1943), the dog Benji
(in Benji, 1974), and the pig Babe (in Babe, 1995).

The Director of Photography

The director of photography (DP), also known as the cinematographer, works closely
with the director and interprets the action of the story in terms of light, shade,
composition, and camera movement. Other responsibilities include selecting the type

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of lens to be used for a shot, which influences the appearance of the image, and
determining the camera‘s position and angle. The DP rarely operates the camera
directly; this function usually falls to a camera operator.

Production Designers

The production designer, sometimes called the art director, is responsible for the set
designs and the overall look of the film. In some films, creating sets involves a great
deal of work. For example, a realistic Western may call for the construction of the
façade of an entire main street, along with the interiors of a saloon, hotel, and other
buildings. The clothing that the actors wear also contributes to the look of a film, so the
costume designer is a key member of the production team. He or she designs
appropriate costumes or searches out vintage clothing in stores or costume houses.
Additional designers deal with lighting, makeup, and other visual aspects of the
production.

Assistant Directors

Most motion pictures have at least one assistant director (AD). The ADs assist the
director in almost every task. The highest-ranking AD, called the first AD, has several
duties. He or she creates the overall shooting schedule, which lists the days for filming
each scene, and manages many of the day-to-day problems that arise on the set.
Each day the first AD also submits the following day‘s call sheet (schedule for cast
and crew) to the UPM and the director for approval. And the first AD works with the
director during shooting, assisting in the preparation for each shot. The second AD
assists the first AD by getting the cast and crew to the right places at the right times,
looking after extras (people who appear in the background to lend reality to the film),
and taking care of many of the details involved in preparing for the next day‘s filming.

Film and Sound Editors

Motion pictures are filmed in hundreds of brief shots, which must be arranged into a
final product that fulfils the vision of the director and producer. This responsibility falls
to the editor. The editor first screens each day‘s film footage (called dailies or rushes)
for the director and key members of the crew. Preparation of the dailies continues
throughout the production period, meaning that the film is being edited at the same
time that it is being shot. Screening the dailies enables the director and producer to
choose the best shots and to decide if they need to reshoot any scenes for technical
or artistic reasons. After the principal filming is done, the editor finishes the editing of

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the film and supervises optical effects (such as freeze-frames) and titles that are to be
inserted into the motion picture.

The director, producer, or editor also may decide that parts of the film have inferior
sound quality. A sound editor then re-records the actors‘ voices in these scenes. The
actors speak the lines in the studio while viewing the scene on-screen, in a process
called automatic dialogue replacement (ADR). Sound editors also add recorded sound
effects to complete an environment for the film. For example, if a scene takes place on
a city street, the editors may add honking horns and other appropriate background
traffic noises. One of the final steps in the editing process is the preparation and
mixing of the separate sound tracks so that all the tracks—dialogue, music, and sound
effects—are blended together to create a seamless unified sound experience for the
audience.

The Music Composer

The composer works with the director and editor to create a musical score that
provides transitions between scenes and an emotional point of view for scenes and
the film as a whole. Music is often used to enhance the dramatic content. For
example, music can identify a person as suspicious when there is nothing visible on
the screen to suggest such a characteristic.

Other Positions

In addition to the positions listed above, many other people take part in movie
production. Foley artists help create background or peripheral noises, such as
footsteps. A gaffer supervises electrical work and is assisted by the best boy. The key
grip supervises the grips, which set up and adjust production equipment on the set.
The production sound mixer supervises the sound recording during a shoot, and the
sound mixer puts together all the sound for the final track by adjusting volume, fading
noises in and out, and creating any other necessary audio effects. Depending on a
movie‘s genre and budget, it can require many other professionals, including
assistants, carpenters, drivers, etiquette coaches, historical consultants, housing
coordinators, medics, and so on.

Shooting a Motion Picture

Most motion pictures involve the same general process. This section describes this
filming process and then discusses some of the more technical aspects of filming.

General Filming Process

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A development stage precedes production. In this stage, the screenwriter writes the
script and the producer hires the director and key actors, prepares a budget and
shooting schedule, and raises the necessary funds to pay for the production.

Studio Soundstage

Most motion pictures are filmed in part on

studio soundstages, where the filmmakers can
create the environment called for in the script.
This set replicates stormy conditions on the
water, with fans blowing “rain” toward the
actor in the boat.
Miro Vintoniv/Stock Boston Inc.
Microsoft ® Encarta ® 2008. © 1993-2007 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.

The next stage, preproduction, involves the remaining preparatory work before
production begins. During preproduction, the producer approves the final version of
the script, the rest of the cast and crew members are hired, and shooting locations are
finalized. The director, assistant director, unit production manager, and producer plan
the sequence for shooting the individual scenes. If possible, the actors hold
rehearsals. The producer, director, and designers work together to outline the visual
look of the film—how the scenes will be staged, set construction and decoration,
costumes, makeup and hair design, and lighting.

When preproduction is completed, production can begin. A movie is filmed scene by

scene, and a scene is filmed shot by shot. These scenes and shots are not usually
filmed in the order that they appear in the film. This is because filming depends on
factors such as weather conditions, actors' availability, and the set-construction
schedule. Scenes that involve large, complicated sets often are filmed near the end of
the shooting schedule, because these sets take longer to be completed. Sets can be
elaborate. In Titanic, for example, the filmmakers built major interior rooms such as
the grand staircase and dining saloon over a 19 million liter (5 million gallon) tank of
water. The sets were supported by hydraulic systems that lowered them into the water
to simulate the sinking of the ship.

Preparing for a film shot involves five main operations: The art department and
property master prepare the set furnishings and the props the actors will use; the
actors run through their lines and movements; the director of photography selects and
arranges the lights; the camera operator rehearses the various camera angles and
movements to be used in the shot; and the sound crew determines the volume level
and placement of microphones. The director oversees and coordinates all these
activities.

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Each filmed shot is called a take. For complicated shots such as battlefield
sequences, the director may use multiple cameras to minimize the number of takes.
Even with multiple cameras, however, the director may require many takes before he
or she is satisfied. After each take the director confers with the camera operator and
production sound mixer. If the director is pleased by the performances and if the
camera and sound work are good, the director instructs that the take be printed. If it is
not good, it is not printed.

In high-budget productions that involve complicated scenes, it is customary to film an

entire sequence in one long master shot, which includes all the major action. Cover
shots are brief shots that, edited into the master shot, give the scene proper dramatic
emphasis and meaningful detail from moment to moment. Cover shots include close-
ups, medium shots, long shots, tracking shots (shots in which the camera is moving
while filming), and panning shots (shots in which the camera swivels while filming).
Shooting this array of shots is called shooting coverage. Each cover shot, however
minor, necessitates a new camera setup and a new placement of lights, microphones,
and actors. Action from shot to shot must always match when edited into the film. For
example, if the heroine has set down a glass with her left hand in the master shot, she
must not set it down with her right hand in a close-up.

At the end of the day, the shots that the director likes are printed. The following day,
the director, producer, cinematographer, and editor look at these dailies. During these
screenings the director and editor begin to assemble shots into scenes and the
scenes into a sequence. Early versions of sequences, or early cuts, often contain
alternative takes for certain shots. As the director and editor make final decisions
during the editing process, they eliminate the extra takes, so that the structure of the
final picture emerges in the form of a rough cut. Then, as scenes are polished and
transitions smoothed, the rough cut gradually becomes the first cut.

During the postproduction work, the director and editor solve problems. For example,
if a shot went out of focus for a moment in a close-up, they may cover the lapse by
cutting to a medium shot if they do not have another satisfactory take of the close-up.
While editing the first cut, the director weighs the editor‘s recommendations but keeps
the overall plan of the picture in mind. The producer also contributes, especially when
the director and editor are considering reshooting scenes; this may cause the picture
to go over budget. When all the scenes are shot and the first cut finished, the producer
may approve it or work with the editor and/or the director to make further refinements.
The finished product is the final cut. The film is then ready for sound editing, finalizing
of the musical score, and mixing.

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Most motion films are stored in a Digital Video Disc. Let us discuss the nature of
Digital Video Disc (DVD).

Digital Video Disc

Digital Video Disc or Digital Versatile Disc (DVD), an optical storage device that looks
the same as a compact disc but is able to hold about 15 times as much information
and transfer it to the computer about 20 times as fast as a CD-ROM. A DVD, also
called a Super Density disc (SD), can hold 8.5 gigabytes of data.

DVDs come in two formats: the DVD-Video format and the DVD-ROM (DVD-Read
Only Memory) format. The DVD-Video format is used for home movie entertainment
through a DVD player. DVD players are backward compatible to existing technologies,
so they can also play Audio CD and CD-ROM formats. The DVD-ROM stores
computer data. DVD-ROM uses include interactive games, video file storage, and
photographic storage; it is called the ―digital versatile disc‖ because it can be used in a
variety of ways. A DVD-RAM (DVD-Random Access Memory) or a DVD-R (DVD-
Recordable) disc can be used to record data. When compared to CD-ROM
technology, DVD allows for better graphics, greater resolution, and increased storage
capacity.

How do we record Video?

Video Recording is the process of recording still or moving images electronically,

rather than photochemically as in photographic film. The techniques used to record
images on videotape are similar to those used to record sound. Electrical signals from
a television camera (or from a television camera via a television receiver) are stored
as patterns of magnetized regions of iron oxide on so-called magnetic tape. When the
recorded tape is played back, the original signals are generated. These signals can
then be disseminated by broadcast antenna or by cable to television receivers that
translate the signals into images and sounds. Videotape recorder/playback systems
for domestic use are connected directly to a television receiver. Unlike motion picture
film, videotape does not require processing, and so may be played back immediately.
This makes possible the so-called instant replay common to televised sporting events.

Audio signals have a bandwidth, or frequency range, of about 20,000 Hz and can be
recorded on magnetic tape that passes over the record/playback head relatively
slowly. Video signals, on the other hand, such as the signal that modulates the carrier
wave of a television transmitter, have a bandwidth as high as 6 MHz and therefore
require a much higher scanning speed to accommodate the 300-fold increase in
information to be recorded or played back. The first magnetic video recorders, built in

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the early 1950s, relied on very fast tape speeds—up to 914 cm (360 in) per second—
to record and reproduce images of an acceptable quality. Difficulties inherent in high
tape speeds led to the development of techniques that combine high scanning speed
with slow tape transport.

Video Discs

Videodiscs were developed as a response to the high cost of magnetic tape in the
1960s and early '70s. Nonmagnetic disks most commonly allow only the reproduction
of pre-recorded material, but one advantage they have over tape is the rapid access
they offer to any part of the recording. The large bandwidth of the video signal is
accommodated by disk rotation speeds of up to 1800 rpm. Sales of videodisc players
are far smaller than those of VCRs.

One system of nonmagnetic videodiscs is currently in use. In this system the original
video signals are encoded by the manufacturer as minute elliptical depressions in the
surface of the disk. This information is arranged in a single long spiral, like the groove
of a phonograph record. To play back the images, the track is scanned by a very
narrow laser beam. Light from the laser beam, as modified by the elliptical
depressions, is converted back into the original patterns of electrical signals that are
then fed by cable into a standard television receiver. Such laser-reach videodisc
systems can be controlled to speed, slow, or stop the action being viewed. In addition,
information-storage capability is so high that a full-length motion picture or the text of
an entire encyclopedia can be stored on one disk.

Magnetic disk recorders have been developed that offer the same advantages as the
nonmagnetic disk players but also permit both recording and erasing. A video still
camera was developed in 1982 that records still images on a small magnetic disk. The
images can be displayed on the screen of a standard television receiver.

Projecting a Motion Picture

Once a motion picture has been shot, processed, edited, enhanced with special
effects, mixed, and printed, it is ready to be shown. Films are generally shown in
theaters, with a motion-picture projector in the rear of the theater shining the image
over the heads of the audience onto a screen in the front of the theater.

When the film runs through the projector, light shines through the film and projects the
image forward. The major elements of a projector are a light source with a lens, a film
gate through which the film passes from the projection reel, a sprocket that pulls the
film down one frame at a time, a shutter that opens and closes as the film passes by,

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a projection lens, another sprocket through which the film passes to go to the take-up
reel, and an optical sound head that reads the sound track.

As a film runs through a projector, each image is shown individually on the screen,
and the shutter is timed so that it is open when the image is in front of the light source,
and closed when the film is advancing. This happens 24 times per second. The
shutter also has a second blade that blocks the light once while each picture is being
shown. This produces 48 pulses of light per second instead of 24. (Making the pulse
action briefer reduces the flickering of light that the viewers might notice.) Because the
human eye does not function fast enough to register each image separately, the
images on the screen seem to blend into one, and photographs showing successive
positions of a person or object in motion give the illusion of a continuously moving
picture.

The sound track is recorded directly on the print film. The projector shines a light
through the optical track, which varies in density—thick or thin depending on the
strength of the original sound. The projector converts the light that passes through the
optical track into an electrical signal, weaker or stronger, depending on the density of
the optical track. The electrical signal then travels to the theater‘s speakers, where it is
converted into mechanical energy that produces sound waves that travel to the
audience.

Mechanism of a Projector
Movie projectors show 24 frames of film per second, a speed that tricks the eyes into perceiving continuous
motion. Film is designed with perforated edges so that the toothed sprocket wheels can advance it through the
projector at a constant speed. While a frame is in front of the gate, a revolving shutter permits light from the
projection lamp to illuminate it briefly. This image is passed through the projection lens and onto the movie
screen, where the rapid change from image to image produces the illusion of movement. This illustration shows a
basic projector that uses 16-millimeter film, in contrast to the 35-millimeter film used in most theater projectors.

PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY BAYAMBANG CAMPUS Educational Technology 153

© Microsoft Corporation. All Rights Reserved.

Until the early 1950s, motion pictures were generally projected onto a screen with an
aspect ratio (the ratio of width to height) of 4 to 3, which is about the ratio of a
standard television screen. But then various techniques were developed to project
movies at different screen ratios.

When a wide-screen film is packaged for viewing in television‘s aspect ratio of 4 to 3,

the sides of the picture are often lopped off. To show the full wide-screen image on
home video, the transfer must be letterboxed. In this process, neutral strips of black fill
the top and bottom of the TV screen, changing its aspect ratio to represent what was
originally used for the theatrical presentation.

(Tanis, Nicholas. "Motion Picture." Microsoft® Student 2008 [DVD]. Redmond, WA:
Microsoft Corporation, 2007.)

Another way of presenting motion films id through projected media. Let us find out the
nature of projected media.

Projected Media

Opening of the UMNO

Aided by a large-scale video projector, Malaysian prime
minister Mahathir bin Mohamad addresses the opening of
a United Malays National Organization (UMNO) election
assembly. The UMNO party helped negotiate Malaysia’s
independence from Britain after World War II. An active
UMNO leader since the party’s creation in 1946, Mahathir
bin Mohamad was elected prime minister in 1981 and
has championed international relations.
REUTERS/Jimin Lai/Archive Photos

Microsoft ® Encarta ® 2008. © 1993-2007 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.

Eastman Kodak's Carousel projector has a novel drum tray, holding 80 slides, that is
mounted on top of the projector like a phonograph record and that rotates
automatically to project slides at pre-set intervals. Argus introduced a projector that
looks like a television set. Housed in a wooden cabinet with hinged doors is a
projector with an internal rear-projection system that automatically shows slides on a
13 ½ × 20-inch glass screen. The projector uses a 60-slide tray. The Rollei projector
adaptor for tabletop slide projection uses an upturned Rolleiflex camera as the optical
system. Leitz' new Pradovit projector employs a low-voltage lamp system, a 12-volt

PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY BAYAMBANG CAMPUS Educational Technology 154

100-watt lamp, to yield the equal in brightness of a 300-watt high-voltage lamp.
Automatic slide changing at pre-set intervals had become a commonplace of projector
design in 1961. The machines also could be operated manually when desired.

Now that you have learned about Educational Television and Motion Films, you are
now ready to utilize television and motion films as an alternative method of introducing
the lesson.

Activity 10

“Film Viewing”

Direction: Identify an Educational Film to be watched by the class. Prepare the

mechanics of the film viewing. Formulate guide questions to be answered after
watching the film. Focus on the significance of the film in achieving the objectives of
the lesson.

Exercise 9 “Educational TV and Motion Films”

Part I
Direction: Match Column A with Column B.

A B
1. producer a. supervises electrical work
2. screen writer b. help create background or peripheral noise
3. director c. creates musical score
4. unit production manager d. finishes the editing of the film
5. casting director e. assists the director in almost every task
6. actors f. the art director
7. stunt men g. cinematographer
8. animal actors h. trained animals during the film

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9. director of photography i. replaces actors on dangerous scenes
10. production designers j. play the roles of the film
11. assistant directors k. selects actors and negotiates contracts
12. film and sound editor l. reports to the producer, responsible for
13. music composer scheduling, budgeting, selecting crew
14. foley artist members and arranging permits
15. gaffer m. guides the actors and the production crew
as they carry out the vision of the film.
n. develops original ideas for the screen
o. responsible for turning a film idea into a
successful motion picture
p. supervises the grips

Part II
Direction: Identify what category/type of motion films are the following:

1. Jurrasic Park 2. Titanic 3. Beauty and the Beast

4. Lion King 5. Hoop Dreams

MODULE 10

Traditional Instructional Materials

Instructional materials are used to maximize the effectiveness, efficiency and appeal
of instruction and other learning experiences. Ever since in the teaching learning
process, the use of traditional instructional materials are effective. It does not only help
the teacher in the teaching process but also helps to facilitate student learning.

This module will help you understand more about the effective utilization of traditional
instructional materials.

Your Goal:

At the end of this module, you are expected to:

1. identify the different types of traditional instructional materials.

2. discuss how to effectively utilize each type in a classroom setting.

3. organize the traditional instructional materials found in a

classroom
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 The most common of all traditional instructional materials in the classroom is
the chalkboard or blackboard.

Chalkboard is a reusable writing surface on which text or drawings are made with
sticks of calcium sulphate known when used for this purpose as chalk. Chalkboards
were originally made of smooth, thin sheets of black or dark grey slate stone. Modern
versions are often green or brown and are thus sometimes called a greenboard or
brownboard instead. Chalk sticks are processed ―chalk‖ produced especially for use
with chalkboards in white and also in various colours. These are not actually made
from chalk rock but from calcium sulphate in its dehydrated form, gypsum.

Drawbacks of Using Chalkboards

 They produce dust, the amount depends on the quality of chalk used.
 Some people find this uncomfortable or may be allergic to it, and there has
been speculation about links between chalk dust and respiratory problems.
 The dust also precludes the use of chalk in areas shared with dust sensitive
equipment such as computer.
 The scratching of fingernails on a chalkboard, as well as other pointed,
especially metal objects against chalkboards, produces a sound that is well-
known for being extremely irritating.

Flip chart – is a stationery item resembling a whiteboard, typically supported on a

tripod or four – legged easel. A pad of paper sheet is typically fixed to the upper edge.
Such charts are commonly used for presentations.

Although most commonly supported on a tripod, flip charts come in various forms.
Some of these are:

 Stand-alone flip chart- resembles a big isosceles triangle box that usually sits
on a table. Imagine a book that you would open at 270 degree angle and lay on
a table. The paper is flipped from one side of the top of the triangle box to the
other.

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  Metallic tripod stand- usually has 3 or 4 metallic legs that are linked together
at one extremity. A support board is attached to two of the legs to support the
large paper pad. This is the most common type of flip chart stand.

 Metallic mount on wheels- usually has a flat base to support the paper pad
and is mounted on one or two legs that then have a set of wheels. The
advantage of these more recent forms of stands is that it is easier to transport
the flip chart from one location to another.

Text is usually hand written with marker pens and may include figures or charts. A
sheet can be flipped over by the presenter to continue to a new page.

Some flip charts may have a reduced version of the page that faces the audience
printed on the back of the preceding page, making it possible for the presenter to see
the same thing the audience is seeing. Others have teaching notes printed on the
back.

Flip charts are used in many ways in many different settings such as:

 In any type of presentation where the paper pads are pre-filled with information
on a given topic.
 For capturing information in meetings and brainstorming sessions.
 In classrooms and teaching institution of any kind.
 To record relevant information in manufacturing plants.
 A creative drawing board for art students.
 A palette for artists in ―life-drawing‖ classes.
 For strategy coaching for sports teams.
 For teaching.

Display easels- a frame, usually in the form of an upright tripod, used for supporting
or displaying an artist‘s canvas, blackboard.

White boards- (also known as a marker board, dry-erase board, dry-wipe board or a
pen board) is a name for any glossy surface, most commonly colored white, where
non-permanent markings can be made.

- White boards operate analogously to chalkboards in that they allow markings to

temporarily adhere to the surface of the board.

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 - The popularity of whiteboards increase rapidly in the mid-1980s and they have
become a fixture in many offices, meeting rooms, school classrooms, and other
work environments.

SURFACE MATERIALS USED IN WHITE BOARDS

 Melamine: is a resigned impregnated paper which is typically used over a

pressboard substrate.

 Painted steel or aluminum: this surface consist of paint sprayed on a steel or

aluminum surface.

 Glass or magnetic glass: glass whiteboards can be used with dry erase or
permanent markers and do not retain any ―ghosted‖ inks.

 Hard coat laminate: this type of surface is less porous and highly resistant to
staining.

 Porcelain. Enamel-on-steel: these surfaces are ceramic (glass) which is fired

onto a steel surface in a kiln.

ADVANTAGES OF USING WHITE BOARDS

 Whiteboard ink markings are less susceptible to external factors, such as

water, because the ink adheres in a different manner than chalk does to
chalkboards.

 A whiteboard can be used as the projecting medium for an overhead or video

projector.

 A dry erase marker is easier to hold or write with.

 Like chalkboards, whiteboards help to save paper.

 When compared to a chalk board a white board can have significantly more
colors because markers have a greater range of color than chalk.

DISADVANTAGES OF USING WHITE BOARDS

 Only special whiteboard markers are suitable for use in whiteboard.

 The white background can cause contrast problems for people with vision
impairment.

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  Another disadvantage of the whiteboard is concerned with the issues of the
actual usable ink remaining in a dry erase marker.

 Whiteboard markers often have a pungent odor. (depending on the brand and
color) whereas chalk is odor less.

Now that you have learned the different types of traditional materials, their advantages
and limitations as they are utilized in teaching, you are now ready to use these
materials in your topic presentation.

Activity 11

“Utilization of Traditional Instructional Materials”

Direction: Prepare a survey on the effective utilization of traditional instructional

materials in your department. Prepare a survey form based on the discussion of the
module.

Exercise 10

Part I
Direction: Describe the following traditional materials.

1. Chalkboard

2. Flipchart

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3. Display Easel

4. Whiteboard

MODULE 11

Innovative Instructional Procedures

Learners, including you, have various efficient ways in learning. In these

progressive times in education, curricula are now flexible where the main concern is to
accommodate multiple intelligences of learners. In this module, you will be learning
about innovative procedures that may help you facilitate learning.

Your Goal:

At the end of this module, you are expected to:

1. identify the different types of innovative instructional procedures.

2. discuss how to effectively utilize each type in a classroom setting.

3. showcase sample performance of each type of innovative instructional

procedures.
PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY BAYAMBANG CAMPUS Educational Technology 161
 PANTOMIME- Art of dramatic representation by means of facial expressions and
body movements rather than words. Pantomime or mime has always played a part in
theater. In the great open-air theaters of ancient Greece and Rome, where the
audience can see more easily that it could hear, mime was an important element on
acting. The roman pantomimes was an actor who used stylized movement and masks
to portray a character to the accompaniment of a music and the singing of a chorus.

Pantomime, or dumb show, was essential to commedia dell‘arte, an improvised

comedy that arose in the 16th-century Italy and spread throughout Europe. Pantomime
continued in the 17th and 18th century harlequinade in France and England, an
offshoot of the commedia dell‘arte, which depicted the adventures of Harlequin; his
sweetheart, Columbine; and her father, pantaleone. In London the harlequinade was
preceded by a scene in which actors mimed and danced stories from classical
mythology or fairy tales, culminating in the transformation of the leading character into
harlequin. John Rich ( 1692-1761), an actor noted in the role of Harlequin, made this
form of entertainment popular at Christmas. Gradually the opening scene or
pantomime became longer and more important that than the Harlequinade, especially
as developed in the early 19th century by the actor Joseph Grimaldi, who excelled in
acrobatics, invented tricks and stage machinery, and created the foolish clown Joey.
The pantomime emerged as an elaborately staged and costumed spectacle, based on
fairy tales, incorporating song, dance, acrobatics, dialogue, and other elements from
the English music Hall.

Pantomime was developed to a high art by the French actor Jean Gaspard
Deburau (1796- 1846), who refined and early commedia dell‘arte character into
lovelorn clown Pierrot. In the 20th century two French actors, Etienne Decroux(1898-
1991) and Marcel Marceau, who created the clown Bip, were outstanding mimes.
Actors in early 20th century silent films, most notably Charlie Chaplin and Buster
Keaton, relied entirely on mime to convey the story.

A pantomimes in Greece was originally a group of imitated all( panto-all, mimos-

mimic) accompanied by sung narrative and instrumental music, often played on the
flute. The word later came to be applied to the performance itself. The pantomime was
a popular form entertainment in ancient Greece and, later Rome. Like theatre, it
encompassed the genres of comedy and tragedy. No ancient pantomime libretto has
survived, partly because the genre was looked down upon by the literary elite.
Nonetheless, notable ancient poets such as Lucan wrote for the pantomime, no doubt
in part because the work was well paid. In a speech of the late 1st century AD now

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lost, the orator Aelius Aristides condemned the pantomime for its erotic content and
the effeminacy of its dancing.

The style and content of modern pantomime have very clear and strong links with
the commedia dell‘arte, a form of popular theatre that arose in Italy in the Early
Modern Period, and which reached England by the 16th century. A Comedy of
professional artist‘s traveling from province to province in Italy and then France, they
improvised and told stories which told lessons to the crowd and changed the main
character depending on where they were performing. The great clown Grimaldi
transformed the format. Each story had the same fixed characters: the lovers, father,
servants ( one being crafty and other stupid), etc. These roles/characters can be found
in today‘s pantomimes.

TABLEAU- Tableau vivant (plural: tableaux vivant) is French for ―living picture‖. The
term describes a striking of suitability costumed actors or artist‘s models, carefully
posed and often theatrically lit. Throughout the duration of the display, the people
shown do not speak or move. The approach thus marries the art forms of a stage with
those of painting/photography, and as such it has been of interest to modern
photographers. The most recent hey-day of the tableau vivant was the 19th century
with virtually nude tableau vivant or ―poses plastiques‖ providing a form of erotic
entertainment. The phrase and the practice probably began in medieval liturgical
dramas such as the golden mass, where on special occasions a mass was punctuated
by short dramatic scenes and tableaus. They were a major feature of festivities for
royal weddings, coronation and royal entries into cities. Often the actors imitated
statues, much in the way of modern street entertainers, but in larger groups, and
mounted on elaborate temporary stands along the path of the main procession.

DEMONSTRATION- a demonstration is a form of nonviolent action by groups of

people in favor of a political or other cause, normally consisting of walking in a march
and a meeting (rally) to hear speakers. Actions such as blockades and sit-ins may
also be reffered to as demonstration.

The term has been in use since the mid-19th century, as was the term ―monster
meeting‖, which was coined initially which reference to the huge assemblies for
protesters inspired by Daniel o‘ Connell in Ireland. Demonstrations are a form of
activism, usually taking the form of a public gathering of people in a rally or walking in
a march. At times, more interventionist actions such as blockades and sit-ins have
been referred to as demonstrations. Thus, the opinion is demonstrated to be
significant by gathering in a crowd associated with that opinion.

Demonstrations can be used to show a viewpoint (either positive or negative)

regarding a public issue, especially related to a perceived grievance or social injustice.
A demonstration is usually considered more successful if more people participate.
Topics of demonstrations often deal with political, economic, and social issues.

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ROLE PLAYING – A role playing game (RPG; often role playing game) is a game in
which the participants assume the roles of fictional characters. Participants determine
the actions of their characters based on their characterization, and actions succeed or
fail according to a formal system if rules and guidelines. Within the rules, players have
the freedom to improvise; their choices shape the direction and outcome of the game.

Most role-playing games are conducted like radio drama: only the spoken
component is acted. In most games, one especially designated player, the game
master (GM), creates a setting in which each player plays the role of a single
character. The GM describes the game world and its inhabitants; the other players
describe the intended actions of their character, and the GM describes the outcomes.
Some outcomes are determined by the game system, and some are chosen by the
GM. There is a variety of role-playing game in which players do perform their
characters‘ physical action, known as live action role-playing games (LARP)

A genre of video game is also referred to as role-playing games. These games do

not involve ―role playing‖ in the sense used in role-playing games; they take their
name from the setting and game mechanics which they inherit from early role-playing
games. Due to the popularity of video games, the term ―role playing game‖ and ―RPG‖
have both to some degree been co-opted by the video gaming industry; as a result,
games in which players play the roles of characters are sometimes referred to by
retronyms ―pen and paper role-playing games‖ or ―tabletop role-playing games‖,
though neither pen and paper nor a table are strictly necessary.

6. SEMINAR/ WORKSHOPS

Seminar is, generally, a form of academic instruction, either at a university or

offered by a commercial or professional organization. It has the function of bringing
together small groups for recurring meetings, focusing each time on some particular
subject, in which everyone present is requested to actively participate. This is often
accomplished through an ongoing Socratic dialogue with a seminar leader or
instructor, or through a more formal presentation or research. Normally, participants
must not be beginners in the field under discussion (at U.S. universities, seminar
classes are generally reserved for upper-classes students, although at UK and
Australian universities seminars are often used for all years). This idea behind the
seminar system is to familiarize students more extensively with the methodology of
their chosen subject and also to allow them to interact with examples of the practical
problems that always occur during research work. It is essentially a place where
assigned readings are discussed, questions can be raised and debates can be
conducted. It is relatively informal, at least compared to the lecture system of
academic instruction.

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 A workshop is a room or building which provides both the area and tools
(machinery) that may be required for the manufacture or repair of manufactured
goods. Apart from the larger factories, workshops were the only places of production
in the days before industrialization. In transport industries, workshop can be
distinguished from garages, which are primarily used storage, servicing and minor
repairs. In education, a workshop is a brief intensive course, a seminar or a series of
meetings emphasizing interaction and exchange of information among a usually small
number of participants. In art, a workshop can be another name for a large studio that
involves assistants or can be named given to lessons taught by an artist where skills
are shared with students. E-workshops is the use of internet technologies to provide
workshop meetings, emphasizing action and exchange of information normally
between a supplier and its costumer. Usually with a small number of participants
which are located in different locations. In practice E- workshop is more than just web
meetings, video conferencing or e- meetings by creating a costumer test environment
for interaction and focuses deeply into the solution for the costumer. E-workshop is
normally the start of a consultative project as it can define a project objectives,
organization, and strategy.

7. SIMULATION GAMES

Simulation and games

Strategy games- both traditional and modern- may be viewed as simulations of

abstracted decision-making for the purpose of training military and political leaders.
Many other video games are simulators of some kind. Such games can simulate
various aspects of reality, from business, to government, to construction, to piloting
vehicles.

8. FIELDTRIPS- a field trip is a journey by a group of people to a place away from

their normal environment.

The purpose of fieldtrip is usually observation for education, non-experimental

research or to provide students with experiences outside their everyday activities. The
aim of this research is to observe the subject in its natural state and possibly collect
samples. In western culture people first come across this method during school years
when classes are taken on excursions to visit a geological or geographical feature of
the landscape, for example. Much of the early research into the natural sciences was
of this form. Charles Darwin is an important example of someone who has contributed
to sciences through the use of field trips.

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 To mitigate these risks and expenses, most school systems now have formalized
field trip produces that considers the entire trip from estimation, approval and
scheduling through planning the actual trip and post-trip activities.

Activity 12

“Innovative Instructional Procedures”

Direction: Group yourself into eight and brainstorm with each other on how to present
a pantomime, tableau, demonstration, role playing, seminar/workshops, simulation
games, and fieldtrips are utilized as an effective method in teaching. Present the
output in front of the class.

Exercise 11

“Innovative Instructional Procedures”

Direction: On a one whole sheet of paper, write the advantages and disadvantages of
each innovative teaching methods or techniques.

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