Intrapersonal Processes

2.1 Social cognition - schemas, heuristics & biases, Affect and Cognition

2.2 Social perception - attribution theories & errors

2.3 Attitude- formation & consistency

2.4 Beliefs and Believing

2.1 Social Cognition – Schemas , Heuristics and Biases, Affect and Cognition

Information rich environment, ambiguity and contradictions leave us uncertain about

assessing risks. Social cognition provides insights into how individuals make
judgements on these risk probabilities despite incomplete information.

“Social cognition, which concerns how we think about the social world, our attempts to
understand complex issues, and why we sometimes are less than “optimally rational”.

Social Cognition refers to the ways in which people think about themselves and the
social world, including how they select, interpret, remember and use social information.

There are 2 different kinds of social cognition:

 Automatic:Automatic Cognition is a mental process that occurs without conscious

awareness or effort. It is a cognition that is quick, without a careful of reasoning,
therefore can make errors, little or no effort.
 Controlled:controlled cognition is a deliberate, conscious mental processes that
require focused attention and effort.

Schemas

Through past experience, you have built up a mental framework containing the
essential features of certain kind of situations , these mental frameworks are known as
Schemas.

They help us to organize social information, guide our actions, and process information
relevant to particular contexts.

 Mental structures that organize out knowledge about the social world
 Influence the information that we notice, think about and remember
 Influence our knowledge about other people and our selves
 Define social roles ( eg: librarian , engineer etc)
 Specific events ( eg: what usually happens when people eat a meal in a
restaurant etc

Scemas influence 3 basic processes of social cognition :

1. Attention : refers to the information that we notice

2. Encoding : refers to the processes that we use to store the noticed information in
the memory
3. Retrieval : refers to how we recall information stored in memory to use it in some
manner
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Eg: in making judgements about others

The functions of Schemas :

1. Help us to organize and make sense of our world

2. To fill in the gaps of our knowledge
3. What if everything you encounter was unexplainable, confusing and unlike
anything else you’ve ever known
4. Korsakoff's syndrome neurological disorder
5. Help in continuity
6. Useful in confusing situations

Various experiments – you already have that pdf of experiements( do it from there
incase you have to )

Types of Schemas

1) Accessibility
 The extent to which schemas and concepts are at the forefront of people’sminds
and are therefore likely to be used when making judgments about the social
world.
 Schemas are constantly active and ready to use to interpret ambiguous stimuli
 Something can become more accessible due to 3 reasons :
1. Due to pas experience
2. Related to current goal
3. Recent experiences

Experiment of Donald

2) Priming
 The process by which recent experience increases the accessibility of a schema,
trait of concept
 Priming is a psychological phenomenon where exposure to a stimulus influences
a response to a subsequent stimulus. It's a subtle yet powerful process that can
impact our thoughts, feelings, and behaviors.
 Priming is good example of automatic thinking because it occurs quickly ,
unintentionally and unconsciously
 Thoughts move to both accessible and applicable before they act as primes

Process of priming :

 Stimulus Exposure: We are exposed to a specific stimulus (a word, image, or

experience).
 Schema Activation: This stimulus activates a particular schema or mental
framework related to the stimulus.
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 Influenced Perception: The activated schema influences how we perceive and

interpret subsequent information.

Types of Priming

1. Semantic Priming:

 Exposure to a related word can facilitate the processing of a target word. For
example, the word "hot" primes the word "cold."

2. Affective Priming:

 Exposure to an emotional stimulus can influence our emotional response to

subsequent stimuli.
 For instance, viewing a sad movie can make us more likely to perceive neutral
faces as sad.

[Link] Priming:

 Exposure to a specific perceptual feature can make us more likely to perceive

that feature in subsequent stimuli.
 For example, seeing a picture of a red car can make us more likely to notice red
cars on the road.

Factors Affecting Priming

 Strength of the Prime: A stronger prime is more likely to have a significant

impact.
 Priming Duration: The longer the prime is present, the stronger its effect.
 Conscious Awareness: Priming can occur both consciously and unconsciously.

Unpriming

 Expression and Dissipation: Primed schemas can dissipate once they are
expressed or acted upon.
 Persistence Without Expression: If a primed schema is not expressed, its effects
can persist for longer periods.

Implications of Priming

 Marketing and Advertising:Marketers use priming techniques to influence

consumer behavior.
 Social Interactions: Priming can affect how we perceive and interact with others.
 Self-Perception: Priming can influence our self-perception and self-esteem.
 Cognitive Biases: Priming can contribute to cognitive biases, such as
confirmation bias and the halo effect.

Real-world Examples
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 Word Priming: Being exposed to the word "elderly" can slow down walking speed.
 Stereotype Priming: Activating stereotypes can influence our judgments of
others.
 Emotional Priming: Watching a sad movie can make us more likely to cry during a
subsequent sad event.

By understanding the mechanisms and implications of priming, we can become more

aware of its influence on our thoughts and behaviors.

Heuristics

Heuristics are simple rules for making complex decisions or drawing inferences in a
rapid and efficient manner

Key Heuristics and Their Implications

1. Representativeness Heuristic
 Definition: Judging the probability of an event by how well it fits a stereotype or
prototype.
 Example: Assuming a quiet, bookish person is a librarian rather than a
salesperson, even if librarians are less common.
 Implications: Can lead to stereotypes, prejudice, and inaccurate judgments.
 Mitigating Strategies: Consider base rates, seek diverse information, and
challenge stereotypes.

2. Availability Heuristic:
 Definition: Estimating the frequency or likelihood of an event based on how
easily examples come to mind.
 Example: Overestimating the risk of plane crashes due to recent news coverage.
 Implications: Can lead to distorted perceptions of risk and overemphasis on vivid
or emotionally charged events.
 Mitigating Strategies: Seek out statistical data, consider multiple perspectives,
and avoid relying solely on personal experiences.

3. Anchoring and Adjustment Heuristic:

 Definition: Relying heavily on an initial piece of information (the anchor) and
adjusting it insufficiently.
 Example: Negotiating a higher salary based on an initial high offer, even if it's
unrealistic.
 Implications: Can lead to suboptimal decisions and negotiations.
 Mitigating Strategies: Be aware of the influence of anchors, seek multiple
perspectives, and actively question initial assumptions.

4. Status Quo Heuristic:

 Definition: Preferring the current state of affairs and avoiding change.
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 Example: Sticking with a default option or a familiar brand, even if better

alternatives exist.
 Implications: Can lead to missed opportunities and suboptimal choices.
 Mitigating Strategies: Actively seek out new information, consider alternative
options, and be open to change.

Why We Use Heuristics:

 Cognitive Efficiency: Heuristics allow us to make quick decisions without

extensive deliberation.
 Reduced Cognitive Load: They help us manage limited cognitive resources.
 Uncertainty Reduction: They provide a way to deal with uncertainty and
ambiguity.

Limitations and Biases of Heuristics:

 Overreliance: Overreliance on heuristics can lead to systematic errors in

judgment.
 Confirmation Bias: The tendency to seek information that confirms our existing
beliefs.
 Hindsight Bias: The tendency to believe that we could have predicted an event
after it has occurred.
 Overconfidence: The tendency to overestimate our abilities and knowledge.
 Improving Decision-Making:

How to avoid heuristics

 Be Mindful of Heuristics: Recognize the potential for biases in your thinking.

 Seek Diverse Perspectives: Consider multiple viewpoints to challenge your
assumptions.
 Gather More Information: Collect additional data before making decisions.
 Slow Down and Deliberate: Take time to think carefully, especially in important
situations.
 Cross-Check Information: Verify information from multiple sources.
 Practice Critical Thinking: Develop the ability to evaluate information objectively
and logically.

By understanding the limitations of heuristics and employing critical thinking, we can

make more informed and accurate judgments.

Biases

Social cognition biases are systematic errors in social perception and judgment that can
significantly influence our thoughts, feelings, and behaviors. These biases often arise
from cognitive shortcuts and heuristics that we use to simplify complex social
information.
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Common Social Cognition Biases

i. Confirmation Bias:
 Definition: The tendency to seek out information that confirms our existing
beliefs and ignore information that contradicts them.
 Example: A person who believes climate change is a hoax may only seek out
information that supports this belief, while ignoring scientific evidence to the
contrary.

ii. Self-Serving Bias:

 Definition: The tendency to attribute our successes to internal factors (e.g., skill,
effort) and our failures to external factors (e.g., luck, circumstances).
 Example: A student who gets a good grade on a test may attribute it to their
intelligence and hard work, while a student who gets a bad grade may blame the
teacher or the difficulty of the test.

iii. Fundamental Attribution Error:

 Definition: The tendency to attribute others' behavior to internal factors (e.g.,
personality traits) rather than external factors (e.g., situational factors).
 Example: If someone cuts us off in traffic, we may attribute it to their being a
rude or selfish person, rather than considering that they may be in a hurry or
having a bad day.

iv. Actor-Observer Bias:

 Definition: The tendency to attribute our own behavior to external factors and
others' behavior to internal factors.
 Example: If we are late to a meeting, we may blame traffic or a work emergency,
but if someone else is late, we may attribute it to their laziness or lack of
organization.

v. Just-World Hypothesis:
 Definition: The tendency to believe that the world is fair and that people get
what they deserve.
 Example: Blaming victims of misfortune for their circumstances, such as
believing that people in poverty are responsible for their own situation.

vi. Halo Effect:

 Definition: The tendency to form a positive overall impression of someone based
on one positive trait.
 Example: If we think someone is attractive, we may also assume they are
intelligent, kind, and successful.
vii. Horn Effect:
 Definition: The tendency to form a negative overall impression of someone based
on one negative trait.
 Example: If we perceive someone as rude, we may also assume they are
incompetent, dishonest, and unfriendly.
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viii. False Consensus Effect:

 Definition: The tendency to overestimate the extent to which others share our
beliefs and opinions.
 Example: Believing that everyone else agrees with our political views, even if
they do not.

ix. Ingroup Bias:

 Definition: The tendency to favor members of our own group and to view
outsiders negatively.
 Example: Favoring members of our own sports team or nationality.

x. Outgroup Homogeneity Effect:

 Definition: The tendency to perceive members of outgroups as more similar to
each other than members of our ingroup.
 Example: Stereotyping all members of a particular race or ethnicity as being the
same.

Mitigating Social Cognition Biases:

 Self-Awareness: Recognize the existence of biases and their potential impact.

 Critical Thinking: Actively question assumptions and seek out alternative
perspectives.
 Open-Mindedness: Be receptive to new information and willing to change your
beliefs.
 Empathy: Try to understand the perspectives of others.
 Seek Feedback: Ask others for feedback on your behavior and judgments.

By understanding these biases and employing these strategies, we can become more
mindful of our thinking and make more accurate judgments.

CHECK THE OTHER PDF OF CHAPTER 2