Principles of Diagnostic
Imaging 1
Lecture 5 - X-ray Emission
X-ray Emission
• The output intensity is measured in roentgens ( R) or milliroentgens
(mR) and is termed the X-ray Quantity.
• The number of x-rays in the useful beam is the Radiation Quantity.
Estimating X-ray Intensity
Exposure is expressed as mR/mAs.
Using a nomogram, we can
estimate the exposure output over
a wide range of technical factors.
With 3mm of Al filtration at 70 kVp
the output is about 5 mR/mAs
At 100 mAs, the exposure would
be 500 mR.
Important factors are:
Filtration
kVp
Factors Affecting X-ray Quantity
• Milliamperage- Seconds
• kVp
• Distance
• Filtration
The same factors also control radiographic film density
mA x time (s)= mAs
The X-ray quantity is directly proportional to the mAs. If we double
the mAs, the number of electrons striking the target is doubled.
300 mA at 1/30 second = 10 mAs
200 mA at 1/20 second = 10 mAs
100 mA at 1/10 second = 10 mAs
Kilovoltage
X-ray quantity varies rapidly with changes in kVp.
The change in quantity is proportional to the square of the voltage.
If the kVp is doubled, the intensity would increase by a factor of four.
Kilovoltage
What really happens when the kVp is increased?
• When kVp is increased, the penetrability of the x-rays is increased and
relatively fewer x-rays are absorbed in the patient.
• More rays pass through the patients to interact with the film.
• To maintain a constant exposure of the film, an increase of 15% in kVp
should be accompanied by a reduction of one half the mAs.
Distance
Radiation intensity from an x-ray tube varies inversely with the square of
the distance from the target. This is referred to as the inverse square law.
It is the same for any type of electromagnetic energy.
Filtration
• X-ray machines have metal
filters inserted into the
useful beam.
• It removes low energy beam
that reach the patient and
are absorbed superficially.
• Filters therefore reduce
patient exposure.
• Calculation of the amount
of exposure reduction
requires a knowledge of the
Half-Value Layer.
X-ray Quality
• As the effective energy of the beam increases, the penetrability also
increases.
• Penetrability refers to the range of beam in matter.
• Beams with high penetrability are referred to as hard.
• Beams of low quality are called soft beams.
• X-ray quality is identified numerically by HVL.
• The HVL is affected by the kVp of operation and the amount of filtration in
the useful beam.
• X-ray quality is influenced by the kVp and filtration.
Half-Value Layer (HVL)
Half-value layer is the thickness of material needed to reduce the
intensity to one half of its original value.
HVL is a characteristic of the x-ray beam.
A diagnostic x-ray beam usually has a HVL of 3 to 5 mm Al.
Determining the HVL
An exposure is made
without filtration and the
intensity is measured.
Different thickness of
filtration is added and
intensity is measured.
Results are graphed.
[Link]
Determining the HVL
From the graph, the HVL can be
determined.
The established standard for
filtration is 2.5 mm Al for tube
operated above 70 kVp.
Half-Value Layer
HVL is the best method for specifying x-ray quality.
Variations of kVp and filtration are not simple relationships.
Factors Affecting X-ray Quality
Kilovoltage. As the kVp is increased, beam quality increases and
therefore HVL.
An increase in kVp results in a shift of the x-ray emission spectrum
towards the higher energy side.
This increases the effective energy of the beam, making it more
penetrating.
Relationship between kVp and HVL
kVp HVL ( mm AL)
•50 1.9
•75 2.8
•100 3.7
•125 4.6
Factors Affecting X-ray Quality
Filtration.
As filtration is increased,
so is the beam quality, but
quantity is decreased.
Types of Filtration
• Inherent Filtration
• Added Filtration: Added in collimator
• Compensating Filtration: Used to improve image quality or radiation
reduction
Inherent Filtration
The glass envelope of the tube filters the emerging beam. In
diagnostic x-ray tubes the glass is equal to about 0.5 mm Al.
As tube ages and more tungsten is vaporized, tungsten will build up
on the inside of the tube that will add more filtration.
Added Filtration
One or two mm of aluminum is added filtration placed in the
collimator. Generally placed on the mirror of the collimator.
This filtration attenuates x-rays of all energies emitted from the tube.
This shifts the spectrum to the high side.
Added Filtration
This shift in the emission spectrum results in a beam with higher
effective energy, greater penetrability and higher quality.
This results in an increased half value layer.
The minimum filtration for tube operated above 70 kVp is 2.5 mm Al
equivalence.
Compensating Filters
• Compensating filters are added to the beam by the
operator to compensate for differences in subject
tissue density or type.
• In areas of the body where there are great differences
in tissue density, compensating filters are used to
reduce exposure in the area of less density.
• This reduces patient exposure and improves image
quality. The thoracic spine and full spine x-rays need
filtration.
Compensating Filters
Compensating Filters
This heart shaped filter
is used to reduce
exposure to the ovaries
of females of child
bearing age.
It reduces exposure by
about 85%.
References
• Radiologic Science for Technologists - : Physics, Biology, and Protection.
By Stewart C. Bushong