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PART 1
READING PASSAGE 1
You should spend about 20 minutes on Questions 1-13, which are based on
Reading Passage 1 below.
How the mind ages
The way mental function changes is largely determined by three factors-
mental lifestyle, the impact of chronic disease and flexibility of the mind.
Experiments have shown that younger monkeys
consistently outperform their older colleagues on memory tests. Formerly,
psychologists concluded that memory and other mental functions in
humans deteriorate over time because of changes in the brain. Thus mental
decline after young adulthood appeared inevitable. The truth, however, is
not quite so simple.
Stanley Rapoport at the National Institute of Health in the United States
measured the flow of blood in the brains of old and young people as they
completed different tasks. Since blood flow reflects neural
activity. Rapoport could compare which networks of neuronswere the
same, the neural networks they used were significantly different. The older
subjects used different internal strategies to accomplish comparable results
at the same time,'Rapoport says. At the Georgia Institute of Technology,
psychologist Timothy Salthouse compared a group of fast and accurate
typists of college age with another group in their 60s. Both groups typed
60 words a minute. The older typists, it turned out, achieved their
speed with cunning little strategies that made them more efficient
than their younger counterparts. They made fewer finger shifts, gaining
a fraction of a second here and there. They also read ahead in the
test. The neural networks involved in typing appear to have been reshaped
to compensate for losses in motor skills or other age changes.
In fact, there's evidence that deterioration in mental functions can actually
be reversed. Neuropsychologist Marion Diamond at the University of
California has shown that mental activity maks neurons sprout new
dendrites* which establish connections with other neurons. The dendrites
shrink when the mind is idle. For example,'when a rat is kept in isolation, the
animal's brain shrinks, but if we put that rat with other rats in a large cage
and give them an assortment of toys, we can show, after four days,
significant differences in its brain.'says Diamond. After a month in the
enriched surroundings, the whole cerebral cortex has expanded, as has its
blood supply.'But even in the enriched surroundings, rats get bored unless
the toys are varied. Animals are just like we are. They need stimulation,'says
Diamond. A busy mental lifestyle keeps the human mind fit, says Warner
Schaie of Penn State University. ‘People who regularly participate in
challenging tasks retain their intellectual abilities better than mental couch
potatoes.'
In his studies, Schaie detected a decline in mental function among
individuals who underwent lengthy stays in hospital for chronic illness. He
postulated it might be due to the mental passivity encouraged by hospital
routine.
One of the most profoundly important mental functions is memory. Memory
exists in more than one form, what we call knowledge- facts- is what
psychologists such as Harry Bahrickof Ohio Wesleyan University call
semantic memory. Events, conversations and occurrences in time and space,
on the other hand, make up episodic memory. It's true that episodic
memory begins to decline when most people are in their 50s, but it's never
perfect at any age.
Probing the longevity of knowledge, Bahrick tested 1,000 high school
graduates to see how well they remembered the school subject algebra.
Some had completed the course a month before, other 50 years earlier.
Surprisingly, he found that a person's grasp of algebra did not depend on
how long ago he'd taken the course. The determining factor was the duration
of instruction. Those who had spent only a few months learning algebra
forgot most of it within two or three years while others who had been
instructed for longer remembered better. According to Bahrick,'the long-term
residue of knowledge remains stable over the decades, independent of the
age of the person and the memory.'
Perhaps even more important than the ability to remember is the ability to
manage memory- a mental function known as metamemory.'You could say
metamemory is a byproduct of going to school,'says psychologist Robert Kail
of Purdue University,'The question-and-answer process,especially exam
taking, helps children learn and teaches them how their memory
[Link] may be one reason why the better educated a person is, the
more likely they are to perform well in many aspects of life and in
psychological assessments: A group of adult novice chess players were
compared with a group of child experts at the game. But when asked to
remember the patterns of chess pieces arranged on a board, the children
won.' Because they'd played a lot of chess, their knowledge of chess was
better organized than that of the adults, and their existing knowledge of
chess served as a framework for new memory,'explains Kail. Cognitive style,
another factor in maintaining mental function, is what Schaie calls the ability
to adapt and roll with life's punches.'He measured mental flexibility with
questions and tests requiring people to carry out in an offbeat way an
everyday activity they had done millions of times. One example was asking
people to copy a paragraph substituting uppercase letters for lowercase
ones. These tests seem silly, but flexible-minded people manage to complete
them,'says Schaie. The rigid person responds with tension instead and
performs poorly. Those who score highly on tests of cognition at an
advanced age are those who tested high in mental flexibility at middle age'.
On a more optimistic note, one mental resource that only improves with time
is specialized knowledge. Crystallised intelligence about one's occupation
apparently does not decline at all until at least age 75. Vocabulary is another
such specialized form of knowledge. Research clearly shows that vocabulary
develops with time. Retired teachers and journalists consistently score
higher on tests of vocabulary and general information than college students.
Questions 1-3
Choose the correct letter A, B, C or D.
Write the correct letter in boxes 1-3 on your answer sheet
1. What does the writer say about the performance of older typists
on the test?
AThey used different motor skills from younger typists.
BThey had been more efficiently trained than younger typists.
CThey used more time-saving techniques than younger typists.
DThey had better concentration skills than younger typists.
2. The experiment with the rats showed that
Abrain structure only changed when the rats were given a familiar toy
Bthe rats became anxious after a lengthy period of time alone
Cthe rats lived longer then they were part of a social group
Dthe rats'brains expanded or shrank depending on the level of mental
activity
3. A comparison between adults and children who played chess
showed that
Athe children were as capable as the adults of remembering a series of
numbers
Bthe children had better recall of the layout of pieces
Cthe adults stored memories of chess moves in a more logical manner
Dthe adults had clearer memories of chess games they had played
Questions 4-9
Complete the summary below.
Choose ONE WORD ONLY from the passage for each answer.
Write your answers in boxes 4-9 on your answer sheet.
Psychologists distinguish between two different types of
memory: and memory. A study was conducted into people's knowledge
of to determine recall ability. This aspect of memory was found to be a
function not of age but rather of length of tuition.
School also helps with a brain function called . This is why a more highly
educated person is generally more successful and does better in tests.
Some of our mental functions remain unaffected by age or even improve. For
example, as we get older, our knowledge of increases.
Questions 10-13
Look at the following statements and the list of people below.
Match each statement with the correct person, A-E.
List of People
A. Stanley Rapoport
B. Marion Diamond
C. Warner Schaie
D. Harry Bahrick
E. Robert Kail
Write the correct letter, A-E, in boxes 10-13 on your answer sheet.
[Link] The educational system makes students aware of how their
memory works.
[Link] Although older people may use a different mental approach when
completing a task, they can still achieve the same result as younger people
[Link] Being open to new ways of doing things can have a positive
impact on your mental condition as we get older
[Link] Both animals and humans need to exist in an environment full of
interest.
PART 2
READING PASSAGE 2
You should spend about 20 minutes on Questions 14-26, which are based
on Reading Passage 1 below.
Ensuring our future food supply
Climate change and new diseases threaten the limited varieties of seeds we
depend on for food. Luckily, we still have many of the seeds used in the past-
but we must take steps to save them.
Six miles outside the town of Decorah, Iowa in the USA, an 890-acre stretch
of rolling fields and woods called Heritage Farm is letting its crops go to
seed. Everything about Heritage Farm is in stark contrast to the surrounding
acres of intensively farmed fields of corn and soybean that are typical of
modern agriculture. Heritage Farm is devoted to collecting rather than
growing seeds. It is home to the Seed Savers Exchange, one of the largest
non government-owned seed banks in the United States.
In 1975 Diane Ott Whealy was given the seedlings of two plant varieties that
her great grandfather had brought to America from Bavaria in 1870: Grandpa
Ott’s morning glory and his German Pink tomato. Wanting to preserve similar
traditional varieties, known as heirloom plants, Diane and her husband, Kent,
decided to establish a place where the seeds of the past could be kept and
traded. The exchange now has more than 13,000 members, and the many
thousands of heirloom varieties they have donated are kept in its walk-in
coolers, freezers, and root cellars the seeds of many thousands of heirloom
varieties and, as you walk around an old red barn that is covered in Grandpa
Ott’s beautiful morning glory blossoms, you come across the different
vegetables, herbs, and flowers they have planted there.
"Each year our members list their seeds in this,"Diane Ott Whealy says,
handing over a copy of the Seed Savers Exchange 2010 Yearbook. It is as
thick as a big-city telephone directory, with page after page of exotic beans,
garlic, potatoes, peppers, apples, pears, and plums-each with its own name
and personal history .For example, there’s an Estonian Yellow Cherry tomato,
which was brought to the seed bank by “an elderly Russian lady” who lived
in Tallinn, and a Persian Star garlic from “a bazaar in Samarkand.”There’s
also a bean donated by archaeologists searching for pygmy elephant fossils
in New Mexico.
Heirloom vegetables have become fashionable in the United States and
Europe over the past decade, prized by a food movement that emphasizes
eating locally and preserving the flavor and uniqueness of heirloom varieties.
Found mostly in farmers' markets and boutique groceries, heirloom varieties
have been squeezed out of supermarkets in favor of modern single-variety
fruits and vegetables bred to ship well and have a uniform appearance, not
to enhance flavor. But the movement to preserve heirloom varieties goes
way beyond the current interest in North America and Europe in tasty, locally
grown food. It’s also a campaign to protect the world’s future food
[Link] people in the well-fed world give little thought to where their
food comes from or how it’s grown. They wander through well-stocked
supermarkets without realizing that there may be problem [Link]’ve
been hearing for some time about the loss of flora and fauna in our
[Link] little,by contrast,is being said or done about the parallel
decline in the diversity of the foods we eat.
Food variety extinction is happening all over the world - and it's happening
fast. In the United States an estimated 90 percent of historic fruit and
vegetable varieties are no longer grown. Of the 7,000 different apple
varieties that were grown in the 1800s, fewer than a hundred remain. In the
Philippines thousands of varieties of rice once thrived; now only about a
hundred are grown there. In China 90 percent of the wheat varieties
cultivated just a hundred years ago have disappeared. Experts estimate that
in total we have lost more than 50 percent of the world's food varieties over
the past century.
Why is this a problem? Because if disease or future climate change affects
one of the handful of plants we've come to depend on to feed our growing
planet, we might desperately need one of those varieties we've let become
extinct. The loss of the world's cereal diversity is a particular cause for
concern. A fungus called Ug99, which was first identified in Uganda in 1999,
is spreading across the world's wheat crops. From Uganda it moved to
Kenya, Ethiopia, Sudan, and Yemen. By 2007 it had jumped the Persian Gulf
into Iran. Scientists predict that the fungus will soon make its way into India
and Pakistan, then spread to Russia and China, and eventually the USA.
Roughly 90 percent of the world's wheat has no defense against this
particular fungus. If it reached the USA, an estimated one billion dollars'
worth of crops would be at risk. Scientists believe that in Asia and Africa
alone, the portion currently in danger could leave one billion people without
their primary food source. A famine with significant humanitarian
consequences could follow, according to Rick Ward of Cornell University.
The population of the world is expected to reach nine billion by 2045. Some
experts say we’ll need to double our food production to keep up with this
growth. Given the added challenge of climate change and disease, it is
becoming ever more urgent to find ways to increase food yield. The world
has become increasingly dependent upon a technology-driven, one-size-fits-
all approach to food supply. Yet the best hope for securing our food's future
may depend on our ability to preserve the locally cultivated foods of the
past.
Questions 14-20
Do the following statements agree with the views of the writer in Reading
Passage? In boxes 14-20 on your answer sheet, write.
TRUE. if the statement agrees with the information
FALSE. if the statement contradicts the information
NOT GIVEN. If there is no information on this
[Link] GIVEN Heritage Farm is different from most other nearby
farms.
[Link] GIVEN Most nongovernment-owned seed banks are
bigger than Seed Savers Exchange.
[Link] GIVEN Diane Ott Whealy's grandfather taught her a lot
about seed varieties.
[Link] GIVEN The seeds people give to the Seed Savers
Exchange are stored outdoors.
[Link] GIVEN Diane and her husband choose which heirloom
seeds to grow on Heritage Farm.
[Link] GIVEN The seeds are listed in alphabetical order in The
Seed Savers Exchange Yearbook.
[Link] GIVEN The Seed Savers Exchange Yearbook describes
how each seed was obtained.
Questions 21-26
Complete the notes below.
Choose ONE WORD AND/OR A NUMBER from the passage for each
answer. Write your answers in boxes 21-26 on your answer sheet.
The food we grow and eat
Supermarkets
sell fruit and vegetables that transport well
want fruit and vegetables to be standard in their
Public awareness
while people know about plants disappearing from very few know
about the decline in fruit and vegetable varieties
Extinction of food varieties
less than 100 of the types of once available in the USA are still grown
over of food varieties around the world have disappeared in the last
100 years
Current problems in food production
a particular fungus is attacking wheat in various countries
Rick Ward believes the threat to food supplies in Asia and Africa might
lead to a
Food production in the future
climate change and disease may put pressure on food production
twice the amount of food may be needed because of an increase in
PART 3
READING PASSAGE 3
You should spend about 20 minutes on Questions 27-40, which are based
on Reading Passage 1 below.
The fluoridation controversy
The long-standing debate about whether to fluoridate our drinking water
continues Fluoridation is the addition of fluorine to public water supplies with
the aim of reducing tooth decay. The fluorine, when mixed with water,
becomes fluoride and the desired concentration of fluoride in public water is
approximately one part per million, depending on the regional temperature
and hence the amount of water people are likely to drink. Many studies, such
as those by McClure in 1970 through to Burt in 1983, have shown that when
children drink fluoridated water, their average rate of tooth decay seems
greatly reduced. A typical figure claimed is 50 percent reduction. This
apparently enormous benefit for children's teeth is the major argument in
favor of fluoridation.
Three main grounds for opposition to fluoridation have been expressed. First,
opponents claim the benefits are exaggerated or not established. Second,
there are claims of health risks to pans of the population, for example,
allergic reactions. It is also accepted that high levels of fluoride can cause
discoloration of otherwise healthy teeth. Proponents do not consider this to
be a problem in such small concentrations, whereas opponents disagree -
especially because some people drink more water and obtain much more
than the standard 1 milligram of fluoride per day. Third, fluoridation is
thought to be an infringement on individual rights because it is compulsory
medication of all members of a community.
An understanding of the fluoridation issue has important implications. If,
according to the experts, fluoridation is unquestionably a beneficial and non-
hazardous measure, then the wisdom of allowing the public to vote on, and
reject it must be questioned.
Almost all studies that have been done have assumed that the scientific
aspects of the controversy are unproblematic, and they have excluded
science from sociological examination. The traditional view is that science is
a special kind of knowledge, which is established through scientific methods
and objectively applied by members of a scientific community. However, in
recent years there has been a major challenge to this picture by a sociology
of science that shows how scientific knowledge is socially negotiated, and
inevitably linked to the values of the relevant parties, both scientists and
nonscientists. These challengers do not see scientific knowledge as exempt
from social inquiry.
Kuhn (1970) argued that scientific knowledge does not always develop as an
orderly process, but is characterized by periodic revolutions. in which the
methods of study and the assessment criteria change in a fragmented way.
According to Kuhn, the shift from one scientific way of thinking to another is
not made solely on the basis of clear rules of formal scientific practice, but
can include social factors, though Kuhn has never developed a full analysis of
what these might be. Collins (1975) took this concept further when he
asserted that the outcome of experiments was not something whose
meaning could be immediately comprehended, but rather something for
interpretation, discussion between scientists, and reinterpretation in the light
of other experiments.
One interpretation of this analysis of science is that traditional distinctions
between facts and theories, and between scientific knowledge and values,
can no longer be justified. Because social processes are involved at all
stages of the creation, evaluation, and establishing of scientific knowledge,
social values may also be involved.
In the same way as many scientists who study fluoridation have overlooked
social values, sociologists have also downplayed an important part of the
debate by ignoring the number of eminent scientists who have questioned
aspects of fluoridation. An example is the study by Sutton in 1960, which
analyzed the classic North American studies of the effect of fluoridation on
tooth decay, and found that each showed significant methodological
shortcomings. Sutton's detailed study throws doubt as to the extent of
reductions in tooth decay from fluoridation. Yet Sutton's book is not cited in a
single analysis of the fluoridation issue by any sociologist. In a situation of
some scientific uncertainty, differences in values are highlighted. A supporter
of fluoridation might argue. The evidence for the benefits of fluoridation is
quite substantial, while the evidence for harm is limited and dubious. I think
the likely benefits outweigh the possible dangers; hence I support
fluoridation because it is the cheapest and easiest way to make sure every
child reaps the benefits. An opponent might argue, 'Though the evidence for
the benefits of fluoridation is substantial, there is some doubt about it. Since
fluoridation is not necessary for good teeth, we should forego the benefits if
there is some slight chance of harm. Some scientists claim that a small
percentage of the population could be harmed by fluoride. Therefore I
oppose fluoridation of water supplies and favor the voluntary use of fluoride
tablets by those who want to take them.'
Both arguments consider the scientific evidence concerning fluoridation, but
differ in their assessments of the social benefits and costs. This difference is
not between rationality and irrationality but is a legitimate difference in
values, for example, the positive value placed on good teeth, the negative
value placed on possible health risks, and the social benefits or costs of
compulsory or voluntary intake of fluorides.
From the sociological point of view, opposition to fluoridation is not
necessarily irrational. Rather, claims to rationality and to scientific authority
are better seen as part of a strategy to promote fluoridation than as
incontrovertible statements of fact. Second, social values are likely to be
bound up in any decision about fluoridation, so this is not an issue on which
declarations by scientific experts ought to be considered the final word.
Questions 27-31
Choose the correct letter, A, B, C or D
Write the correct letter in boxes 27-31 on your answer sheet
27. The optimum amount of fluorine in fluoridated water is
calculated partly according to
Ahow hot the area is.
Bhow warm the water is.
Chow many dental problems there are in the community.
Dhow much fluorine the community chooses to have in its water.
28. One reason given by the writer for opposing fluoridation is that
Ait may contribute to tooth decay
Bit will be unacceptably expensive for the public.
Cobligatory fluoridation takes away personal freedom.
Dexcessive fluoride could be added to the water by mistake.
29. The writer mentions Kuhn in order to
Aprovide a contrast with the view of Collins.
Bsupport the rational nature of scientific inquiry.
Cdemonstrate that Kuhn did not argue his case adequately.
Dshow that science can be influenced by non-scientific considerations
30. What did Sutton's research discover about earlier studies in
North America?
AThere were failings in the way they were carried out.
BThe scientists involved had achieved unique results.
CProponents of fluoridation had not understood its long-term effects.
DFluoridation had a greater effect on tooth decay than previously believed.
31. In the last paragraph, what does the writer say about scientists?
AThey should reveal their true motivations.
BThey should not decide the fluoridation policy.
CThey are solely concerned with scientific truths.
DThey cannot reach agreement on the fluoridation issue.
Questions 32-35
Do the following statements agree with the views of the writer in Reading
Passage?
In boxes 32-35 on your answer sheet, write
YES. if the statement agrees with the views of the writer
NO. if the statement contradicts the views of the writer
NOT GIVEN. if it is impossible to say what the writer thinks about this
[Link] GIVEN Scientific knowledge should be kept separate from
social values.
[Link] GIVEN Many sociologists have disregarded the doubts that
some scientists have concerning fluoridation.
[Link] GIVEN Sutton's findings have been given insufficient
attention by scientists outside of North America.
[Link] GIVEN There are valid arguments on both sides of the
fluoridation debate.
Questions 36-40
Complete each sentence with the correct ending. A-G.
Write the correct letter. A-G, in boxes 36-40 on your answer sheet.
The traditional view of science is that [Link]
A sociological view of science argues that [Link]
Collins is of the opinion that [Link]
The writer suggests that a supporter of fluoridation may conclude
that [Link]
The writer suggests that an opponent of fluoridation may conclude
that [Link]
A. the results of scientific research are not always understood at first
B. scientific knowledge is based on experiments conducted by scientists.
C. people should be able to choose whether they want fluoride.
D. there is insufficient proof to support a cautious approach.
E. the serious damage fluoride causes far outweighs any positive effects.
F. children are not the only ones who benefit from fluoridation.
G scientific knowledge is affected by the beliefs of everyone concerned.
.