Dynamic Behavior

In analyzing process dynamic and process control systems, it is

important to know how the process responds to changes in the
Chapter 4

process inputs.
A number of standard types of input changes are widely used for
two reasons:

1. They are representative of the types of changes that occur

in plants.

2. They are easy to analyze mathematically.

 1. Step Input

A sudden change in a process variable can be approximated by

a step change of magnitude, M:
0 t0
U s t    (4 - 4)
M t  0 M
Chapter 4

U s (s)  M / s (4  6)
The step change occurs at an arbitrary time denoted as t = 0.

• Special Case: If M = 1, we have a “unit step change”. We

give it the symbol, S(t).

• Example of a step change: A reactor feedstock is suddenly

switched from one supply to another, causing sudden
changes in feed concentration, flow, etc.
 Example:
The heat input to the stirred-tank heating system in Chapter 2 is
suddenly changed from 8000 to 10,000 kcal/hr by changing the
electrical signal to the heater. Thus,
Q  t   8000  2000S  t  , S  t  @unit step
Chapter 4

and
Q  t   Q  Q  2000S  t  , Q  8000 kcal/hr
0 t  0
U R t    (4-7)
at t  0 a
2. Ramp Input U R (s)  a / s 2 (4  8)

• Industrial processes often experience “drifting

disturbances”, that is, relatively slow changes up or down
for some period of time.
• The rate of change is approximately constant.
 We can approximate a drifting disturbance by a ramp input:
0 t  0
U R t    (4-7)
at t  0
U R (s)  a / s 2 (4  8)
Examples of ramp changes:
Chapter 4

1. Ramp a setpoint to a new value.

2. Feed composition, heat exchanger fouling, catalyst
activity, ambient temperature.
Dt

3. Rectangular Pulse A

It represents a brief, sudden change in a process variable:

 0 for t  0

U RP  t  @h for 0  t  tw (4 - 9)
0 for t  t
 w
h
U RP ( s )  1  etw s  (4  11)
s 
URP
Chapter 4

0 tw Time, t

Examples:

1. Reactor feed is shut off for one hour.

2. The fuel gas supply to a furnace is briefly interrupted.
Chapter 4

Figure 4.2
 Other Inputs
4. Sinusoidal Input
Chapter 4

A
 Processes are also subject to periodic, or cyclic, disturbances.
They can be approximated by a sinusoidal disturbance:

0 for t  0
U sin  t    (4-14)
 A sin t  for t  0
Chapter 4

where: A = amplitude, ω = angular frequency

A
U sin ( s)  2
s  2
Examples:

1. 24 hour variations in cooling water temperature.

2. 60-Hz electrical noise
3. Day night temperature variation (if no weather change)
 5. Impulse Input

Here, U I  t     t  .
It represents a short, transient disturbance.
Examples:
Chapter 4

1. Electrical noise spike in a thermo-couple reading.

2. Injection of a tracer dye.
• Useful for analysis since the response to an impulse input
is the inverse of the TF. Thus,

u t  y t 
G s
U s Y s
Here,
Y  s   G  s U  s  (1)
9
 The corresponding time domain express is:

y  t    g  t  τ  u  τ  dτ
t
(2)
0
where:
Chapter 4

g  t  @L1 G  s  (3)

Suppose u  t     t  . Then it can be shown that:

y t   g t  (4)

Consequently, g(t) is called the “impulse response function”.

10
 First-Order System
The standard form for a first-order TF is:
Y s K
 (4-16)
U  s  τs  1
where:
Chapter 4

K  steady-state gain
τ  time constant
Consider the response of this system to a step of magnitude, M:

M
U  t   M for t  0  U s 
s
Substitute into (4-16) and rearrange,
KM
Y s  (4-17)
11
s  τs  1
 Take L-1 (cf. Table A.1),


y  t   KM 1  et /τ  (4-18)

Let y  steady-state value of y(t). From (4-18),y  KM .

Chapter 4

y
t y
___
y 0 0
y τ 0.632
2τ 0.865
3τ 0.950
t 4τ 0.982
τ 5τ 0.993
12
Note: Large τ means a slow response.
 For a sine input (1st order process)
 Y s Kp
U ( s)  2  (4-16)
s 2 U  s  τs  1

output is...
Kp  0 1s 2
Chapter 4

Y(s)   2   2  2
s  1 s  2
s  1 s   s  2
2

By partial fraction decomposition,

K p  2
0 
2  2  1
 K p 
1 
2  2  1
K p
2 
2  2  1
 Inverting,
this term dies out for large t

K p  t 
Kp
y( t )  e  sin(t  )
  1
2 2
2 2  1
Chapter 4

   arctan()

note:  is not a function of t but of  and .

For large t, y(t) is also sinusoidal,

output sine is attenuated by…
1
(fast vs. slow )
  1
2 2
 Integrating Process
Not all processes have a steady-state gain. For example, an
“integrating process” or “integrator” has the transfer function:

Y s K
  K  constant 
Chapter 4

U s s

Consider a step change of magnitude M. Then U(s) = M/s and,

KM
Y s  2
 y  t   KMt
s
Thus, y(t) is unbounded and a new steady-state value does not
exist.

15
 Common Physical Example:
Consider a liquid storage tank with a pump on the exit line:
Chapter 4

- Assume:
1. Constant cross-sectional area, A.
2. q  f  h 
dh
- Mass balance: A  qi  q (1)  0  qi  q (2)
dt
- Eq. (1) – Eq. (2), take L, assume steady state initially,
1
H  s   Qi  s   Q  s  
As H  s 1

16
- For Q  s   0 (constant q), Qi  s  As
 Second-Order Systems
• Standard form:
Y s K
 (4-40)
U s τ s  2ζτs  1
2 2
Chapter 4

which has three model parameters:

K  steady-state gain
τ  "time constant" [=] time
ζ  damping coefficient (dimensionless)
 1
• Equivalent form:  n  natural frequency  
 τ 
Y s K n2

17
U s s 2  2ζn s  n2
 Block Notation:

Composed of two first order subsystems (G1 and G2)

Chapter 4

K  1 overdamped
G(s) = 2 2
 s  2 s  1
 1 underdamped
  1 2  1 critically damped
K1 K2
G1 (s)=
1   2 1s+1 G 2 (s)=
 2s+1
=
2 1 2 2nd order ODE model (overdamped)
K
    1
2
G(s)=
roots: 1 2s 2 +(1   2 )s+1
18

 • The type of behavior that occurs depends on the numerical
value of damping coefficient, ζ :
It is convenient to consider three types of behavior:
Damping Type of Response Roots of Charact.
Coefficient Polynomial
Chapter 4

ζ 1 Overdamped Real and ≠

ζ 1 Critically damped Real and =

0  ζ 1 Underdamped Complex conjugates

• Note: The characteristic polynomial is the denominator of

the G(s)transfer function:
τ 2 s 2  2ζτs  1
• What about ζ  0 ? It results in an unstable system
19
 4
(4.44)

(4.45)

(4.46)
Chapter 4

4 4

4 4
 K
G(s)= 2 2
 s  2 s  1
1
U s 
s
Chapter 4

Note: Responses exhibiting oscillation and overshoot (y/KM > 1)

are obtained only for values of ζ less than one.

21 Figure 4.8
 Note:
• Large values of ζ yield a sluggish (slow) response.
• The fastest response without overshoot is obtained for the
critically damped case ζ=1.
Chapter 4

Figure 4.9
22
 Note: Several general remarks can be made concerning the
responses show in Figs. 4.8 and 4.9:

1. Responses exhibiting oscillation and overshoot (y/KM > 1) are

obtained only for values of ζ less than one.
2. Large values of ζ yield a sluggish (slow) response.
Chapter 4

3. The fastest response without overshoot is obtained for the

critically damped case ζ=1.

23
 K
G(s) =
2s 2  2 s  1  1 underdamped
1
U s 
s
Chapter 4

Figure 4.10

24
 1. Rise Time: tr is the time the process output takes to first reach the
new steady-state value.

2. Time to First Peak: tp is the time required

for the output to reach its first maximum
Chapter 4

value. 
tp 
1 2

3. Settling Time: ts is defined

as the time required for the
process output to reach and
remain inside a band whose
width is equal to ±5% of the
total change in y. The term
95% response time
sometimes is used to refer to
this case. Also, values of
25 Figure 4.10 ±1% sometimes are used.
 a   
 exp  
4. Overshoot: OS = a/b (% overshoot is 100a/b). b  1 2 
 
5. Period of Oscillation: P is the time between two successive peaks or two
successive valleys of the response. 2
p 
1 2

6. Decay Ratio: DR = c/a

Chapter 4

(where c is the height of

the second peak).

c  2  a2
 exp   2
a  1 2  b
 

Figure 4.10

26
 Second Order Step Change
a. overshoot
a   
 exp  
b  1 2 
 

b. time of first maximum

Chapter 4


tp 
1 2
c. decay ratio (successive maxima – not min.)
c  2  a2
 exp   2
a  1 2  b
 

d. period of oscillation
2
p 
1 2

27
 Y s K
 (4-40)
U s τ s  2ζτs  1
2 2
Sinusoidal response

Linear second-order system is forced by a sinusoidal input

Asin ωt, the output for large value of time (after exponential
Chapter 4

terms have disappeared) is also sinusoidal signal

(4.61)

(4.62)

Eq. (4.61)
 The ratio of output to input amplitude is the amplitude ratio
AR(= ). When normalized by the process gain (K), it is
called normalized amplitude ratio ARN
Chapter 4

(4.64)

(4.64)

(4.65)
Chapter 4

Figure 4.12

30
 Problem 4.15
An electrically heated process is known to exhibit
second-order dynamics with the following parameter
values, K=3 ºC/kW, τ=3 min, ζ=0.7. If the process
Chapter 4

initially is at steady state at 70 ºC with heater input of

20kW and the heater input is suddenly changed to 26
kW and held there:
a) What will be the expression for the process temperature
as a function of time?
b) What will be the maximum temperature that one
observers? When will it occur?