ARTICLE

[Link]/IECR

State of the Art of Friendly “Green” Scale Control Inhibitors:

A Review Article
David Hasson,*,† Hilla Shemer,† and Alexander Sher‡
†
Rabin Desalination Laboratory, Grand Water Research Institute, Technion-Israel Institute of Technology, Haifa, 32000 Israel
‡
Nestl
e PTC Marysville, R&D Center, Marysville, Ohio 43040, United States

ABSTRACT: Scale deposition is a difficulty encountered with water containing ions of sparingly soluble salts. A widely used
technique for controlling scale deposition is by dosage of an antiscalant. Large quantities of polymeric scale inhibitors are used for
scale control in cooling water systems, water desalination processes, and oil field operations. Like most conventional polymers, scale
inhibitors are built for long existence and persist for many years after their disposal. Increasing environmental concern and discharge
limitations have caused scale-inhibitor chemistry to move toward “green antiscalants” that readily biodegrade, have low mobility for
minimum environmental impact, and are cost-effective. This review summarizes efforts to develop cost-effective ecologically benign
scale inhibitors. Currently, the most promising green scale inhibitors are based on poly(aspartic acid). However, field operation data
are very limited, and widespread use of poly(aspartic acid) scale inhibitors awaits field operation experience.

1. INTRODUCTION the scaling species. Hence, inhibition phenomena do not entail

Scale deposition is a difficulty encountered with water contain- chemical reactions and involve physical rather than chemical
ing ions of sparingly soluble salts, notably CaCO3, CaSO4, mechanisms. The scale suppression effect is due to adsorption
Ca3(PO4)2, Mg(OH)2, and silica. A potential for scale precipita- of antiscalant molecules on active growth sites of the scale
tion develops whenever process conditions lead to the creation matrix.1
5 This leads to reduced nucleation and crystal growth
of supersaturation with respect to one or more of the sparingly rates and to the formation of distorted crystal structures. The
soluble salts. crystal distortion weakens the tenacity of the scale, and the highly
The most important single factor determining the intensity of irregular stressed crystals tend to slough off as crystal growth
scaling is the supersaturation level of the deposit-forming species. occurs.3,6
Supersaturation conditions are achieved when a solution is Commonly used antiscalants are derived from three chemical
concentrated beyond the solubility limits of one or more of its families: condensed poly(phosphate)s, organophosphates, and
constituents by water evaporation (as in water cooling towers and polyelectrolytes. Conventionally, scale inhibitors are classified as
thermal desalination systems) or by separation of pure water at inorganic scale inhibitors [such as sodium hexametaphosphate,
ambient temperature (as in membrane processes). Supersatura- sodium poly(phosphate), sodium pyrophosphate] or organic
tion conditions can also be achieved by a change in temperature. phosphorus compounds (such as phosphate esters and phos-
Most of the frequently encountered scaling salts, for example, phonates). The inorganic phosphates are highly unstable in
CaCO3, Mg(OH)2, and CaSO4, exhibit inverse solubility char- aqueous solutions, and as a result, they hydrolyze, or react with
acteristics, that is, their solubility decreases with increasing water, and end up as ineffective orthophosphate. Organic phos-
temperature. A solution of an inverted-solubility salt in contact phorus products are also subject to hydrolysis. Poly(phosphate)
with a hot surface can attain supersaturation by the inverted- antiscalants have been largely replaced by other polymers [such
solubility effect and deposit scale on the hot surface, even when as poly(acrylic acid) and poly(maleic acid)] that are more stable
undersaturation conditions prevail in the bulk of the solution. at high operating temperatures and more resistant to chemical
The deleterious effects of scale deposition can take various and biological breakdown.
forms: reduced heat transfer in heating systems, loss of produc-
tion capacity due to scheduled and unscheduled shutdowns 3. ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT OF ANTISCALANT
for scale removal, and increased pumping costs. To prevent or DISCHARGE
minimize these difficulties, scale control measures are applied. Large quantities of polymeric scale inhibitors are commonly
used for scale control in cooling water systems, water desalina-
tion processes, and oil field operations. Like most conventional
2. ANTISCALANTS
polymers, scale inhibitors are built for long existence and persist
A widely used technique for controlling scale deposition is for many years after their disposal. Of particular concern are
by dosage of an antiscalant (AS). The conspicuous advantage
of this scale control technique is that, when properly applied, Received: December 9, 2010
an antiscalant can suppress scale formation with very low dosages Accepted: May 10, 2011
(typically below 10 mg/L) and, hence, at an affordable cost. Such Revised: May 2, 2011
low dosages are far from the stoichiometric concentration of Published: May 10, 2011

r 2011 American Chemical Society 7601 [Link]/10.1021/ie200370v | Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 2011, 50, 7601–7607
Industrial & Engineering Chemistry Research ARTICLE

phosphorus-based inhibitors, which can serve as nutrients lead- In addition to these properties, a biodegradable scale inhibitor
ing to eutrification difficulties.7 Phosphorus and heavy-metal should confirm that the desired biodegradability occurs after
discharges are regulated in many areas of the world, and discharge; premature biodegradability before discharge would
permissible limits are decreasing. cause microorganism contamination within the treated system.
Chemicals discharged into the marine environment have the The definition of a biodegradable polymer depends on the
potential for acute or long-term effects on aquatic organisms. country in question. According to the Protection of the Marine
Whether these effects are realized depends on a number of Environment of the North-East Atlantic (known as the OSPAR
factors such as the inherent toxicity of the material, the quantities Convention), a polymer is considered readily biodegradable if it
discharged and resulting concentrations in the water column, the satisfies the following criteria: (1) over 60% biodegradation
length of time biota are exposed to that concentration, and the within 28 days [based on ASTM (formerly American Society
sensitivity of the organisms to particular chemicals.8 for Testing and Materials) and/or Organisation for Economic
The magnitude of the impact of chemical discharge depends Co-operation and Development (OECD) biodegradation tests],
on environmental and hydrogeological factors characteristic of whereas for less than 20% biodegradation, the chemical should be
the sea, including bathymetry, waves, currents, and depth of the replaced; (2) toxicity of LC50 (lethal concentration for 50% of
water column. These factors determine the extent of mixing and, the sample population) or EC50 (half-maximal effective con-
therefore, the geographical range of the impact. Chemicals centration) > 1 mg/L for inorganic species and LC50 or EC50 >
discharged from offshore operations are immediately diluted 10 mg/L for organic species; and (3) bioaccumulation of log-
in the sea through a combination of two physical processes: (POW) < 3 (POW = partition coefficient in octanol/water).
the primary process is jet dilution followed by natural dilution When a chemical fulfills two of the three requirements and its
(i.e., turbulent dilution).9 The rate of jet dilution depends on the biodegradability is greater than 20% in 28 days, it is eligible to be
difference in densities (a function of salt concentrations and listed on the PLONOR list (pose little or no risk).16
temperature), momentum, flow rate and velocity at the outlet of It is important to note that an effective policy of biodegrad-
the discharge pipe, diameter of the discharge pipe, and depth of ability requires development of infrastructures that will include
the sea floor. Natural dilution is mainly a result of diffusion and extensive bioconversion facilities so as to prevent potential
mixing, which are generated by marine currents and waves. It hazards from degraded compounds.14
varies according to the marine conditions.9 Dilution reduces Because none of the currently employed state-of-the-art pro-
the discharge to levels that are not acutely toxic to marine ducts fulfill all of these demands, new scale inhibitors are being
organisms.8 sought.13 The following review summarizes efforts to develop
The discharge of chemicals has a strong potential to impact cost-effective antiscalants that readily biodegrade and have low
both physicochemical and ecological attributes of receiving mobility for minimum environmental impact. It seems that the
marine environments. Studies have identified several potential most promising green scale inhibitors are based on poly(aspartic
mechanisms by which chemical discharge can impact marine acid), and these are discussed in the last section of this article.
ecosystems.7,10,11 For example, scale inhibitors that reduce
scale formation by dispersion and complexation of calcium and
magnesium might also influence natural processes of divalent 5. GREEN ANTISCALANTS
metals.7 Nevertheless, many of the published literature reports There have been several reports of new scale-inhibitor che-
present little or no empirical data to support statements regard- mistries and products that are more environmentally acceptable
ing the environmental effects of chemical discharges.12 compared with conventional antiscalants.16
32 A group of re-
searchers at the University of Crete in Greece have devoted
efforts toward developing environmentally friendly antiscalant
4. BIODEGRADABLE INHIBITORS additives (Table 1).16
21 Some of their newly developed anti-
Increasing environmental concerns and discharge limitations scalant are based on compounds that are considered safe for food
have caused scale-inhibitor chemistry to move toward “green applications. Surely, such biodegradable antiscalants would find
antiscalants” that readily biodegrade and have low mobility for many applications in the food and beverage industries.
minimum environmental impact. This presents a challenge in The efficiency of a green antiscalant, described in Table 1, in
producing acceptable levels of performance at cost-effective dose suppressing silica scaling was investigated by mixing the tested
rates.13 green AS (at various dosages) with 500 mg/L (as SiO2) silica
Biodegradable polymers are degraded in bioactive environ- solution at pH 7 and measuring the soluble silica for 72 h. Effective
ments by enzymatic action of microorganisms such as bacteria, silica scale control was obtained only by combining at least two
fungi, and algae.14 Their polymer chains can also be broken down ASs, such as carboxymethylinulin (CMI) with poly(amidoamine)
by nonenzymatic processes such as chemical hydrolysis. Biode- dendrimers (PAMAM-1 and PAMAM-2) or poly(ethyleneimine)
gradable polymers are often derived from plant processing (PEI).17,18 The assisted inhibitory action was attributed to alle-
of atmospheric CO2. Biodegradation converts such materials viated formation of insoluble SiO2
PAMAM precipitates. From
into CO2, CH4, water, biomass, humic matter, and other natural an operational standpoint, combinations of ASs complicate the
substances. Biodegradable polymers are thus naturally recycled scaling control process and most likely increase costs.
by biological processes. In terms of the relationship between the green antiscalant
In accordance with the principles of responsible care, a general structure and performance, Neofotistou and Demadis19 ex-
product profile for ecologically benign inhibitor systems has been plained the inhibitory activity of PAMAM by the combined
proposed15 as follows: (1) excellent scale inhibition; (2) low effect of carboxylic and amine surface groups. PAMAM materials
aquatic and human toxicity; (3) high biodegradability; (4) low have anionic dendrimers that are (at least) partially deprotonated
water hazard class (maximum of 2); (5) good price/performance
COOH groups at pH 7. In general, anionic inhibitors show
ratio; and (6) free of phosphorus, nitrogen, and heavy metals. virtually no inhibiting performance in SiO2 polymerization,
7602 [Link]/10.1021/ie200370v |Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 2011, 50, 7601–7607
Industrial & Engineering Chemistry Research ARTICLE

Table 1. Schematic Structures of Green Antiscalants Studied at the University of Cretea

a
Numbers in parentheses indicate dosages of the antiscalants studied.

7603 [Link]/10.1021/ie200370v |Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 2011, 50, 7601–7607

Industrial & Engineering Chemistry Research ARTICLE

Table 2. Experimental Conditions at Which the Inhibitory

Effects of CMI Were Tested with Regard to CaCO3, CaSO4,
BrSO4, and SrSO4 Scale Formation24
scalea component concentration(s) (mg/L) pH temp (°C) time (h)

CaCO3 500 CaCO3 10 60 20 Figure 1. Structure of the green additive poly(maleic acid) (PMA).32
CaSO4 8000 CaSO4 8 60 20
BaSO4 325 Ba2þ, 1240 SO42
6 90 24 comparative studies and not for actual operational purposes.
SrSO4 330 Sr2þ, 1240 SO42
6 70 24 Pilot tests are essential for the determination of dosage rates and
a
Scaling was determined using a scale sensor. operating costs.
Other newly developed biodegradable inhibitors include (1) a
starch-based biopolymer of low molecular weight aimed at pre-
probably because of charge repulsion between the anionic venting scale formation in cooling-water lines28 and (2) a blend of
charges of the inhibitor itself and the negatively charged silicate citric acid, hydroxyethylidene diphosphonic acid (HEDP), acry-
anions or SiO2 particles. Nevertheless, external NH2-terminated late copolymer, and isothiazolone, at a formula ratio of 2:4:4:1.30
groups can be protonated at this pH, thus creating positive The latter is an environmentally friendly inhibitor designed for
surface charge and rendering the dendrimer positively charged. It open recirculating cooling-water systems intended at solving
is this form of the dendrimer that has showed SiO2 growth corrosion, scale, and microbial problems simultaneously. Citric
inhibition. Ketsetzi et al.16 concluded that the cationic charge acid functions as a corrosion inhibitor and stabilizer. HEDP
density on the cationic inulin (CATIN) backbone correlated functions as a corrosion and scale inhibitor. The acrylate copoly-
with its inhibitory activity. Thus, higher degree of substitution mer serves as a scale inhibitor, and isothiazolone is used as a
exhibited higher inhibitory performance. Cationic charge on the biocide for various microorganisms. This newly developed inhi-
polymer backbone, although necessary for inhibition, can cause bitor was purported to exhibit a good inhibition efficiency of 95.5%
inhibitor entrapment within the colloidal silica matrix because of for calcium carbonate scale, evaluated using the NACE standard
polycation (polymer)
polyanion (silica) interactions. TM0374-95.30 However, the NACE tests provide a poor char-
Carboxymethylinulins (CMIs) are derivatives of inulin, which acterization of antiscalant inhibitory capability because they do not
is a natural polydisperse poly(saccharide) consisting mainly of provide any information on the adhesive properties of the scale.
β(2f1) fructosyl fructose units with normally, but not necessa- One environmentally friendly, biodegradable antiscalant has
rily, one glucopyranose unit at the reducing end.22 Carboxylate been field-tested. Its performance was compared with the
groups are introduced into the poly(saccharide) by carboxy- performance of the commercially available AS Nalco PeramTreat
methylation with sodium monochloroacetate as a reagent in 191. PAP-1 [a poly(aspartic acid)- and poly(carboxylic acid)-
alkaline medium.23 Demadis and Stathoulopoulou24 reported based AS] was initially tested by beaker experiments, conducted
that CMI, at a dosage of 4
6 mg/L, showed good inhibitory in concentrated synthetic seawater. The results showed effective
performance with regard to CaCO3 and CaSO4 scale formation. calcium and magnesium scale inhibition at a dosage of 3
9 mg/L.
A significant role in the inhibitory activity was found to be played Field tests performed at the Dalian seawater reverse-osmosis
by the degree of substitution (i.e., the average number of (SWRO) desalination plant in China confirmed the calcium scale
carboxylate moieties per fructose unit), which is indicated by a inhibition ability of PAP-1.31 Experiments were conducted up
number in the compound name. An optimum dosage of 60 mg/L to pH 9.0, at which magnesium is not expected to precipitate.
CMI-25 antiscalant resulted in approximately 90% inhibition of Therefore, the authors’ conclusion regarding magnesium scale
BaSO4 scale. For SrSO4, maximum inhibition was exhibited at a inhibition is questionable. PAP-1 antiscalant performance in an
dosage of 10 mg/L (approximately 80% efficiency).24 The SWRO desalination system compared well with the commercial
conditions at which these experiments24 were conducted are product Nalco PeramTreat 191.31 Cost comparisons were not
summarized in Table 2. CMIs were also reported to be effective provided.
barium sulfate and calcium carbonate inhibitors in oilfield Poly(maleic acid) (PMA) is a second biodegradable antisca-
applications.25
27 lant that has been tested against a commercial product. The
In terms of industrial applications, only CMI-25 is regarded as inhibitory performance of PMA (Figure 1) was compared with
cost-effective because it is already in large-scale production from a that of the phosphonate inhibitor phosphino-poly(carboxylic
renewable source (inulin).24 Both dendrimeric additives acid) (PPCA) used in oil field operation. The comparison was
(PAMAM generations 1 and 2) and PEI were acknowledged as conducted by an electrochemical system using synthetic sea-
not likely to be used, primarily because of their high costs.18,21 water. Both water-soluble organic ligands act as precipitation
The high dosages of ASs required for effective scale control as inhibitors by blocking crystal growth sites through their adsorp-
compared to conventional ASs used in industry worldwide also tion on active crystal growth sites. At a concentration of 1 mg/L,
lead to the conclusion that these are not cost-effective additives PMA was less effective than PPCA in inhibiting calcium carbo-
for large-scale water-related applications. However, they might be nate scaling. The scale suppression performance of PMA
applicable to small systems. Additionally, the high dosage of the increased with augmentation of its concentration to 4 mg/L.
green ASs required for efficient scale control might contribute to Unfortunately, the effectiveness of PPCA at 4 mg/L was not
biofouling (e.g., by providing a carbon source for biofilm growth). reported.32
It important to note that the efficiency of the additives
developed at the University of Crete was evaluated only by
conducting batch beaker tests using single-component synthetic 6. POLY(ASPARTIC ACID)-BASED ANTISCALANTS
solutions. Batch tests enable preliminary screening of the relative Currently, the most promising alternative to conventional
inhibition capabilities of antiscalants. They are important only for nondegradable inhibitors is in the application of poly(aspartic
7604 [Link]/10.1021/ie200370v |Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 2011, 50, 7601–7607
Industrial & Engineering Chemistry Research ARTICLE

whereas high-molecular-weight PASPs have applications as gen-

eral-purpose dispersants.
6.1. Scale Inhibition Properties of Poly(aspartate)s. The
scale inhibition properties of PASPs have been investigated
by both static and dynamic tests, mostly in laboratory studies.
Schweinsberg et al.15 of Henkel Surface Technologies,
D€usseldorf, Germany, reported inhibition and dispersion results
of CaSO4 and CaCO3 scales performed with different poly-
(aspartic acid)s of varying mean molecular weight, molecular
weight distribution, degree of branching, and purity. The results
were compared with the inhibitions achieved with conventional
poly(acrylate) and phosphonate inhibitors. The CaSO4 tests
(conducted using static bottle tests by mixing standardized
0.1 M Na2SO4 and CaCl2 solutions at pH 8.5 and 30 °C for
24 h) showed an inhibition efficiency (based on turbidity
measurements) of about 60% with 5 mg/L poly(aspartate)
compared to an efficiency of 80% with 5 mg/L poly(acrylate).
An inhibition efficiency of 100% was reached with 20 mg/L
poly(acrylate) compared to an efficiency of 80% with 20 mg/L
poly(aspartate). The CaCO3 tests were performed with a
dynamic heat exchanger circulation method, at which the tested
solution is pumped for 1
2 h at a constant flow rate through a
helical glass tube heated to 80 °C. At 4 mg/L AS inhibition levels
(based on calcium concentration measurements) of 60% for
poly(aspartate), 70% for poly(acrylate), and 90% for phospho-
nate were reported. A full 100% inhibition was obtained by
Figure 2. Poly(aspartic acid) synthesis.40
all inhibitors at a dosage of 10 mg/L. Dispersion tests carried out
with 200 mg/L kaolin showed the same relative efficiencies by
acid)-based inhibitors. Poly(aspartic acid) (PASP) was devel- both poly(aspartate) and poly(acrylate) and a slightly improved
oped in the early 1990s and found to be a versatile chemical dispersion performance of the poly(acrylate) in tests carried out
endowed with biodegradable capabilities. with a 60 mg/L iron oxide suspension.
PASP is commercially available and has numerous applica- In their study on poly(aspartate) scale inhibitors, Ross et al.41
tions. The main uses of PASP are as a scale and corrosion found that the optimum molecular weight for the inhibition of
inhibitor in water treatment plants and low-temperature cooling calcium carbonate, calcium sulfate, and barium sulfate mineral
towers, as a biodegradable scale control chemical for oil field scales was between 1000 and 4000 Da. Inhibition was deter-
and other mining operations, as a green chemical for detergent mined by NACE method TM0374-90. For inhibition of calcium
formulations, and as a fertilizer synergistic agent promoting carbonate and barium sulfate, poly(aspartate)s in the range of
nutrients absorption by crops.15,33
35 Poly(aspartate)s are con- 3000
4000 Da were found to be most effective. For calcium
densation polymers based on aspartic acid. They are synthetic sulfate inhibition, the optimum molecular weight was found to be
poly(amide)s that are structural and functional analogues of in the range of 1000
2000 Da. The authors concluded that some
biomineralization controlling proteins. Their synthesis has been minimum number of -mer units is required to have effective
reviewed in several articles.36
38 The three main methods for the binding to the crystal surface that differs from mineral to mineral.
industrial production of poly(aspartic acid) are33,34,39 thermal As the molecular weight increases, there might not be a propor-
condensation of aspartic acid, catalyzed polymerization of aspar- tional increase in binding effectiveness for a polymer. Addition-
tic acid, and thermal polymerization of maleic acid and ammo- ally, as the molecular weight increases, the number of molecules
nium hydroxide. in a given weight of polymer decreases, resulting in decreased
In the thermal condensation process depicted in Figure 2, the activity.41 The data in the article indicated a high biodegradability
aspartic acid is first converted to poly(succinimide) by heating level for all tested inhibitors.
the acid to a temperature above 180 °C. The poly(succinimide) is Quan et al.42 conducted static and dynamic experiments to test
transformed into poly(aspartic acid) by alkaline hydrolysis. The the scale inhibition performance of a PASP inhibitor. The tested
yield is high, nearing complete conversion. Use of a catalyst poly(aspartic acid) was reported to provide very effective scale
lowers the condensation temperature and enables shorter reac- inhibition, exceeding 90%, with only 3 mg/L PASP in a 600 mg/L
tion times. An alternative way to produce poly(succinimide) hardness solution at temperatures below 60 °C. With a higher
is by thermal polymerization of maleic acid and ammonium hardness solution of 800 mg/L, the scale inhibition reached 90%
hydroxide. with 6 and 12 mg/L PASP at 30 and 60 °C, respectively. Scanning
The structure, chemical characteristics, and properties of a electron microscopy (SEM) images of CaCO3 crystals indicated
poly(aspartate) depend on the method of preparation.39 Various that the crystal structure was transformed from a compact shape
poly(aspartate) formulations are synthesized for different to a loose nonadherent shape.
applications. Poly(aspartic acid)s differing in mean molecular Information on the inhibitory performance of PASPs in field
weight, molecular weight distribution, degree of branching, and tests is limited. Schweinsberg et al.15 described pilot-plant verifi-
purity have been reported in the literature. Low-molecular- cation of the laboratory results mentioned above and the field
weight PASPs have applications as general-purpose antiscalants, experience of a German industrial plant. A phosphonate-based
7605 [Link]/10.1021/ie200370v |Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 2011, 50, 7601–7607
Industrial & Engineering Chemistry Research ARTICLE

antiscaling system used for scale control of open cooling circuit of a power plant revealed that, under the typical operating
circuits was reported to have been successfully replaced by conditions and with the hypochlorite injection procedure nor-
a poly(aspartate)-based antiscaling system. Girasa and De mally used, the poly(aspartate) was not sensitive to chlorine and
Wispelaere,39 of the Laborelec Company (Linkebeek, Belgium), did not increase the water’s chemical demand for chlorine.
undertook tests on a cooling-water pilot installation to determine Additionally, the PASP did not affect the biological contamina-
application of poly(aspartate)s for scale control of the cooling tion of the circuit or the formation of biofilm.
circuit of a power plant. The efficiency of the tested poly-
(aspartate) was reported to be similar to that of a low-molecu-
7. CONCLUDING REMARKS
lar-weight poly(acrylate). Following the pilot tests, an onsite full-
scale test was carried out in the cooling circuit of a power plant, in Many conventional scale inhibitors are thought to be quite
which the low-molecular-weight poly(acrylate) antiscalant was environmentally unfriendly. Increasing environmental concern
replaced by a poly(aspartate) formulation. It was reported that and discharge limitations have caused scale-inhibitor chemistry
the test was successful, and the environmental and economic to move toward green antiscalants that readily biodegrade.
analysis of the different processes led to a decision to implement Considerable progress has been made in the development of
a poly(aspartate) scale control system in the power plant. practical processes and products.
6.2. Biodegradability of Poly(aspartate)s. The biodegrad- Currently, the most versatile biodegradable polymer is poly-
ability of poly(aspartic acid) was reviewed by Thombre and (aspartic acid), which has a range of valuable current and
Sarwade in 2005.37 The environmental degradation of polymers potential applications. Available information on the performance
is a complex process that is influenced by various factors, such as of biodegradable inhibitors is mostly based on laboratory studies.
microorganisms, solar radiation, temperature, and moisture cycles. Field experience is restricted.
Polymer properties affecting biodegradability are chemical struc- A neglected avenue is the field of food and beverages, which
ture, molecular weight, morphology, crystallinity, glass transition, has received very little attention. Biodegradable antiscalants
hydrophilicity, and water uptake.37 For instance, sodium poly- meeting food-safety requirements would find many applications
(aspartate) synthesized in the presence of phosphoric acid as a in the food and beverage industries. The development of
catalyst is 100% biodegradable, whereas the same polymer synthe- effective, friendly-to-use, low-cost biodegradable inhibitors that
sized without a catalyst is only 70% biodegradable.43 Although no do not affect the quality and taste of products deserves more
significant variations in the ratio of R- and β-amide bonds and the extensive efforts.
stereoregularity for the two PASPs was observed, the amount of
amide protons differed between the PASPs synthesized in the ’ AUTHOR INFORMATION
presence and absence of phosphoric acid. Therefore, it was
Corresponding Author
concluded that the biodegradability of a PASP is affected by the
*Tel.:þ972-4-8292936. Fax: þ972-4-8295672. E-mail: Hasson@
structures of branching and irregular end groups in the PASP.44
46
[Link].
Freedman et al.46 reported that a linear poly(amide) backbone
is essential for 100% biodegradation of poly(aspartate)s.
Notes
Nakato et al.44 investigated the relationship among the
Presented at the 71st annual IWC conference, San Antonio,
structure of poly(aspartic acid)s, their biodegradability, and their
Texas, 2010.
calcium-ion chelating abilities. Biodegradability was found to
be affected by the number of amide protons and the ratio of
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