Science Study guide
Cells parts and Functions:
1- Define cell, tissue, organs and organ systems and their level of complexity.
2- State that a cell is the smallest unit of life.
3- Identify cell organelles in an animal cell: cytoplasm, cell membrane, nucleus,
mitochondria, ribosomes, golgi apparatus, endoplasmic reticulum, centrosome.
4- Identify on a plant cell cytoplasm: cell wall, cell membrane, nucleus,
mitochondrion, chloroplast, and vacuole.
5- Outline the function of each of the organelles listed above.
Mitosis and Meiosis:
6- State that cell division is required for growth and repair.
7- Describe the process of mitosis and that it is a division that produces two
genetically identical daughtercells from a single parentcell.
8- Describe the process of meiosis and that it is a reduction division to produce
gametes.
9- State that the nucleus contains DNA stored in the form of chromosomes.
10- Outline the number of chromosomes in humans is 46 and they are organized
in pairs.
11- Outline how each of these pairs is a result of inheritance of chromosomes
from our parents.
DNA and Punnett squares
12- Describe the structure of DNA in terms of sugar, phosphate and bases
(A,T,C,G) forming a double helix.
13- State that a section of DNA is called a Gene.
14- Outline that genes code for inherited characteristics.
15-State that a version of a gene is called an allele.
16- Describe how some genes we inherit are dominant and some are recessive.
17- Construct Punnett squares to show the inheritance of single characteristics
(monohybrid cross).
18- Construct Punnett squares to show the inheritance of double characteristics
(dihybrid cross).
19- Explain characteristics such as blood type are inherited as an example of
dominant, recessive and codominant alleles.
Variation-Mutations- Genetic diseases
20- Distinguish examples of variation in characteristics which are caused by
genetic or environmental factors.
21- Distinguish between continuous and discontinuous variation.
22- Describe how genetic diseases such as cystic fibrosis and Huntingtons
disease are inherited.
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CELL PARTS AND FUNCTION
1.
1- Define cell, tissue, organs and organ systems and their level of
complexity.
1.
CELL - Basic unit of structure and function of all living things.
TISSUE - Group of cells of the same kind that perform the same
function.
ORGANS -Structure composed of two or more types of tissues. The tissues
of an organ work together to perform a specific function. Human organs
include the brain, stomach, kidney, and liver. Plant organs include roots,
stems, and leaves.
ORGAN SYSTEMS - Group of organs that work together to perform a certain
function. Examples of organ systems in a human include the skeletal,
nervous, and reproductive systems. ( example: skeletal system provides
support and protection , blood cell production , nervous system is to control
and coordinate body [Link] system is to transport blood
throughout the body.
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1. Cell:
Definition: The basic structural and functional unit of life. All living
organisms are made up of cells, which perform essential functions like
energy production, growth, and reproduction.
Complexity Level: Least complex; serves as the foundation for higher levels
of organization.
2. Tissue:
Definition: A group of similar cells working together to perform a specific
function. For example, muscle tissue is made up of muscle cells that
contract to enable movement.
Complexity Level: More complex than cells; represents an intermediate
level of organization.
3. Organ:
Definition: A structure made up of two or more types of tissues that work
together to perform specific, complex functions. For example, the heart
pumps blood, and the stomach aids in digestion.
Complexity Level: More complex than tissues; tissues combine to form
organs with specialized functions.
4. Organ System:
Definition: A group of organs that work together to perform a broader
function necessary for the survival of the organism. For example, the
circulatory system (heart, blood vessels, and blood) transports nutrients and
oxygen throughout the body.
Complexity Level: Most complex; integrates multiple organs to perform
interconnected, large-scale biological functions.
Summary of Complexity:
Cell → Fundamental building block
Tissue → Organized group of cells
Organ → Combination of tissues
Organ System → Integration of organs for complex biological processes
2.
2- State that a cell is the smallest unit of life.
ANSWER ; A cell is the smallest unit of life, capable of carrying out all the basic
functions necessary for an organism's survival, such as metabolism, growth, and
reproduction. It is the fundamental building block of all living organisms.
3- Identify cell organelles in an animal cell: cytoplasm, cell membrane, nucleus,
mitochondria, ribosomes, golgi apparatus, endoplasmic reticulum, centrosome.
ANSWER:
In an animal cell, the following organelles can be identified:
1. Cytoplasm:
A jelly-like substance that fills the cell, providing a medium for chemical
reactions and holding organelles in place.
2. Cell Membrane:
A semi-permeable barrier that surrounds the cell, controlling the movement of
substances in and out of the cell.
3. Nucleus:
The control center of the cell, containing DNA and regulating gene expression,
cell growth, and reproduction.
4. Mitochondria:
Known as the "powerhouse of the cell,"these organelles generate energy in the
form of ATP through cellular respiration.
5. Ribosomes:
Small structures, either free-floating in the cytoplasm or attached to the
endoplasmic reticulum, responsible for protein synthesis.
6. Golgi Apparatus:
A stack of flattened membranes that modifies, packages, and distributes
proteins and lipids for transport within or outside the cell.
7. Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER):
A network of membranes involved in protein and lipid synthesis. It has two types:
Rough ER: Studded with ribosomes and involved in protein synthesis.
Smooth ER: Lacks ribosomes and is involved in lipid synthesis and detoxification.
8. Centrosome:
An organelle near the nucleus that organizes microtubules and plays a key role in
cell division by forming spindle fibers.
These organelles work together to ensure the cell functions properly and
sustains life.
4. 4- Identify on a plant cell cytoplasm: cell wall, cell membrane, nucleus,
mitochondrion, chloroplast, and vacuole.
ANSWER:
In a plant cell, the following structures and organelles can be identified:
1. Cytoplasm:
The jelly-like substance within the cell where organelles are suspended and
various chemical reactions occur.
2. Cell Wall:
A RIGID (STIFF, HARD) outer layer made of cellulose that provides structural
support and protection to the cell, unique to plant cells.
3. Cell Membrane:
A SEMI-PERMEABLE MEMBRANE ( A MEMBRANE THAT ONLY ALLOWS CERTAIN
MATERIALS TO PASS THROUGH) located just inside the cell wall, controlling the
movement of substances in and out of the cell.
4. Nucleus:
The control center of the cell that contains DNA and regulates activities such as
growth, metabolism, and reproduction.
5. Mitochondrion:
The "powerhouse of the cell,"generating energy in the form of ATP (ADENOSINE
TRIPHOSPHATE) through cellular respiration.
6. Chloroplast:
Organelles unique to plant cells that contain chlorophyll, enabling the process of
photosynthesis to produce energy (glucose) from sunlight.
7. Vacuole:
A large, central organelle in plant cells filled with cell sap (water, enzymes, and
nutrients), providing storage, maintaining cell structure, and regulating water
balance.
These structures and organelles collectively contribute to the unique functions of
plant cells, such as photosynthesis, structural integrity, and water storage.
5. 5- Outline the function of each of the organelles listed above.
ANSWER:
Here is the function of each organelle in a plant cell:
1. Cytoplasm:
Acts as the site for many chemical reactions within the cell and provides a
medium where organelles are suspended and can move.
2. Cell Wall:
Provides structural support, protection, and rigidity to the plant cell. It also helps
maintain the cell's shape and prevents excessive water uptake.
3. Cell Membrane:
Regulates the movement of substances (nutrients, waste, and gases) in and out
of the cell, maintaining homeostasis.
4. Nucleus:
Stores the cell's genetic material (DNA) and controls cellular activities such as
growth, metabolism, and reproduction by regulating gene expression.
5. Mitochondrion:
Produces energy in the form of ATP through cellular respiration, supplying power
for various cellular processes.
6. Chloroplast:
Performs photosynthesis by converting light energy into chemical energy
(glucose), using water and carbon dioxide, and releasing oxygen as a by-product.
7. Vacuole:
Stores water, nutrients, and waste products. It also helps maintain cell turgor
pressure, which supports the plants structure.
These organelles work together to enable the plant cell to grow, produce energy,
and maintain its unique structure and functions.
MITOSIS AND MEIOSIS
6. 6- State that cell division is required for growth and repair.
ANSWER:
Cell division is required for growth and repair in living organisms. It allows
organisms to increase in size by producing more cells and replaces damaged or
dead cells to maintain tissue health and functionality.
7. Describe the process of mitosis and that it is a division that produces two
genetically identical daughtercells from a single parentcell.
ANSWER ;
Mitosis is the process of cell division that produces two genetically identical
daughter cells from a single parent cell. It ensures that each daughter cell receives
an exact copy of the parent cell's DNA, maintaining genetic consistency. The
process occurs in the following stages:
1. Interphase (Preparation phase):
The cell grows and replicates its DNA, ensuring it has two copies of each
chromosome.
2. Prophase:
Chromosomes condense and become visible as sister chromatids joined at the
centromere.
The nuclear membrane begins to break down.
The centrosomes move to opposite poles of the cell, and spindle fibers form.
3. Metaphase:
Chromosomes align at the cell's equatorial plane (the metaphase plate).
Spindle fibers attach to the centromeres of each chromosome.
4. Anaphase:
Spindle fibers pull sister chromatids apart, moving them to opposite poles of the
cell.
5. Telophase:
Chromatids reach the poles and decondense into chromatin.
A new nuclear membrane forms around each set of chromosomes, creating two
nuclei.
6. Cytokinesis:
The cytoplasm divides, forming two separate daughter cells, each with an
identical set of chromosomes.
Outcome:
Two genetically identical daughter cells are produced, each containing the same
number of chromosomes as the original parent cell. This process is essential for
growth, repair, and asexual reproduction in multicellular organisms.
8, 8- Describe the process of meiosis and that it is a reduction division to
produce gametes.
ANSWER:
Meiosis is a special type of cell division that happens to produce gametes (sperm
or egg cells) for reproduction. It is called a reduction division because it reduces
the chromosome number by half, so the gametes have only one set of
chromosomes. Here's an easy explanation:
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How Meiosis Works
1. Start with a normal cell:
The cell has two sets of chromosomes (one from the mother and one from the
father).
2. Meiosis happens in two main steps:
Meiosis I: The cell divides once, separating the two sets of chromosomes into two
cells. Each cell now has one set of chromosomes but still in duplicate form (as
pairs of "sister chromatids").
Meiosis II: These two cells divide again, separating the sister chromatids into four
cells.
3. End with four gametes:
Each gamete has half the number of chromosomes of the original cell. These
gametes are all genetically unique because of two things:
Crossing over: Chromosomes swap pieces of DNA, mixing genetic material.
Random assortment: Chromosomes are divided randomly, creating different
combinations.
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Why Its Important
Meiosis creates gametes (like sperm and egg cells) with half the normal number of
chromosomes. When a sperm and egg join during fertilization, they restore the
normal chromosome number, passing on a mix of genetic traits to the offspring.
This is how meiosis ensures genetic diversity!
9. State that the nucleus contains DNA stored in the form of chromosomes.
ANSWER:
The nucleus contains DNA, which is stored in the form of chromosomes. These
chromosomes carry the genetic information that controls the cell's activities and is
passed on during cell division.
10- Outline the number of chromosomes in humans is 46 and they are organized
in pairs.
ANSWER:
Humans have 46 chromosomes, and they are grouped into 23 pairs.
22 pairs are called autosomes, which contain most of our genetic information (like
eye color, hair color, etc.).
The 23rd pair is made up of sex chromosomes, which determine whether a person
is male or female:
Females have two X chromosomes (XX).
Males have one X and one Y chromosome (XY).
So, in total: 46 chromosomes = 23 pairs.
11- Outline how each of these pairs is a result of inheritance of chromosomes
from our parents.
ANSWER;
You get your 46 chromosomes (23 pairs) from your parents—half from your mom
and half from your dad.
1. 22 pairs of autosomes (the regular chromosomes):
For each of these pairs, you get one chromosome from your mom and one from
your dad.
2. 1 pair of sex chromosomes (XX or XY):
Females get one X chromosome from their mom and one X from their dad (XX).
Males get one X chromosome from their mom and one Y chromosome from their
dad (XY).
So, your 46 chromosomes are made up of 23 pairs—half from your mom, half from
your dad.
DNA and Punnett squares
12- Describe the structure of DNA in terms of sugar, phosphate and bases
(A,T,C,G) forming a double helix.
ANSWER;
DNA looks like a twisted ladder, called a double helix. Here's how it's made:
1. Backbone: The sides of the ladder are made of sugar and phosphate molecules,
which repeat and form the structure's support.
2. Base Pairs: The "rungs"of the ladder are made of 4 chemical bases:
Adenine (A) pairs with Thymine (T).
Cytosine (C) pairs with Guanine (G).
These pairs are connected by bonds.
3. Double Helix: The whole structure twists into a spiral, which is why it's called a
double helix.
In short: Sugar + Phosphate make the sides and A, T, C, G make the rungs.
Together they form the twisted ladder of DNA.
13- State that a section of DNA is called a Gene.
ANSWER;
14- Outline that genes code for inherited characteristics.
ANSWER:
Genes are small pieces of DNA that carry the instructions for making you, you!
They decide things like your eye color, hair type, and height.
You inherit your genes from your parents, which is why you may look like them or
have similar traits.
Each gene has a special code that helps your body build important things like
proteins, which control how your body works.
So, genes are like instruction books for your body's traits, passed down from your
parents.
15-State that a version of a gene is called an allele.
ANSWER:
An allele is like a different form of a gene. For example, if a gene controls eye color,
the alleles might be for blue eyes or brown eyes. You inherit two alleles for each
gene, one from your mom and one from your dad, which decide how a trait
appears.
16- Describe how some genes we inherit are dominant and some are recessive.
ANSWER:
Some genes are dominant, and some are recessive. Here's how they work:
1. Dominant genes: If you have just one copy of a dominant gene, it will show up.
For example, if you inherit a dominant gene for brown eyes, you'll have brown eyes
even if the other gene is for blue eyes.
2. Recessive genes: You need two copies of a recessive gene (one from each
parent) for it to show up. For example, to have blue eyes, you need to inherit a
blue eye gene from both your mom and dad.
In short:
Dominant = Only one copy needed to show the trait.
Recessive = Two copies needed to show the trait.
17- Construct Punnett squares to show the inheritance of single characteristics
(monohybrid cross).
ANSWER;
A Punnett square helps predict how traits are passed from parents to kids. Lets
look at an example with eye color.
Example: Brown Eyes (B) vs. Blue Eyes (b)
Brown eyes (B) are dominant.
Blue eyes (b) are recessive.
Lets say one parent has Bb (brown eyes) and the other has bb (blue eyes).
Steps:
1. Write down the parentsgenes:
Parent 1: Bb (brown eyes)
Parent 2: bb (blue eyes)
2. Draw a 2x2 grid.
3. Put the B and b alleles from each parent at the top and side of the grid.
4. Fill in the boxes with possible combinations.
Punnett Square:
Results:
50% chance the baby will have brown eyes (Bb).
50% chance the baby will have blue eyes (bb).
This shows how a Punnett square works for predicting a single trait!
18- Construct Punnett squares to show the inheritance of double characteristics
(dihybrid cross).
ANSWER;
19- Explain characteristics such as blood type are inherited as an example of
dominant, recessive and codominant alleles.
ANSWER:
Blood type is inherited through dominant, recessive, and codominant alleles.
Heres how it works:
1. Codominant alleles:
A and B are codominant, meaning if you inherit both, you get AB blood type. Both
A and B show up.
2. Dominant allele:
If you inherit an A or B allele from one parent, it will show up over the O allele.
3. Recessive allele:
O is recessive, meaning you need two O alleles (OO) to have O blood type.
Example:
Parent 1 (AB) and Parent 2 (AO):
Their children could have A, B, or AB blood types.
Summary:
A and B are codominant (both show up if you have one of each).
A and B are dominant over O.
O is recessive, so you need two O alleles to have type O blood.
Variation-Mutations- Genetic diseases
20- Distinguish examples of variation in characteristics which are caused by genetic or
environmental factors.
ANSWER:
Genetic Factors: Eye color, blood type, natural hair color, inherited disorders.
Environmental Factors: Skin tone (sun exposure), weight (diet), scars, plant growth
(soil/sun).
Combined: Height, intelligence, athletic ability.
21- Distinguish between continuous and discontinuous variation.
ANSWER:
Continuous Variation:
Traits show a range of values without distinct categories (e.g., height, weight).
Controlled by many genes and influenced by the environment.
Discontinuous Variation:
Traits have distinct categories with no intermediate forms (e.g., blood type, eye color)
Controlled by few genes with little to no environmental influence.
OR
Continuous: Traits with a range (e.g., height, weight).
Discontinuous: Traits in distinct categories (e.g., blood type, eye color)
22- Describe how genetic diseases such as cystic fibrosis and Huntington’s disease are
inherited.
ANSWER:
Cystic Fibrosis: Inherited in an autosomal (autosomes) recessive pattern. A person must
inherit two faulty copies of the CFTR gene (one from each parent) to develop the disease.
Huntington’s Disease: Inherited in an autosomal dominant pattern. A person only needs
one faulty copy of the HTT gene to develop the disease.