CHAPTER SEVEN: GEOHAZARDS & GEOLOGIC STRUCTURES

7.1 Volcanism

Volcanism is the upcoming of materials from the interior part of the earth. These
materials can be liquid (lava), solid (pyroclastic materials), and volatile gases. Volcano is
a vent or fissure in the earth's crust through which molten magma, hot gases, and other
fluids escape to the surface of the land or to the bottom of the sea.

About 95 % of active volcanoes occur at the plate subduction zones and at the mid-
oceanic ridges.
ridges. The other 5 % occur in areas associated with lithospheric hot spots.
spots.
These hot spots have no direct relationships with areas of crustal creation or subduction
zones. It is believed that hot spots are caused by plumes of rising magma that have their
origin within the asthenosphere.
asthenosphere.

Figure 7.1 Location of the Earth's major volcanoes (Ref.24)

Although some eruptions may be cataclysmic, many are relatively quiescent. The primary
factors that determine the nature of volcanic eruptions include the magma’s composition,
composition,
its temperature,
temperature, and the amount of dissolved gases it contains. These factors affect the
magma’s viscosity.
viscosity. The more viscous a material, the greater its resistance to flow. Thus,
the viscosity of magma, plus the quantity of dissolved gases and the ease with which they
escape, determine the nature or style of volcanic eruption as Explosive (pyroclastic
materials) and Non-Explosive (lava flows) type of eruptions.

When the temperatures of lavas are high, they are more fluid. As the temperature drops,
the lava becomes more viscous. Magmas that produce basaltic rock contain about 50
percent silica and tend to be quite fluid. By contrast, magmas that produce granitic
(acidic) rocks contain over 70 percent silica and are very viscous. Thus hot basaltic lavas
tend to be quite fluid and have been known to travel distances of 150 kilometers before
solidifying. Rhyolitic lavas are very viscous and tend to form comparatively short, thick
flows. In addition, fluid basaltic lavas tend to be relatively low in dissolved gases, which
migrate upward and escape from the vent with relative ease. As they escape, the gases
often propel incandescent lava hundreds of meters into the air. Although spectacular,
these lava fountains are mostly harmless. At the other extreme, highly viscous magmas
impede the upward migration of expanding gases. The gases collect as bubbles that
increase in pressure until they explosively eject the semi molten rock from a volcano.

7.1.1 Material Extruded During An Eruption

Depending on the chemical composition of the magma, volcanic eruptions extrude

various quantities of lava, gases and pyroclastic materials. Due to their low silica content,
basaltic magmas extrude mainly lavas that are very fluid and flow in thin, broad sheets or
stream-like ribbons. When fluid basaltic lavas congeal, they often form a smooth skin
that wrinkles as the still molten subsurface continue to advance and it is called Pahoehoe
lava flow (ropy lava).
lava). As basaltic magmas cool they tend to form thick lava flows that
exhibit a surface of rough, jagged blocks with sharp edges called Aa lava flow (blocky
lava).
lava).
a b

Figure 7.2 types of lava flows (a) Pahoehoe type (b) AA type (Ref.7)

Depending on chemical composition, the gaseous portion of most magma is believed to

make up 1 to 6 percent of the total weight. Analysis of samples indicates that the gases
are about 70% Water vapor, 15% Carbon dioxide, 5% Nitrogen & Sulfur, and lesser
amounts of Chlorine, Hydrogen, and Argon.

Materials ejected into the air by a volcano that eventually collect on the ground surface in
sedimentary-like layers are called Tephra (Pyroclastic
(Pyroclastic materials).
materials). Based on the particle
sizes for air fall fragments, pyroclastic materials can be divided as: Dust (with a diameter
of less than 1/16 mm); Ash (with a diameter of 1/16 mm to 2 mm); Cinders or Lapilli
(with a diameter ranging from 2 to 64 mm); bombs and blocks (with a diameter greater
than 64 mm).

Magmas high in silica tend to eject large quantities of pyroclastic materials. Pyroclastics
are formed when pulverized rock, blobs of lava, and glass fragments are ejected from the
vent. Fine ash and dust particles are produced when the extruded lava contains so many
gas bubbles that it resembles the froth flowing from a newly opened bottle of champagne.
Fine debris can be blasted high into the atmosphere where it can produce brilliant sunsets
and may temporarily lower Earth’s average temperature. Some times the froth like lava is
ejected in larger pieces called Pumice. Pyroclastics the size of walnuts are called Lapilli
and pea-sized particles are called Cinders.
Cinders. Particles larger than lapilli are called Blocks
when they are made of hardened lava and Bombs when they are ejected as incandescent
lava.

A pyroclastic rock is composed of particles blasted out of a volcano. The word

pyroclastic means, "fire broken". Pyroclastic breccias are composed of angular lapilli or
blocks generally in a matrix of ash or dust. A rock formed from fine-grained tephra (ash
and dust) is commonly called a tuff.
tuff.

7.1.2 Volcanoes

The eruptive history of each volcano is unique; consequently, all volcanoes are somewhat
different in form and size. Nevertheless, Volcanologists have recognized that volcanoes
exhibiting somewhat similar eruptive styles can be grouped.

Based on history of eruption, volcanoes can be grouped into three as: Active, Dormant,
and Extinct volcanoes. Active volcanoes are volcanoes that are active at present moment
and includes those erupted with in a living memory. Dormant volcanoes are resting
volcanoes erupted with in historic time and likely to do so again in the future. These
types of volcanoes are mostly characterized by geothermal activity. Extinct volcanoes are
dead volcanoes that already finished their activity.

Based on the nature of the conduit, volcanoes can be divided into two as: Fissural and
Central volcanoes. Fissural volcanoes are those erupted through a very extended crack,
for example along mid oceanic ridges, and flooding vast areas. Central volcanoes are
erupted through a single central opening or vent. The central volcanoes can be further
classified as Shield,
Shield, Dome,
Dome, Cinder Cone,
Cone, and Composite Cone volcanoes.
When fluid lava is extruded, the volcano takes the shape of a broad, domed structure
called a shield volcano.
volcano. Shield volcanoes are built primarily of fluid basaltic lava flows
and contain only a small percentage of pyroclastics. Typically shield volcanoes have a
slope of only a few degrees. In addition, shield volcanoes can be some of the largest
volcanoes on Earth, as exemplified by the volcanoes of the Hawaiian Islands. Because of
very fluid magmas, shield volcanoes generally exhibit quiet eruptions. But Dome
volcanoes are built of more viscose acidic (rhyolitic) lava flows and commonly includes
abundant volcanic glass. Domes can form as isolated bodies, chains of domes, or as plugs
at the top of composite volcanoes.

b
Figure 7.3 (a) shape of a shield volcano (b) cross-section of a volcanic Dome

As the name suggests, Cinder Cones are built from ejected lava fragments. Because
loose pyroclastic material has a high angle of repose (between 30 and 40 degrees), cinder
cones have very steep slopes. Cinder cones are rather small; usually less than 300 meters
high, and sometimes form near or on the flanks of larger volcanoes. The most common
examples are scoria cones.
 Figure 7.4 Cinder Cones (Ref. 7)

Earth’s most picturesque volcanoes are composite cones.

cones. A composite cone is a large,
nearly symmetrical structure composed of interbedded lavas and pyroclastic deposits,
emitted mainly from a central vent. A composite cone may extrude viscous lava for a
long period and then the eruptive style changes and the volcano violently ejects
pyroclastic materials. And these types of volcanoes are also called Stratovolcanoes.
Stratovolcanoes.
Composite cones represent one of the most violent types of volcanic activity.
Occasionally composite cones emit hot gases infused with incandescent ash. These fiery
clouds called Nuee ardentes ("glowing avalanches") consist of turbulent steam clouds
and ash flows that race down volcanic slopes at speeds that reach 200 kilometers per
hour. In addition, composite cones often generate a type of mudflow called Lahar.
Lahar.

Figure 7.5 Stratovolcano (Ref.7)

Figure 7.6 cross-section of a stratovolcano

Crater is a bowl-shaped depression on top of a volcano. But very large depression at the
top of a volcano, formed by collapse of the top of the volcano into a magma chamber that
has been partly emptied during an eruption, it is called Caldera.
Caldera.

Figure 7.7 A crater of Erta-Ale (Ethiopia), one of the active volcanoes in East African Rift Zone (Ref. 15).
Table 7.1 Summarizes the different types of materials extruded during an eruption and the different types
of volcanoes

7.1.3 Advantage and Disadvantages of Volcanism

The following are some of the advantages of volcanism.

 Creation of new land areas: for example, Hawaii, Iceland, etc.
 Sources for Geothermal energy
 Sources of many concentrations of economic minerals: for example, sulphide ore
mineralizations
 Sources of Earth’s atmosphere
 An original source of water on Earth
 Important to study the internal part of the Earth: for example, Xenoliths
 Sources of fertile soil for agriculture, etc.
Some of the disadvantages are:
 Hazards and associated risks: for example, burial by lava flows and ash,
destruction by pyroclastic flows (nuee ardentes), destruction by lahars (volcano
related debris flows), destruction by fire, etc.
 Volcanic dust can reduce surface temperatures by increasing Earth's albedo
(reflectivity) and causing more of the Sun's radiation to bounce back into space
and affect the photosynthesis process.
 Pollution of the atmosphere by emitting CO2
 Major contributor to acid rain
 Death/injury by poisonous or heated volcanic gasses
 Pollution of groundwater: for example, addition of Fluorine to groundwater
 Causes Earthquakes
 Causes sea waves called Tsunamis when erupted inside the oceans.
 Famine, failure of communication systems, failure of transportation systems,
failure of water systems, and other destruction of infrastructures.

7.2 Crustal Deformations (Diastrophism and Geologic Structures)

Earth is a dynamic planet. Tectonic forces deform rock to produce our planet’s
spectacular mountain belts. Stress is the amount of force that acts on a rock unit to
change its shape and/or its volume. Strain is the deformation caused by stress. Some of
the geologic structures (strain) associated with crustal deformation (stress) include folds,
faults, joints or fractures.

7.2.1 Diastrophism

Diastrophism is any activity or motion results in a permanent change or deformation that

is occurred with in the Earth’s crust. And Geologic structures are the permanent changes
of the crustal deformations.
There are two major types of diastrophism or crustal movement processes. These are
Epeirogenic and Orogenic processes. Epeirogenic process is called a continent building
activity that is a gradual downward and upward movement of the crust without
significant deformation. This process is slow and intermittent which affect large regions
without producing extensive folding or faulting. For example, uplifting of Finland and
Scandinavia and the raised beaches of Northern Canada. These represent the slow upward
recovery of the crust after the removal of the glacial load that had depressed it. Another
example could be the city of Venice, which is slowly sinking at a rate of 4 mm per year.
Withdrawal of groundwater and Natural gas facilitates the down sinking of Venice.
Orogenic process is called a mountain-building activity that originates mostly at the
collision plate boundaries. This process involves with compressive deformations such as
faulting and folding, intrusion of magma, volcanism, and metamorphism. The most
common examples are the different mountain chains in the world like the Himalayas,
Alps, Cordillera, and Appalachian mountain chains.

7.2.2 Deformations

Depending on the nature of the rocks and the rate or frequency of the movements, there
are two types of deformations. These are Brittle and Ductile deformations. Brittle
deformation is breaking of a material without bending. Such type of deformation happens
if the rock is rigid and the rate of movement or the frequency of the applied force is rapid.
The most common geologic structures resulted from brittle type of deformation are Faults
and Joints (fractures). Unlike to brittle deformation, ductile deformation is bending
without breaking. Such deformations are happened if the rock is soft or ductile and if the
rate of the applied force is slow. The most common geologic structure, which resulted
from ductile type of deformation, is called Fold.

7.2.3 Orientation Of Geologic Structures

When geologists prepare a geologic map, measurements called Strike (trend) and Dip
(inclination) are used to describe the orientation or attitude of a rock layer or fault
surface. Strike is the compass direction of the line produced by the intersection of an
inclined rock layer or fault, with a horizontal plane. Strike is generally expressed as an
angle relative to north. Dip is the angle of inclination of the surface of a rock unit or fault
surface measured from a horizontal plane. Dip includes both an angle of inclination and a
direction toward which the rock is inclined. This direction will always be at a 90-degree
angle to the strike.

a b
Figure 7.8 (a) strike direction (b) measuring the strike angle using a compass, which is North 45 degrees

East (N450E) (Reference No.7).

a b

Figure 7.9 (a) dip angle (b) the angle of dip shown is 30 degrees and the dip direction is along the flow
direction (Reference No.7).
To map a geologic structure, geologists measure the strike and dip at as many outcrops as
practical. These data are plotted on a topographic map or aerial photograph along with a
description of the rock type to construct a geologic map.

Figure 7.10 Shows how data are plotted on a topographic map (Reference No.7)

Using the information supplied by the geologic map, we are often able to infer the
orientation of the structure below ground.

Figure 7.11 A syncline fold inferred from a geologic map (Reference No.7)
7.2.4 Folds

Folds are geologic structures resulted from ductile deformations. During mountain
building, flat-lying sedimentary rocks are often bent into a series of wavelike undulations
called Folds.
Folds. The two sides of a fold are called Limbs.
Limbs. A line drawn along the points of
maximum curvature is termed the fold axis of the fold and the axial plane is an
imaginary surface that divides a fold as symmetrically as possible. Hinge line is a line
along the bed where the curvature is maximum. Hinge line and fold axis are similar only
when the axis of the fold is not dipping (horizontal). But if the folded bed is tilted, the
hinge line and the fold axis are separated by an angle called angle of plunge.
plunge.

Figure 7.12 Fold and its axis (Ref.7)

[Link] Anticlines, Synclines, and Monoclines

The two most common types of folds are called Anticlines and Synclines.
Synclines. Anticlines,
which are commonly formed by up folding, or arching, of rock layers are often found in
association with troughs, or synclines. Anticlines are folds whose two limbs dipping in
opposite directions (‘Anti’ means opposite) while Synclines are folds whose two limbs
dipping towards each other or the same point (‘Syn’ means the same). Although most
folds are caused by compressional stresses, some are the consequence of vertical
displacements along faults. Monoclines are such structures that show one directional
dipping folds.
a b

c
Figure 7.13 shows (a) Anticlines, (b) synclines, and (c) monocline fold, (Ref.7)

[Link] Types of Folds

Folds can be divided into different types depending on ; the orientation of the hinge line
with the fold axis, the nature of the axial plane, nature of limbs, and the angle of
curvature.

Depending on the orientation of the hinge line with respect to the fold axis, folds can be
divided into two as Plunging fold (if the fold axis is not parallel to the hinge line or
inclined hinge line that form an angle of plunge with the fold axis) and Non-plunging
folds (when fold axis is parallel to the hinge line or horizontal hinge line).

Depending on the nature of the axial plane, these basic folds are described as
symmetrical when the limbs on either side of the axial plane diverge at the same angle
on a vertical axial plane and asymmetrical when they do not or inclined axial plane.
Based on the nature of limbs, folds can be described as Upright (Normal
(Normal)) folds when the
two limbs dip in opposite directions, Overturned folds when the two limbs dip in the
same direction with different dip angle, Isoclinal folds when the limbs dip in the same
direction (similar to overturned) but with same dip angle, and Recumbent folds when the
axial plane is horizontal and the limbs are lying parallel on their sides.

All symmetrical folds are upright (normal) and all overturned folds are said to be
asymmetrical.

a b
Figure 7.14 shows (a) the different types of Folds (b) recumbent fold (Ref.7)

Based on the angle of curvature, folds can be divided as; Tight folds when the angle of
curvature is less than 30 degrees, Closed folds when it is between 30 and 70 degrees,
open folds when it is between 70 and 120 degrees, and Gentle folds when it is greater
than 120 degrees. Tight folds are mostly characterized by thin limbs and thick crest or
trough.
7.2.5 Fractures

Fractures are formed by brittle type of deformations when extensional and compressional
force is applied. These can be Faults or Joints. Faults are fractures along which
displacement has taken place.

[Link] Types of Faults

1. Dip-Slip Faults:
Faults: Faults in which the movement is primarily parallel to the dip or
inclination of the fault surface are called dip-slip faults. Vertical displacements along
dip-slip faults may produce long, low cliffs called fault scarps.
scarps.

Figure 7.15 Dip-slip fault (Ref.7)

To describe the displacement along a dip-slip fault, we use nomenclature that arose from
miners who excavated shafts along fault zones. The rock surface above the fault is called
the hanging wall and the rock surface below is the footwall. (Note the miner in the
picture is standing on the footwall).

Figure 7.16 Normal Fault (Ref. 7)

Dip-slip faults are classified as normal faults when the hanging wall block moves down
relative to the footwall block. These faults indicate the existence of tensional stresses that
tend to pull the crust apart. Normal faulting may also result in a central block called a
Graben that is bounded by uplifted structures called Horsts.
Horsts. For example, the Great Rift
Valley of East Africa is made up of several large grabens bounded by tilted horsts.

Figure 7.17 Horsts and Grabens (Ref.7)

Figure 7.18 The main East African Rift valley

formed by successive grabens (Ref.7)

Reverse faults and thrust faults are also dip-slip faults in which the hanging wall block
moves up relative to the footwall block. Reverse faults (dips greater than 45 0) and thrust
faults (dips less than 450) occur in compressional environments.

Figure 7.19 Reverse Fault Figure 7.20 Thrust Fault (Ref.7)

2. Strike-Slip Faults:
Faults: these types of faults exhibit mainly horizontal displacement
parallel to the strike of the fault surface. Large strike-slip faults, called transform
faults, accommodate displacement between plate boundaries. Most transform faults
cut the oceanic lithosphere and link spreading centers. For example the San Andreas
Fault is a strike-slip (transform) fault that is located on land. There are two types of
strike slip faults: Sinistral (left-lateral) and Dextral (right-lateral) faults.

Figure 7.21 example of right-lateral fault Figure 7.22 Map of the San Andreas Fault (Ref.7)

3. Oblique-Slip Faults:
Faults: are types of faults where the movement of the blocks is in both
vertical and horizontal directions.

[Link] Joints

Fractures along which no appreciable displacement has occurred are called Joints.
Joints. A
group of parallel joints is called joint set.
set. And a group of two or more joint sets is called
joint system.
system. When two joint sets intersect at 90 degrees, it is called Conjugate joint
system. Columnar joints form when igneous rocks cool and develop shrinkage fractures
that produce elongated, pillar like columns. Most joints are the result of brittle failure
when rocks in the outermost crust are deformed.
Figure 7.23 Joint System (Ref.7) Figure 7.24 Columnar Joints (Ref.7)

7.3 Earthquakes

Earthquake is the vibration of Earth, produced by the rapid release of energy. This energy
radiates in all directions from its source, called the focus, in the form of waves. We know
that most earthquakes result from movements along large fractures called faults. The
actual mechanism of earthquake generation was discovered by H.F. Reid during a study
following the 1906 San Francisco earthquake, which is happened along the northern
portion of the San Andreas Fault.

Figure 7.25 energy propagation in all directions from its source (Reference No.7)
The mechanism for earthquake generation, which Reid deduced from these facts, is
termed elastic rebound. He noticed that earthquakes occur along large faults. Tectonic
forces over tens or hundreds of years slowly deform the crustal rocks on both sides of the
fault.

Figure 7.26 A slowly deformed crustal rock (Reference No.7)

Under these conditions, the rocks are bending and storing elastic energy much like a
wooden stick would if bent. Eventually, the frictional resistance holding the rocks
together is overcome. The vibrations we know as an earthquake occur as the rock
elastically ‘snaps back’ to its original shape.

a
b
Figure 7.27 (a) bended rock body that store elastic energy (b) energy released when the bended rock is
fractured (Reference No.7)
7.3.1 Earthquake Measurements

Instruments that record seismic waves are called Seismographs. Seismographs have a
mass freely suspended from a support that is attached to the ground.

a b

Figure 7.28 Earthquake measuring instruments (a) buried in the ground (b) the seismograph (Ref. 7)

When the vibrations from a distant earthquake reach the instrument, the inertia of the
mass keeps it relatively stationary, while the ground and support move. The movement of
the ground in relation to the stationary mass is recorded on a rotating drum or other
device. The records obtained from seismographs, called seismograms, provide a great
deal of information about the behavior of seismic waves.

Figure 7.29 A Seismogram

7.3.2 Seismic Waves

Simply stated, seismic waves are elastic energy that radiate in all directions from the
focus. The propagation of this energy can be compared to the ripples generated when a
stone is dropped in a calm pond. Seismograms reveal that two main groups of seismic
waves are generated by the slippage of a rock mass. One of these wave types travels
along the outer part of Earth. These are called surface waves.
waves. Others travel through
Earth’s interior and are called body waves.
waves.

a b
Figure 7.30 Seismic waves (a) body waves (b) surface waves (Ref. 7)

Body waves are further divided into two types called primary or P-waves and secondly
or S-waves.
S-waves. P waves push (compress) and pull (expand) rocks in the direction the wave is
traveling. S waves, on the other hand, ‘shake’ the particles at right angles to their
direction of travel.
 a b
Figure 7.31 The direction of particle motion by the propagation of (a) P-waves (b) S-waves

The motion of surface waves is more complex and includes an up-and –down as well as a side-
to-side motion that is particularly damaging to structures. By observing a representative
seismogram some of the differences among these seismic waves becomes apparent based on
their arrival times (velocity), amplitude (wave height), and periods (time interval between
crests).

Figure 7.32 a seismogram that shows the first arrival of the P-waves, S-waves and surface waves

P waves are the fastest and surface waves are the slowest to arrive on the seismograph station.
Surface waves have the greatest amplitude and the longest periods where as p-waves have the
least amplitudes and the shortest periods. S waves are intermediate. In addition to these
differences p waves will travel through solids, liquids, and gases, whereas s waves will only
travel through solids.
 Table 7.1 compares S and P waves

Seismic waves are useful in determining the location of earthquakes. More importantly, seismic
waves provide a tool for probing Earth’s interior.

Figure 7.33 The propagation of P and S waves inside the Earth (Ref.7)

7.3.3 Locating an Earthquake

The focus (some times called Hypocenter) of an earthquake is the location within Earth where an
earthquake originates. When locating an earthquake on a map, seismologists plot the epicenter,
the point on Earth’s surface directly above the focus.
 Figure 7.34 Focus and Epicenter of an earthquake

[Link] Distance of the Epicenter

The difference in the velocities of p and s waves provides a method for locating the epicenter of
an earthquake. The farther away the recording instrument is from the focus, the greater the
difference in arrival times of the first p wave compared to the first s wave. For example, look at
the following seismograms, Paris-France is located farthest from the epicenter and Nagpur-India
is the nearest to the epicenter.
Figure 7.35 Seismograms at three different stations from a single source earthquake (Ref.7)

To determine the distance between a recording station and an earthquake epicenter, seismologists
use the following travel-time graph.

Figure 7.36 Travel-Time Graph (Ref.7)

For example look at the seismogram (figure 7.32), when the first p wave arrives 4 minutes before
the first s wave, from the travel-time graph (figure 7.36) the earthquake occurred about 2500
kilometers from the recording station.

[Link] Location of the Epicenter

Using seismograms from three recording stations and a travel-time graph, we can establish the
location of the earthquake epicenter. For example from the above three seismograms, the
epicenter from a recording station located in Nagpur-India is about 3200 kms. From this
information we conclude that this earthquake occurred somewhere along a circle centered around
Nagpur with a radius of 3200 kilometers. Similarly, the distance from the epicenter to the
seismic stations located in Darwin-Australia and Paris-France are 4900 kilometers and 8200
kilometers respectively. Drawing a circle with radius of 3200, 4900, and 8200 kilometers on the
map from their respective stations, we conclude that the earthquake occurred in northern China
as shown below.

Figure 7.37 Location of the earthquake (epicenter) using the seismograms from the three stations, at a distance of
3200, 4900, and 8200 kms from Nagpur, Darwin, and Paris respectively.

[Link] Depth of the Focus

The depth for the source of an earthquake can be computed from the epicenter distance and the
travel time of p-waves. Let E is the distance between the epicenter and the station, D is the
distance between the focus and the station, and H is the depth of the focus.

Epicenter E Seismograph Station

On the surface of the
earth
H
D

Focus
D2=E2 +H2, this implies that H =  D2- E2. We have seen in section [Link] how to determine E.
D can also determined from the travel time and velocity of P-waves. Seismologists determine
from different earthquake data that the average velocity of P-waves (Vp) in crustal rocks. And
from the travel-time graph (figure 7.36) we can read the total travel time taken for the p-wave
(Tp). Then

Vp = D/Tp
D = VpTp, therefore, H =  D2- E2
H =  (VpTp) 2- E2

By establishing the locations of thousands of earthquakes, seismologists have determined that

these destructive forces are concentrated along a few narrow zones. The greatest earthquake
energy is released along a path located near the outer edge of the Pacific Ocean known as the
circum-pacific belt.
belt. And another belt extends through the world’s oceans along the oceanic
ridge system.
system.

Figure 7.38 The circum pacific belt (dots) and the oceanic ridge system (smooth lines), Ref.7
7.3.4 Earthquake Measurement Scales

Earthquakes are measured either in the form of magnitude or intensity scales. Magnitude is the
actual amount of energy released from an earthquake. It is given by a Richter scale, using the
formula, m = log (a/t) + . Where “a” is the maximum amplitude, “t” period or distance of one
oscillation, and” ” is the attenuation factor. If the magnitude of an earthquake is below 3.4 it is
not felt by people but animals like dogs can feel it. If it is between 3.5 and 4.2 some people can
feel it, between 4.3 and 4.8 many people can feel it, and if it is above 4.9 all people feel the
earthquake.

The intensity scale refers to the amount of damage or degree of destruction on the surface by a
given earthquake. And it is given by the Mercalli scale ranging from a roman number I (when
there is no damage) to XII (for a total damage). Intensity depends on the nature and type of
construction, population density, and magnitude of the earthquake.