CHAPTER VI

The Middle Ages: The Formative

Period 'in Modern Civilization,

I. THE MIDDLE AGES DEFINED

The Time Element. (The expression Middle Ages is com-
monly employed to designate the period from the breakdown of
the Roman Empire in the West to the beginning of the Renaissance
and the Reformation Material, however, Wdi be included that
does not apply to theàctual time between the dates 476 and 1500,
but that does, in a general way, contribute to the transition from
classical civilization to modern times. This is true noA only of
western Europe but also of the civiiizatcn centers in otier parts
of the world. It is not advisable to adhere strictl y to chronology,
because changes have occurred in different Sections at different
times. In reality, some of the more backward peoples of the world
are just emerging from conditions similar to those which the Euro-
peans experienced over Soo years ago.
The "Dark Ages." The term Dark Ages has been used fre-
quently to designate the early part of the Middle Ages. This is
to a very great degree a misnomer. The period was called "dark"
primarily because there was so little known about it and because
of a general disregard for what actually happened at that time.
The Humanists of the 15th century probably coined the phrase
because of their enthusiasm over the importance of the revived
classics and their abhorrence for the time in which the classics were
so generally' neglected. It is true that theerrnans, when they first
invaded the southern part of Europe, had little respect for Roman
 THE MIDDLE AGES

and Greek culture. However, they were typical pioneers, strugL

gling to establish themselves in a new country and having very
little time to devote to culture.
The Germanic invasions did retard temporarily the cultural
developments in southern Europe, but the Germans contributed
the necessary elements which enabled the building of a new and
greater culture upon the old order. The eastern part of Europe
escaped the Germanic invasions, and it would be incorrect to
class the cultural developments of the Byzantine Empire and of
the Arabs as belonging to a .-dark age.
The Age of Transition. By the time of the fall of Rome, clas-
sical civilization in western Europe had reached a standstill. It
had either run its course or it lacked inherent qualities to go further.
There were constant efforts to keep alive the Roman tradition of
unity and the classical ideal of culture, but the old order was pass-
ing. There was an obvious clash between the old and the new, and
the Germans threw the balance in favor of the new. They were
impressed with Roman institutions, arts, and letters, and in the
course of time accepted them in part. The fusion of Hellenistic and
barbarian customs, temperaments, and blood produced the germ of
Western civilization. Naturally, it took a long time for these back-
woodsmen to become acclimated to their new enviroment. Through
their ignorance, much that was of cultural value was destroyed
and much more was allowed to disappear. It should be remembered,
however, that deterioration in Roman culture had begun before
the barbarians arrived. Consequently, they cannot be held re-
sponsible for starting the decline.

II. THE MIDDLE AGES INTRODUCED

i. THE GERMANS
The Germans before the Invasions. The German language,
like the Celtic, Latin, Greek, and Sanskrit, constituted a sub-
division of a wider category called Indo-European. According
to T acitus, the Germans had "fierce blue eyes and reddish hair;
great bodies, especially powerful for attack, but not equally
potent for hard work; little able to withstand heat and thirst,
though by climate and soil they have been inured to cold and
hunger." They chose the northern part of Europe for their hofrie
 A HISTORT OF WORLD CIVILIZATION

instead of the more favorable lands in the Mediterranean basin.

They had neither the cultural contacts that the Italians and the
Greeks had in the southern part of Europe, not the favorable
geographical environment. Their culture, before they came into
contact with Rome, was similar to that of the American Indians
when the white man landed in North America. They were semi-
nomadic, practicing a crude form of agriculture, together with
grazing, hnting, and fishing. The men did the hunting and the
fighting while the women performed the more menial domestic
tasks.
Their political and social relationship rested primarily upn
blood ties. The Germans did not have the Roman conception of a
state. They bound themselves to some brave leader with an, oath
of all instead of considering themselves citizens of a state.
The Germans were good fighters and ultimately proved them-
selves superior to the Romans in this respect. There was a tendency
to form confederations among the tribes; by the 5th century there
wece six of these which held sway in the territory immediately
north of the Roman frontier. They were insistent on family purity.
"Almost alone among the barbarians they were content with one
wife," wrote Tacitus. They were opposed to immorality and cor-
ruption but they were not free from vices. They drank to excess
-and were so fond of gambling that they would sometimes stake
their own personal liberty.
There was considerable nature worship in their religion;
forests, swamps, ocean mists, nd lightning were deified. Before
they entered the Roman Empire, many Germans were converted
to Christianity, largely through the efforts of Ulfilas, a West
Goth, who translated the BiFle into a language understandable
to many of the natives.' Unfortunately for the peace of Europe,
many of the convertswere Arians and when they entered the
empire they were considered as heretics by the Roman Catholics.
Causes for Invasion;. The Germans threatened to brek the
Roman frontier -for centuries before they were finally successful.
As early as 113 B.C., an invasion of the Germans th:eatened to
overrun Italy. They were :attracted by the evidences of material
wealth in Rome, a place where their desires for plunder could be
'A part of this Bible, written on scarlet parchment, is in , the library of the University
of Uppsali in Sweden.
 THE MIffiDLE AGES 261

satisfied. The climate of Germany was uncomfortable and the

population had increased to the point where it was difficult to
gain a comfortable living. Finally, they were literally pushed out
of their own lands by the Sla ys and the Huns.
The Germanic Lnvasions. The West Goths, attempting to
escape the fury of the Huns, applied for and received permission
from the Rothans t6 settle in the Roman Empire in 375 . These
Goths, soon becoming dissatisfied under Roman rule, rebelled,
and defeated the Roman army at the battle of Adriariople in 378,
one of the decisive, battles of world history. The respect that the
Germans had held for the fighting ability of the Romans was gone,
and the frontier barrier that had held for centuries was broken.
Under Alaric, the West Goths marched from one end of the empire
to the other—through Greece, across Italy—sacking Rome in
410, and finally settling in Spain.
Many other German tribes, following the precedent set by the
West Goths, crossed over into Roman territory. The Vandals
settled near the site of the ancient city of Carthage, from which
they sent expeditions to Italy and, in 455, sacked Rome. The
Burgundians inhabited the Rhone Valley; the East Goths, under
Theodoric, established a kingdom in the central part of Italy;
and the Lombards found a favorable location in the fertile valley of
the P6 River in the northern part of Italy. The Franks, under
Clovis, crossed the Rhine and settled in Gaul. They were destined
to become one of the most powerful and influential of all the
German tribes By the middle of the 6th century, the Germans
had occupied most of the western division of the Roman Empire.
The glory that was once Rome's had faded, and barbarians, upon
whom the proud Romans had frowned as vulgar and insignificant,
were in undisputed possession of the land.
What the Germans 4dded. The Germans made valuable con-
tributions of. qualities that decadent Rome was unable to produce.
A young, vigorous, and healthy race, they added a much-needed
element to the rather degenerate Romans. They brought the love
of i ndividual liberty and the idea of the people's participating in the
affairs of the government—concepts that had disappeared among
the Romans long before the fall of the empire. The idea that
the sovereign obtains his right to rule from' the consent of the
people is a German contribution. Thejr local courts controlled
262 A HISTORY OF WORLD CIVILIZATION

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purely local matters and furnished a model for what later became
legislative assemblies.
The German idea of law is important in the development of
legal ideas in Western civilization. In contrast to the Roman, it
was personal. Legal rights were inherited; law was a part of the
individual, which he took with him wherever he went. A criminal
charge was regarded as an attack on honor and the accused had to
reinstate himself in society. In order to do this, he had to declare
himself innocent under oath and get enough people to swear that
they believed he was telling the truth. This procedure was called
corn purgation. Religion was an underlying principle of German law;
man would rather confess a crime than to incur the hatred of the
gods for broken faith. The ordeal was utilized extensively in deter-
mining guilt. God was supposed to interfere on the side of the
innocent and see that no harm should come to him, while the guilty
was supposed to suffer from the effects of the ordeal in accordance
with his guilt.
German and Roman Fusion. /Ian Of licse prac. •:s seem
crude and barbarous when compared with the standard uf later
developments. They seem even a step backward when compared
with the established Roman customs of the time. The real Contri-
bution of the Germans was, however, insistence upon the rights
of the individual to participate in the government. In establishing
this principle, they, laid one of the important foundation stones of
democracy. Very few German institutions developed without tak-
ing on Roman characteristics, and the Romans continued to hold
important positions in the political and cultural organizations.
They became teachers of the more backward Germans, just as,
centuries earlier, the conquered Greeks had taught the Romans.
The blending of German and Roman into an organic'Whole con-
tinued throughout the Middle Ages and ultimately formed the
groundwork for modern European civilization.
The Northmen. The invasions of the Northnien in the 8th and
9th centuries were more destructive than those of the Germans had
been. From Ireland to the Black Sea, the new invaders spread
havoc with pillage and wholesale murder. After haviig pillaged a
country, the Northmen frequently became permanent settlers. In
navigation, they exceeded all other people of the time. Their boats
were small and were propelled with oars and an occasional sail,
 264 A HISTORY OF WORLD CIJ'ILIZATION

but these seamen possessed a native talent for seafaring life. They
were the first to cross the Atlantic Ocean, reaching North America
500 years before Columbus set sail from Spain. They were well
trained in military technique. They introduced the coat of mail,
used the battle ax and bows and arrows, and were skilled horsemen.
The Northmen settled in England in the 9th century. Alfred
the Great (87I-89) granted them the right to settle north of a
line drawi from the mouth of the Thames to Chester, in the terri-
tory known as the Danelaw. The Northmen, who were brought
under the control of Wessex in 954, were readily assimilated with
the Anglo-Saxons. The power of the Northmen was revived in the
early part of the iith centur y , when most of England under
Canute (1017-1035) was united with Norway and Denmark to
form a great northern empire. The Northmen explores and made
settlements in Iceland and Greenland, which were steppingstones
to America. Others went eastward into Russia, up the Volkhov
to Novgorod, down the Volga, and along the Dnieper. Other sig-
nificant settlements were made in France, Spain, and Italy. When
once they were settled, the Northmen became active in trade and
industry. They opened a trade route across Russia from Novgorod
to Constantinople and established important trading posts in
London, Lübeck, Danzig, and Hamburg. They made some im-
portant contributions in political administration and were pio-
neers in exploration, colonization, and the development of trade.
2. CHRISTIANITY
Transition. The origin of Christianity has been described in
a previous chapter (see page 184 .ff.), and mention has been made of
the fact that Christianity did not conform with the basic ideals
of the Roman Empire. Christians, who were political nonconform-
ists, helped to undermine the authority of the emperor. They also
advocated 'a new philosophy, that was opposed to established
social and economic principles. Clearly, Christianity aided in the
general transition from the classical period to that of the Middle
Ages. In the interval of chaos that followed the fall of Rome, the
church emerged s the most powerful single institution, and it held
that position throughout-the
' Middle Ages. The Roman Catholic
Church was the successor to the Roman Empire and the pope
became the overlord of western Europe in the place of the emperor.
 THE MIDDLE AGES 26

The disillusioned people turned to the church, and it provided

practical aid as well as consolation. Even scholars found refuge in
religious institutions, and the barbarian invaders were induced
to leniency through their being taught the ideals of Christian
civilization.
Origin of the Church. The Apostles considered themselves the
successors of Jesus, from whom they had received divine appoint-
ment and inspiration. Congregations, when they were once estab-
lished, selected elders or presbyters from their group to carry on
the business and to perform the sacrament of the Lord's Supper.
Deacons also were appointed, to supervise congregations and to
administer charitable work. These early officials, it seems, were
chosen with the consent of the congregations.
Bishops, who later became the chief functionaries and dignitaries
of the congregation, served originally as presiding officers of the
presbyters. Their authority and prestige was enhanced with
divine authority. They were accepted as interpreters of doctrine,
they performed the sacred rituals, and they judged the moral life
of the faithful. In short, they assumed the role of God's agents
to supervise the worldly lives of men. Bishops within a province,
when they met as a group, became a synod, and a meeting of all
the bishops of the church was called an ecumenical council. These
officials were expected to withdraw from the ordinary pursuits of
life in order properly to perform their functions. Their power
increased rapidly that by the beginning of the 5th century their
authority was supreme over Christian congregations and they
enjoyed political, economic, and intellectual privileges from lay
authority. The bishop was the most important figure in-the early
Christian-church and, throughout its entire history, his office has
remained the cornerstone of the ecclesiastical system.
As the power of the bishops advanced, there developed a
struggle for primacy. Theoretically, in the early period all bishops
were equal, but some, because of personal prestige or the location
of their dioceses (the territory under the bishops' control), became
more outstanding; Gradually, the bishop of Rome became the
most powerful. Rrme was the most important city in the empire
and the church organization was modeled closely after that of the
Roman Empire. The church organi-zation and system of adminis-
tration were Roman in practice, if not in origin. It should be kept
 266 A HISTORY OF WORLD CIVILIZATION

in mind that there is a clear distinction between the church and

Christianity. The church is the governmental organization and
Christianity is the faith upon which the church is built. After the
seat of the empire was transferred to Constantinople, and after
the centralized authority of the emperor decreased, much of his
authority was assumed by the bishop of Rome. Roman control
over many of the eastern bishops was never supreme, but in the
time of Pope Innocent I (402-417), the principle "Rome has
spoken, the matter is closed" was accepted generally.
Great confusion and differehce of opinion exists about the
actual origin of the church. The importance of the city of Rome
gives a practical reason for its becoming the head. However, there
were theological reasons, which were accepted by followers of
Christianity. St. Peter's Church, recognized as the mother church,
was located in Rome, and both Peter and Paul suffered martyrdom
in that city. The idea that Jesus founded the church is based upon
this charge to Peter (Matt, I6:18): "And I say also unto thee,
that thou art Peter, and-upon this rock I will build my church;
and the gates of hell shall not prevail against it. And I will give
unto thee the keys of the kingdom of heaven: and whatsoever
thou shall bind on earth shall be bound in heaven: and vhatsovcr
thou shalt loose on earth shall be loosed in heaven." That provided
the basis for the Petrine doctrine. Pope Leo I (440-461) secured
gener 1 acceptance of this principle and further added: 'Whatever
Christ gave to the other Apostles, he gave only through Peter;
the firmness which was given to Peter by Christ was conferred
upon the other Apostles by St. Peter; Peter is the prince of Apos-
tles, and ruled personally those whom Christ rules supremely."
This doctrine of the apostolic succession made the Roman bishop
the direct successor of Peter. Leo I was active as a church leader
in other ways besides being a great interpreter of doctrine. He
intervened in the ecclesiastical affairs of the East, in Gaul, Spain,
and Africa, where he was accepted as sovereign. In 451, he induced
Attila the Hun to withdraw from Italy, and four years later he
saved part of Rome from the Vandals. He replaced the ancient
Roman municipal, administration with an ecclesiastical system.
Truthfully, it can be said that Rome lost the emperor and gained
the pope.
The Sacramental System. Christianity, unlike most of the
 THE MIDDLE AGES 267

other religions, concerned itself mainly with proper mediation of

the individual with the spiritual powers concerning immortality.
The church represented God on earth in the conflict with evil and
provided the ultimate assurance of eternal salvation. In human
existence, there are crises in which the individual needs special
sustenance: for inrtance, in birth, adolescence, marriage, sin, and
imminent death. The Christian church provided practices to
secure God's aid in such crises. This is known as the "sacramental
system." St. Augustine, as early, as the 5th century, defined a
sacrament as "an outward sign of an inward grace." The spiritual
power of the medieval church rested on the seven sacraments.
These were essential in the conquest of man's higher nature over
his lower; and prevented complete extinction by death.
Baptism, confirmation, the Holy Eucharist, penance, extreme
unction, ordination, and matrimony were the seven sacraments
that had been accepted by the 12th century. Baptism erased the
effects of the original sin. Confirmation was a public declaration of
a child, at about twelve years of age, of his baptism. The Holy
Eucharist, or the Lord's Supper, was the miraculous transformation
of the bread and wine into the flesh and blood of Christ (tran-
substantiation). It was, designed to strengthen man in the crises
of life and to provide spiritual regeneration. Penance provided a
means of escape for the backslider, forgiveness of sin for which
the individual was responsible. Extreme unction was the anointing
of one about to die, in order to wipe away the last of earth's stain
from the soul. Ordination was conferred by the bishop on a candi-
date for priesthood and carried with it the power to bestow divine
grace through the sacraments. Marriage, as a sacrament, sanctified
the union of man and wife and legitimized the begetting of
children. The administration of the sacraments was the primary
business of the church.
The Development of Church Doctrine. The fundamental basis
for the doctrine of the Christian church is the Bible, the teachings
of Christ and of his immediate associates. Nevertheless, Christian
doctrine has changed from time to time, owing to new conditions
that have given rise to innumerable questions and problems.
Changes were made by the so-called "church fathers' some were
made by outstanding popes; still others were suggested by monks
and by lay philosophers.
 268 A HISTORY OF WORLD CIYILIZATION

Early Church Fathers. It was largely through the efforts of

the church fathers, not only as organizers of the ecclesiastical
system, but also as religious interpreters, that Christianity emerged
as the prevailing religion in the West. Many of these were scholars
trained in classical philosophy, which was frequently reflected
in their work. Origen (185-254) drew heavily from Greek philos-
ophy in his interpretations. Athanasius (ca. 298-373), Bishop of
Alexandria, was one of the most prominent among the Fathers of
the Greek Church and is best known for his defense of the doctrine
of the Trinity against the heresy of Anus. He succeeded at the
Council of Nicaea (325) in discrediting Anus. This was one of the
most bitter controversies in early church history. John Chrysostom
(ca. 347-407) was the greatest preacher of his time, exerting
influence among all classes.
TIie Fathers of the Latin Church also were active in sponsoring
Christianity and in interpreting its doctrine. Ambrose (340-397),
Bishop of Milan, trained for an administrative career in law,
advocated orthodoxy in theology and ecclesiastical supremacy over
secularism. Jerome (ca. 340-420), the great scholar among the
early church fathers, made a translation of the Bible, known as the
Vulgate, which became the accepted rendering of the scriptures
in the Roman Church. Furthermore, his writings
on the history of
the early church are the most authoritative that were produced
Up to his time.
Augustine (ca. 3S4-430), Bishop of Hippo in North Africa, was
the nost famous of a distinguished group of Latin theologians.
Aside from being a great organizer and preacher, he wrote two
famous books, The City of God, and the Confessions. He believed
that salvation was possible "only by God of His own free will,"
and he advocated the doctrine of original sin. He opposed the idea
that evil is co-eternal with good, which comes from God (Mani-
chaean theory), and stated that "in Adam's fall we sinned all,"
Augustine believed that God had bestowed a divine grace upon
those predestined to salvation and that God was the author of all
good deeds. The church, according to Augustine, through the
administration of the sacraments, was the only means of grace
and salvation. It had five qualities: unity, holiness, salvation,
catholicity, and apostolicity.
In his City of God, Augustine sponsored idealism and spiritual-
 THE MIDDLE AGES 269

ism. Generally, Rome had come to be regarded as the eternal city

described in the Bible. When Rome fell into the hands of bar-
barians, many questioned the real strength of the Christian God
for permitting such a thing to happen. Augustine pleaded that
Rome was not the celestial city, but that such a city did exist
outside the reach of mortal man. "Citizens are begotten to the
earthly city by nature vitiated by sin, but to the heavenly city
by graces freeing nature from sin." Augustine helped in this way
to renew idealism in Christianity and encouraged the development
of faith in something beyond a material life. To him, the church
was the final undisputed authority in all things. In spite of all the
good influence that Augustine exerted, it should be noted that
his dictum claiming knowledge of God and the human soul to be
the only intellectual activity worthy of man had a narrowing
cultural influence. In his view, history was the epic of the saints,
and the physical universe merely a divine poem.
The Great Theological Disputes. Many of the basic principles
of the Christian church were established only after bitter theo-
logical controversies. In a sense, this is still true; and some think
that SUCh experiences provide Christianity with dynamics that
are necessary in a great religion. The Arian controversy arose over
the Trinity. Anus ('a. 310-336) asserted the unity of God and
denied the divinity of Christ. "God is One, Eternal, and unbe-
gotten, and all other beings are His Creatures." Athanasius, as
has been previously noted, rose in defense of the Trinity. The.
whole question was discussed during the First Ecumenical Council
at Nicaea in 325. The doctrinal issue was: Is God one or three
persons? The council decided on the concept "of one substance,"
each of the three persons of the Trinity w,-.s considered as an essen-
tial principle of the substance. "We believe in one God, the Father
Almighty, Maker of all things visible and invisible. And in one
Lord Jesus Christ, the Son of God, begotten of the Father . .
and in the Holy Ghost."
The victory over Anus at Nicaea did not end the controversy
concerning the Trinity. Anus and a number of his followers went
into northern Europe, where many of the Germans were converted
to Arianism. When the Roman Empire was invaded, th&se converts
carried the heresy . back into Christian lands. The Nestorian
controversy represented another dispute over the godhead in the
 270 A HISTORY OF WORLD CIVILIZATION

question of the nature of Christ. What was the relation of His

human to His divine nature?-There was a traditional belief that
He was one person with two natures, while another contended that
Christ was not of the same substance as man. The ecumenical
council held at Ephesus in 431 decided upon a compromise, but
insisted on the divinity of Christ. Many of the followers of Nesto-
rius fled into Persia and continued to preach the heresy. The
same dispute was later revived in the Monophysitic controversy,
without any, convincing decision except the furtherance of the
breach between Rome and Constantinople, which finally resulted
in a complete break.
Christian Dogma. Christian theories concerning dogma had
become defined rather distinctly by the beginning of the 7th
ceiatury. The following creeds were considered orthodox:
/ i. The Trinity: The Father, the Son, and the Holy Ghost
were considered to be God in one substance and three persons.
2. The Incarnation: God became man, in the person of Christ.
3. The Fall: Adam's sin doomed mortal man to the loss of
fellowship with God.
4. The Virgin Birth: The miraculous birth of Christ.
. The Dual Nature of Christ: He was . God and also com-
pletely man.
6. The Atonement: God, as Christ, died as man to redeem
the whole human race.
7. Grace: Man is given by God spiritual assistance to escape
sin.
8. The Resurrection: Christ, having risen from the grave,
gave promise of immortality to believers.
9. The Divine Foundation of the Church: The Church was
founded by God, through Christ, to restore fello'wship between
God and man.
io. The Second Coming: The promise of the return of Christ
to judge the quick and the dead.
Christian Theology. Closely associated with the dogma of the
church was the system of theology. God, as a purely spiritual
being, is immense, omniscient, almighty, and immortal. As a
personal being, He is holy, just, merciful, truthful, and faithful.
As the Father, He created the world and distinguished between
good and evil. As Christ the Son, He reestablished the fellowship
 THE MIDDLE AGES 271

with man; and as the Holy Spirit, He became the teacher of truth.
God created all things: the universe, plants, animals, men, and
angels. Out of His mercy, He promised to restore men to divine
fellowship, even after Adam's sin. Finally, in promising the Second
Coming there would be a Last Judgment, wherein the -saved
would enjoy immortal blessedness, and the damned would suffer
without alleviation.
Relationship between Monasticism and the Church. Monas-
ticism, a development in medieval Christianity outside the organ-
ization of the Roman .Catholic Church, exerted a broad influence.
Most of the monastic orders were originated, apart from the
influence of the secular clergy, by some group, to fulfill a function
that the: thought the church failed to perform. The growing
worldliness of the church and the clergy led the more pious to
segregate themselves away from their fellow men and retire to the
wilderness. Some interpreted as a command for renunciation these
words of Jesus: "And he that taketh not his cross, and followeth
after me, is not worthy of me. He that findeth his life shall lose it:
and he that loseth his life for my sake shall find it" (Matt. 10:,38–
40). The more important monastic orders were recognized, ulti-
mately, by the church; but others were branded as heretic. The
regular clergy' (a name designating monks, because they lived
according to a stated rule) formed organizations apart from the
hierachy of the Roman Catholic Church; but they were intended
to supplement and to support the church in its work, rather than
to form a separate religious organization.
Origin of Monasticism. Asceticism—as expressed it., the
monastic orders—like Christianity, had its origin in the East,
where it was a prevalent idea in most of the Oriental religions.
Gautama, Zoroaster, the Gnostics, and th .c patriarchs of Judassm
taught that it was the duty of man to withdraw from the world in
order to protect his soul. Early Christian teachers emphasized the
dangers of promiscuous association with the evils of the world.
St. Paul and St. Augustine looked upon sex as an evfl - 4P0fl
women as potentially dangerous. St. Jerome warned his followers
of the dangers of earthly joys. The earliest Christians who prac-
ticed isolation for spiritual purposes were in Asia Minor and Egypt.
'Priests bishops archbishops, and the pope, forming the ecclesiastical hierarchy, are
referred to as the secular clergy.
 272 A HISTORY OF WORLD CIVILIZATION

Monasticism has had its greatest appeal in time of social and

economic disturbances when disillusioned people attempted to
seek refuge from the evils of the world.
Organized monastic life offered inducements to people for other
than spiritual reasons. Monks were excused from military service,
debts, family obligations, personal bondage, and punishment for
crime. The monastery offered protection against invaders; even
the barbarians hesitated to enter the sanctuary. It also ensured for
the inFabitants food and shelter, which, although meager, was better
than many outside could afford. Just how many people entered
the various orders for material reasons is impossible to determine.
Many did, but taken as a whole, they represented a small percent-
age of the total number.
The Monastic Ideal. The monastic ideal was based upon the
belief that life was intended merely as a preparation for eternity.
The soul was imprisoned in the body and was thereby prevented
from rising to God because it demanded worldly pleasures that
come from the devil. Consequently, the more p unishment inflicted
on the body, the greater the favor to the soul. The teachings of
Christ were interpreted as recommending a separation of the
individual from society. St. Nilus contended that "it is a trap of
Satan to be too much attached to one's family." The monks took
vows of poverty, chastity, and obedience. Poverty would protect
them from the dangers of riches; chastity would separate them
from the degenerating influence of sex; and obedience would
prevent pride and vanity, among the worst of all sins.
Some of the monks went to great extremes in punishing them-
selves. St. Pachomius slept onl y
in an erect position. Macanus
lived in a swamp, so that mosquitos could feed on his blood. St.
Simeon Stylites lived on top of a column in the desert of Arabia
for forty years. St. Anthony, one of the most renowned of the
solitaries, sold all his property, gave the money for charity, and
went to live in the desert of Egypt. He lived on bread, which was
brought to him at intervals of six months; he wore a hair shirt
because it was uncomfortable and spent the days and nights in
prayer. "Oh sun," he protested, "why hast thou risen and pre-
vented my c ontemplating the true light?" The monks of the West
were not so selfish in their work. One of their motives was service
t o the church and no mankind, which to them was a means of
 THE MIDDLE AGES 273
t
preparing themselves for the next world. Many spent their lives
preaching and caring for the afflicted. Taken as a whole, monas-
ticism stood for the material betterment and the spiritual uplift-
ing of mankind.
Monasticism in the West. The monastic practices in the East
were primarily individualistic, while in the West they followed the
Roman idea of forming organizations with elaborate Constitutions
and Centralized governments. St. Benedict (born about 480)
established the famous monastery of Monte Cassino in Italy. He
also formed the Benedictine Rule, which was adopted by numerous
monasteries all over Europe. It provided for a period of probation
(novitiate) for a person who had expressed his intention to become
a member of the order. A candidate, after he had served his appren-
ticeship, might either enter the monastery as a member in good
standing or give up the idea altogether. This eliminated much of
the riffraff that previously had entered the monastery on false
pretenses. The rule provided for the election of an abbot, who had
almost absolute power; it stipulated rules for fasting, the type of
clothing to he worn, and the property that a member might possess.
It provided a carefull y worked-out program of work, six or seven
hours of manual labor per day for those who were physically fit.
Work was considered a grcat virtue---" Idleness is the enemy of the
soul."
The Cistercian Order, founded near Dijon in France in 1098,
and the Carthusians, launched in Grenoble in France in 1084,
were leaders in the reform movement of the church. The Friars,
appearing early in the i3th century, contributed a new expression
of the monastic ideal. They lived and worked aniongthe people
and begged for their sustenance, instead of segregating themselves
from society as other monks had done. They strove to do what the
secular clergy could not always do, to defend the church against
the heretics and awaken the people to the realities of the Christian
religion. -
St. Francis of Assisi, founder of the Franciscan Order, was one
of the most, unusual characters in the history of the church. "He
struck men's imaginations, not their minds; he was the very
incarnation of the gospel idea." His idealistic life, his self-sacri-
ficing attitude, and his intelligent i nterpretation of the Christian
doctrine give him a select place among church leaders. His order
 274 A HISTORY OF WORLD CIYILIZATION

[Link], and in izio was recognized by Pope Innocent III.

The Franciscans worked among the poor in the large cities and
went as missionaries to Germany, Hungary, France, Spain, and
the Near East. St. Francis, fearful that the favors bestowed upon
them might result in too much worldliness, charged his followers
"to follow the life and poverty . of Jesus Christ, persevering therein
until the end . . . and take good care never to depart from it
upon the advice and teachings of anyone whomsoever." St..
Dominic established a similar organization called the Dominican
Order, or the Preaching Friars. They were especially renowned for
their preaching against heretics and were considered very learned
men.
Importance of Monasticism. Monasticism was important in an
age that was harassed by barbarian invasions, corrupt and tyran-
nical rulers, immorality, and social and economic disorders. The
simple and idealistic life led by the monks was a striking contrast
to the' materialistic, artificial, and miserable existence of the vast
majority of the people. Their fervid religious practices, although
extreme is many cases, came much nearer to preserving the reli-
gious ideas of Christianity than did the practices of the secular
clergy. When the church was at a low ebb in corruption and world-
liness, the monks carried the standard of idealism and instituted
reform movements. The Cluniac monks (ioth century) advocated
the abolition of simony, the enforcement of celibacy, the establish-
ment of the absolute authority of the pope, and the separation of
the papal office from laymen. The establishment of the College of
Cardinals, in 1059, put the selection of popes in the hand of church-
men, instead of laymen. Marriage of the clergy was declared illegal
in the same year; in 1075, simony was condemned and lay investi-
ture was prohibited.
Much of the missionary work of the Middle. Ages was carried
on by the monks. The establishment of Christianity in England,
in Germany, and among the Sla y s of central Europe was largely,
their work. They were efficient workmen and craftsmen. Some of
the monasteries had model farms. The monks drained swamps;
cleared land; and experimented in seed selection, animal breeding,
and crop rotation—which was far ahead of the practices of the
time. The monastery was about the only bright spot of cultural
activity in the Middle Ages. The monks copied and preserved
 THE MIDDLE 4GES 27

manuscripts and kept records, which furnish a valuable source of

information of the period. in the monasteries, scholars found
refuge and a quiet place in which to pursue their work. Albertus
Magnus and Thomas Aquinas, two of the most famous teachers
and theologians of the 13th century, were monks. With all the
blessings that monasticism furnished to people in a harassed world,
there were also dangers. Monks lived an abnormal existence, which
often led to mutilation and torment. Many leaders segregated
themselves froni society in monasteries when they could have
rendered valuable service living among their fellow memi.
The JJ'crk of the Popes. In analyzing the development of the
power of the church, the influence of the more outstanding popes
should not be overlooked, Pope Leo I is discussed in another
connection (see page 266); but mention must be n ade of Gregory I
(59o-604), Gregory VII (I073–I08), and Innocent 'LIT (1198-
12)[0). Gregory I, one of time most influential of the early church
leaders, wa a monk; aud much of the rigid training that he had
received afFe:ted his conduct as pope. Church doctrine was
strengtlierid through his conservatism and orthodoxy in various
disputes. Hs writings served for centuries as a source of authority
in the seitlement of theological questions. His Pastoral Care, a
hook of yuidance for priests, is still highly regarded. His Morals,
or Commentary on the Bock of Job, is one of the most popular books
in the Catholic Church. The Dialogues, containing a list of miracles
and populam legends, is widely read.
Gregory VII is best known for his controversy with Henry
IV of Germany (see page 323), but he accomplished much in
the establishment of the spiritual authority of the church. In the
Dictatus lie outlined what he believed to be the authority of the
pope. The bishop of Rome—he contended—through his unique
position, is a universal bishop who controls other bishops and even
church councils. Innocent III primarily was an administrator.
During his reign the affairs of the church were put in order and
its influence was accepted and respected throughout Christendom.
"To the princes, power is given on earth, but to the priests, power
is also attributed in Heaven; to the former, only over our bodies,
to the latter, also over our souls," he declared. At the Fourth
Lateran Council (1215), he succeeded in promulgating a con-
fession of faith including the dogma of transubstantiation; he
 276 A HISTORY OF WORLD CIVILIZATION

established the Inquisition for the ,systematic suppression of heresy,

and he provided that every believer should make confession to a
iriest at least once a year.
Transition from the classical to the medieval period was made
possible largely through the influence of the Germans and the
establishment of the Christian church. The assimilation of these
forces and their general effects on human progress will be traced
in subsequent chapters.

NI. THE ROMAN EMPIRE IN THE EAST

(BYZANTIUM)
i. GOVERNMENT
Although the city of Byzantium was renamed Constantinople
when, in 33o, Constantine made it the capital of the Roman
Empire, the terms B'antium and B':antine are still used to desig-
nate the Eastern cultue, which did not succumb to the Roman
conquerors but, instead, dominated them. Peoples of the Occident
are inclined to neglect the cultural advances of the Eastern Roman,
or Byzantine, Empire. Traditionally, the Roman Emoir fell into
the hands of the barbarians in the 5th century, but in reality the
eastern half remained essentially intact until the middle of the i 5th
century. The civilization of the Eastern Roman Empire was the
most out s tanding in Europe, if not in the world, for severai hundred
years.,'yzantine culture represented a fusion of late classical and
Oriental civilizations and furnished many important elements for
the development of later cultures. According to Professor Thorn-
dike,' again and again the invaders tried to break down the walls,
but without success. "Thus it [Constantinople] rendered a double
service to civilization, first by keeping invaders in the Balkans
out of Asiatic provinces, then by keeping invaders of Asia Minor
out of Europe."
Dz'Lcion of the Empire. The separation of the Roman Empire
into eastern and western divisions was due primarily to the fact
that the two parts were never completely united, From the day
when the Roman legions conquecd the Hellenized territories until
the fall of Rome in the West, he East remained basically Greek
in its cultural characteristics. The two sections drew further apart
jjj,,> 0r Civilization (Crofts), 277.
 THE MIDDLE JGES 277

ar the political domination of Rome waned, until not only two

t" pes of culture, but also two types of government, existed. The
tendency on the part of the Roman emperors in the later stages of
the empire to seek an Oriental setting for their court led to the
abandonment of Rome for Constantinople. The religious schism,
which ultimately resulted in theestablishment of the Greek Ortho-
dox Church, contributed to the complete separation of the East
from the \Vet. In culture, religion, philosophy, politics, and geo-
graphical setting the two territories differed. Except for brief
periods of unity, the separation was complete by the middle of
the 4th century.
Fo/itical Evo'Zutirjn. The Emperor Justinian (527-565) was
the reatest of the ByzaBne rulers. He reunited the East and the
Vet under a governIientthat was essentially an Oriental des-
potism. i1e emperor ,vas absolute and maintained great romp in
his court. i-fe was i supported by a large fleet and a standing army.
The Greek Orthodox Church, in contrast with the Roman Catholic,
was regarded OS a servant of the state arid was not allowed t0 inter-
in po l itic The emperor dominated the church cou toed
dccrinci disputes, and appointed church officcrs.(The Byzantine
EnpOe was harassed _by many attacks of barbarians, but it suc-
ceeded in warding them off until the middle of the i th century.
Shordy after Justinians death, the Slays invaded the Balkan
peninsula as far south 25 Illyria and Thrace. The Moslems be-
gan their attacks in Asia Minor in the last quarter of the 76h
ce1tury.
The government of Byzantium was not very well managed.
Internal conflicts were almost as threatening to the state as were
the attacks of the Arabs and other Moslems, The Byzantine Empire
was at its height under the Macedonian dynast (867-1059). Crete
and Cyprus were conquered, the boundary on the east was pushed
to the Euphrates, and plans were made to reconquer Palestine and
Jerusalem. Southern Italy was occupied. The Kingdom of the
Bulgars in, the Balkans was overthrowts and the territory annexed.
Decline and Fall of time Byzantine Eiire. A group of incapable
rulers_ who succeeded the Macedonian dynasty gave up the
territories in the West. The Seljuk Turks began their ravages of
the eastern frontiers of the empire in 1059. They conquered
Syria, Palestine, and most of the Near East in short order. The
 278 A HISTORY OF WORLD CIVILIZATION

crusaders captured Constantinople in 1. 204 and for a time domi-

nated the Peloponnesus, southern Thessaly, and Constantinople.
The Byzantine Empire broke up gradually into a number of small
states, which were reunited in 1261; but the revived empire was a
mere shadow of the old. Trade had been ruined, and Constantinople
lost much of its former prestige. Attacked by the Latins from the
west and by the Ottoman Turks from the east, Constantinople fell
into the hands of the latter in 1453. The proud city, which was
given a new name, Istanbul, then became the capital of the
Turkish Empire.
Trade and Industry. The great wealth of the Byzantine Em-
pire was the result of commerce, industry, and agriculture. By-
zantine commerce, which flourished from the 5th to the end of the
13th century,, was one of the dominant forces in disseminating
civilization throughout the Mediterranean world c'.uring the Middle
Ages. Spices, drugs, perfumes, precious stones, and valuable woods
from the Orient passed through Byzantine cities to markets farther
west. Manr cities prospered, including Constantinople, Antioch,
Damascus, Beirut, Salonika. and Corinth- and industry ranked
second in importance as a source of wealth. Textile mills were
numerous in Constantinople. When the silkworm was imported
from China, silk became a major article of commerce. Jewelry,
religious ornaments, metalware, ivory carvings, and weapons were
produced and sold in quantity. Th agricu!tural output was suffi-
cient to provide adequate food supply. As a result, the Byzantine
Empire enjoyed great wealth, with a yearly rcvenue, during
prosperous times, that is estimated to have been the equivalent of
600,000,00.
society. Byzntine society was essentially urban-,-- similar to
the earlier Hellenistic type. On the other hand, the Byzantine
metropolis constituted an industrialized community, a forerunner
of the medieval commercial cities in northern Italy and in ..the Low
Countries. The nobility, wealthy officials, and large landholders
lived arng elegant surroundings in an atmosphere of laxity;
yet many of them were cultivated and talented individuals. The
middle class, merchants and manufacturers, lived well but more
conservatively. The lot of the peasant was not one to be envied
and, toward the end of Byzantine rule, many were reduced to
serfdom.
 THE MIDDLE AGES 279

R TS
Architecture. The hybrid nature of Byzantine culture is 'dem-
onsfráted in its art. The architecture is a combination of Roman,
Greek, and Oriental influence. The extensive use of ornament,
symbolism, the vault, and the dome was of Oriental inspiration; the
basilica and the ornamental motifs are Roman in origin. The church
of St. Sophia, built in Constantinople in the time of Justinian, is

FIG. 3 2—St. Sophia, Constantinople.

(Courtesy, II. S. Lucas, A Short history of Civilization.)

tne best example of Byzantine architecture. Originally a Christian

church, it became a Mohammedan mosque after the Turkish
conquest in 1453. The central dome, the most prominent fea-
ture of the btiTlding, is 107 feet in diameter. It rests on four
arches supported by four piers. At the east and west ends, two main
arches open into half domes and these in turn open into smaller
half domes. The interior of the building, decorated with marble
i ncrustations, intricate carvings, and brilliant mosaics of j;tiich
colors and gold, is more impressive than the exterior. The spciau-
ness, the splendor of the decorations, the glowing and harmonious
 280 A HISTORY OF WORLD CIVILIZ1TION

color, and the suspended effect of the dome set apart this great
building as a unique object of admiration. Professor Schevill'
says: "There are higher cupolas in the world than this, which
rises to a height of i8o feet from the stone pavement, but there
is none which crowns so naturally and nobly a living frame-
work of related parts." Much of the stonework is covered with

Fin. 33.—Small mosaic fountain from a house in Cairo (15th century). (Courtesy, Unir'ersiiy
of Pennsylvania Afsoeum.)

lacelike patterns using the design of the acanthus leaf. The capitals
of the columns are of the double or basket type with the upper
part plain, except for a cross or a monogram, while the lower part
is carved in delicate traceries. The splendid mosaics used in pro-
fusion here, as in other Byzantine buildings, are among the finest
in the world. The influence of Byzantine architecture was strongly
felt in Italy, southern France, and Spain; domes and mosaics
Balkan Peninsula (Harcourt Brace), 56.
 THE MIDDLE AGES 281

similar to those of the Byzantine buildings can be found even in

northern Europe.
.Other Forms of Art. The iconoclastic controversy, a dispute
over the use of images in the churches, resulted in the destruction of
many of the finest specimens of Byzantine art, but enough remain
to give a good impression of what it was at its best. The church
controlled the subject matter and gave specific directions for the
guidance of the painters. The artists not only made decorations
for their own churches-But also sold much of their work in the
West for the decoration of Roman Catholic churches. The sar-
cophagus, which represents the chief work in sculpt, is elabo-
rately decorated with sacred monograms, peacocks, and fruited
vines. Jeweled ornamerts, fine silks, and chalices were produced
in great abundance. Byzantine art, taken collectively, lacked
naturalness, imagination, and spontaneity—defects due primarily
to religious rcstrictions.
. RELIGION AND PHILOSOPHY
Establishment of the Greek Church. While Christianity arose in
the eastern part of the Roman Empire, the Roman Catholic
interpretation of the religion was never generally accepted there.
There was a fundamental difference between the Greek. and the
Roman point of view in religion. In the early period of the history
of the Roman Church, most of the disputes over doctrine originated
in the East. The Arians disputed the doctrine of the Trinity; the
Jacobites contended that Christ had two characteristics: the divine
Word and the man Jesus. These contentions were condemned as
heresies by the Roman Catholic Church, but they persisted in the
East. As early as the 7th century, neither the emperor nor the
patriarch in Constantinople recognized the supremacy of the Pope
in Rome The iconoclastic controversy resulted in a final break.
In 1054 the Pope excommunicated the Patriarch of Constantinople
and no reconciliation was ever effected.
Doctrine. The Greek Church, the Holy Oriental Orthodox
Apostolic Church, holds that the Holy Ghost proceeds only from
the Father. Members believed in threefold immersion, marriage of
the clergy, and anointing with holy oil for the restoration of health
and forgiveness of sin rather than as a spiritual blessing for the
dying. They reject the idea of purgatory and indukences, but
 282 .1 HISTORY OF WORLD CIYILIZATION

advoca:e prayers for the dead, whose fate, they contend, is not
fully determined until the final judgment. They recognize no
visible vicars of Christ on earth, but they give spiritual authority
to the ,atriarch. Fasts recommended for penance are to be observed
on Wednesdays and Fridays and on days of the great annual feasts:
forty days before Easter, the feast of the Virgin Mary, the Apostle
Philips feast, and the anniversary of the beheading of John the
Bapti,t. Preaching and catechizing are minimized, and iristru-
ment:J music is excluded from the services. Mass is emphasized
as of great importance.
Tae members of the upper clergy—bishops, archbishops, metro-
politns, and patriarchs—are chosen from monastic orders. It is
impcssible for members of the lower clergy—readers, singers,
deacns, priests, and archpriests— . to rise to membership in the
upper clergy. The clergy play a comparatively insignificant part
in tie Greek Orthodox Church. By comparison with the Roman
Catholic Church, there is less emphasis put upon centralization of
autlority. There is a general tendency for churches in different
cou:itries to follow their own interpretation of doctrine. The
Mechites of Syria and Egypt, the Ruthenians in central Europe,
the United Greeks in Italy, the Graeco-Romajc Church in Hun-
gay, and the United Church in Bulgaria—all branches of the
Othodox church—differ in matters of detail.
4. IMPORTANCE OF BYZANTINE CIVILIZATION
Preservation of Greek Culture. Byzantine civilization differed
in many respects from the Roman. While western Europe was
divided into a number of local feudal provinces the East was ruled
by an absolute, centralized power. The industrial, commercial, and
municipal life of the East contrasts strangely with the predomi-
nately agricultural life of the West. The religious organizations
were quite different and the people spoke a different language. In
spite of all these differences, there was an important cultural inter-
relationship. Byzantine influence on Western art was truly impor-
tant. Both architecture and painting, even in the Renaissance
period, owed much to Byzantine inspiration.
A great part of Byzantine intellectual activity was devoted to
t hejresrvation and continuation of. Greek culture. Aëtius and
Paul €f Aegina (late 6th and 7th enturies) continued the medical
 THE MIDDLE AGES 283

work that Hippocrates and Galen had started. The preservation of

Hellenic civilization ivas important, but Byzantine civilization did
not go much further than that. It was stereotyped and lacked
vitality. Nevertheless, while the Germanic barbarians were being
assimilated in the West, the Byzantines kept alive classical culture,
and, by the time that they were overrun by the Ottoman Turks,
the West was well on its way to cultural recovery.
End of the Byzantine Rule. The Byzantine Empire came t9 an
inglorious end in the conquest of the territory by the Turks. In
1453, when Constantinople fell, the Turks pushed or. into Europe:
They conquered the whole Balkan peninsula and most of the
southeastern part of Eufrop .e to the very gates of Vienna, where
they were finally checked. , ,Byzantine civilization suffered greatly
at the hands of the Turks. Much of the art was destroyed and the
religion was suppress e d. Some of the glories of Byzantine civili-
zation are just now coming to light as the Turks lose their grip
on the territory.

IV1THE CIVILIZATIONS OF THE NEAR EAST

i. PERSIA
The Persian State. A revived Persian empire arose in the terri-
tory to the east of the Byzantine Empire in the 3d century of the
Christian Era. Recent discoveries have led some scholars to believe
that Persia:-- under the Sassanids (226-641) reached one of the
-
greatest civilizations before the advent of modern times) Unfortu-
nately, the Persians spent much of their time and energy'iri fight-
ing. In the last century of Sassanid rule, there was such constant
w''i'fare with Byzantium that it led to te ultimate downfall of the
kingdom.
Persian' civilization of this period is comparatively unknown.2
Not much of the culture passed into the Byzantine Empire because
the two countries were constantly at war and because the land was
almost completely enveloped by the Turks.
Persian Civilization. Persian religion was a form of Zoroastri-
anisrii..Iost of the folowefs of the faith were driven out by the
Turks. he Parsees of India—the sole survivors of Zoroastrianism-
are among the wealthiest and best educated people in that ter-
ritory], In the ancient Persian capital, Ctesiphon, there are remains
 284 A HISTORY OF WORLD CIVILIZATION

of some of the buildings that belonged to the Sassanid mon-

archy. The most famous (built about 550) is a high hall 163 feet
long, 86 feet wide, and 95 feet high. It has an elliptical vault and
side walls, slanting inward, without windows. The Persians, who
were much more skilled in decorating than they were in building,
produced exquisite embroidery and earthenware. Their slvrsmiths
wrought some of the most beautiful work in silver in the world.
The designs on the cups they made show grace and facility in line.
For subjects they used the Assyrian type of fierce animal, with
sharp claws and open mouth. In spite of a great variety of design
and detail, there is seldom an impression of overcrowding. Evi-
dences of the effects of Persian art can be found in India and China
as far vest as Italy, Spain, and France. The textile designs of
the Persian weavers and rugmakers have reached out into the four
corners of the world.
2. ARABIC AND OTHER MOSLEM CIVILIZATION
Tue Land, Arabia is a peninsula connected with both Africa
and Asia, but geographically somewhat isolated. Although the
great empires of antiquity, surrounded it, there were few penetra-
tions into the interior. Much of the territory, which is approxi-
mately one-third the size of the United States, is high, rocky, and
barren, with only a few fertile regions dotted here and there in the
valleys of small streams or around oases. In search of water and
grass for their cattle, herdsmen travel from one oasis to another,
taking their belongings with them. There are a number of small
cities along the coast line, but most of the population is migratory.
The People. The Arabs, who were Semitic in their cultural
background, loved warfare and were sought by the Persian
and Byzantine states to serve in their armies. Armed conflict
among the different tribes was common; plundering the borderland
cities and robbing caravans were accepted as legitimate practices.
The people were mystics, inclined to worship nature go'ds. In the
typical Arab there was a prevailing individualism and much self-
reliance. He was not inclined to submit to centralized organiza-
tions—political, economic, or social. In spite of the unsettled state
of their existence and their wild nomadic life, these people were
progressive in many ways.
Religion, the Common Bond. The Arabs lacked the centralized
 THE MIDDLE AGES 285

political organization that is characteristic of civilized society.

When mention is made of this Arabian or Mohammedan empire,
this does not imply the existence of a state with a well-defined
boundary, but applies, instead, to many groups of people of varying
culture spread over broad territories and bound together by a
common devotion to a religious faith. At certain seasons of the
year, the tribes endeavored to make pilgrimages to such favored
spots as Mecca, where the Kaaba, a sanctuary for the famous
Black Stone, was a center of veneration. Fighting stopped for four
months in each year, in order that the faithful might congregate
at Mecca. The people took advantage of this meeting to exchange
wares and bits of learning that they had gathered in their travels.
Poets recited their verses and a general celebration was held, after
which each group went its own way.
Political Institutions. The central authority, insofar as there
was any central authority, was in the hands of the caliph, the
successor of Mohammed, and the Vicar of God on earth. He war
both a temporal ruler and a religious potentate. To question his
authority was considered a revolt against Allah. He was the
supreme power acting in the common interest. The Ommiad
dynasty (661-750) made Damascus the capital; but the succed-
ing dynasty (the Abbasids) chose Bagdad, where they built a
beautiful palace, called the Golden Gate, and ruled in Oriental
splendor and despotism. The city became a thriving commercial
and intellectual center. The tendency after the 8th century was to
establish partly independent caliphs, with very little centralized
control. Caliphates were established at Cordova in Spain, at Cairo
in Egypt, and at Bagdad in Asia Minor. The caliph ruled without
a constitution and in the most high-handed and dictatorial fashion.
He was supposed to protect the faith, to advance the power of
Islam, and to promote the welfare of his people. The people had
very little part in the government, but many of the tribes were
far enough away to be practically independent.
Economic Life. The Arabs were a commercial people, almost
by instinct. The prophet Mohammed was a merchant, and the
Koran showed a marked partiality to tradesmen. Three continents
—Africa, Asia, and Europe wereconnected through the efforts of
Arabran merchants; and the Arabic language was the language of
commerce Connections between trade centers were established
 286 A HISTORY OF WORLD CIVILIZATION

through couriers; some of the messengeis traveled on horseback

as far as 750 miles in three days. The leading agriculturists of their
time were the Arabs, who practiced crop rotation, used fertilizers,
and established irrigation projects. They i ntroduced into Europe
spinach, asparagus, strawberries, lemons, dates, Cotton, rice, sugar
cane, and pomegranates. Their manufactured products were armor,
steel weapons, glassware, rose water, leather goods, textiles, and
porcelain.'
Art. The Moslems failed to develop a first-class art, at least
until they came into contact with other peoples whose art they
borrowed as a stock upon which to graft some of their own ideas.
For that reason, their art was not uniform. Besides, the Koran
imposed a limitation by prohibiting the representatior of human
figures. NIoslern decorations consisted mainl y in intricate designs
carved in wood and metals. The people admired color, and the
vealthv attired themselves richly an decorated thcir homes with
hne siiks. costly hangings, and beautiful rus.
iritecrre. Niosques and palaces were no chief architectural
works of the Mohammedans. The n;osque recuired a fountain for
the ablution of the worshiper before Prayer, a roof to prote( t him
from the hot sun, a pulpit from which the sermon was Preached
on the Mohammedan holy day, and a raised p latform from which
the Koran was recited and the pra yers were chanted. The sanctuary
and the portal were elaborately decorated with plaster, wood
carvings, marble inlay, and colored glass. Frequently, wood was
inlaid with ivory and ebony. Geometric patterns made up of small
polygons, carved in floral designs and finished with a beading,
were the decorative motifs most extensively followed. The artists
obtained color and brilliance by painting the wood carvings and
by using stained-glass windows and colored marbles. The Alham-
bra in Granada stands as a monument to the richness of Oriental
color and design. It is built around an open court, overlooking
which are rooms and balconies. The interior walls of the rooms are
covered with bright-colored designs in blue, red, yellow, and gold.
The Minor Arts. The Mohammedans excelled in the minor
arts. Their artistic , tastes found expression in metalwork, deco-
rations for lamps, and the illumination of manuscripts of the
Sword blades made in Damascus were in great demand. Cordovan and Moroccan
leathers are still considered the finest in the world.
 THE MIDDLE AGES 287

Koran. An inscription in large letters intertwined with rosettes

was a motif frequently used in metalwork. Glass mosque lamps
were decorated with blue, white, yellow, green, red, and gilt
enamel. The decoration of manuscripts of-'the Koran represents
one of the finest and most delicate works of these artists. Fre-
quently, the text was written in gold, supported by a vivid blue,
with a little red, white, black, or green to set it off. Cottons, silks,
4amasks, and satins were woven with utmost care in pattens of
carefully designed birds, animals, and geometric forms. All these
productions found a ready market in the West.
Religious Cults. The Arabian desert was the mother of re-
ligions. The cult of Ishtar, Judaism, Christianity, and Islam, and
countless others of lesser importance, sprang up here. Belief in the
mystical powers of a black rock enshrined in the Kaaba, in the city
of Mecca, was about the only religious unity that existed among
the various Arabian tribes. Most of them were represented at an
annual convention iii Mecca t' worship at the Kaaba, ahhough
they were separated and isolated during the remainder of the time.
There were four months in the year during which they forgot their
warfa'e and, while they were on their way to Mecca, they were as
safe from molestation as they would have been in anycountry in
the world. One writer' contends, "So faithful were they to the
ordinances of their religion that if a man met his father's mur-
derer unarmed in One of the sacred months he would not harm
him."
-.Youndations of Islam. Mohammed, the founder of Islam, was
born in Mecca, Ca. 571. He had no unusual talents, and some of
his critics believe that he was subject to epileptic fits, in which
condition he is reputed by his followers to have made his contacts
with God. He married a rich widow, named Khadijah, whose
wealth and personal influence in Mecca were great assets. Many of
his teachings were not new, but were adopted from Arabic folklore.
His conception of God was that of the Old Testament, and he
accepted Jesus as a prophet, along with Abraham and Moses; but
he himself, so his followers declared, was the latest and greatest of
the prophets. He assumed the title of Praised One, much the same
as Gautama acquired the name Enlightened One, and as Jesus
came to be called the Anointed One
' Margoliouth, D. S., Mohammed, S.
 z88 4 HISTORY OF WORLD CIFILIZ4TION
The student of religion may not be impressed by the personality
of Mohammed, but it should be remembered that the quality
of Islam and the personality of Mohammed are quite different
things. A great part of the Koran, the Mohammedan Bible, is not
made up of the, actual teachings and sayings of Mohammed, but
is ei revelation of what other people have attributed to him. While
the Koran may not be of divine origin, it is, nevertheless, a remark-
able bobk, which should be read in its entirety to be appreciated
fully. The faithful are charged to serve but one god, to honor
their fellow men especially their parents, the poor, and orphans),
to be hoZ ofe fr gal ("the wasteful were ever the devil's
brothers"b temperate..
Charac i. The form of worship is much simpler than
that racost Christian churches. There is no priesthood,
in the ristian sense of the word, and the mosque is a place for
prayer and for reading the Koran, rather than for a forral service.
It is a personal and individualistic religion; the faithful Moham-
medan needs no intermediary between himself and his god. The
form of worship is to recite the, creed ("There is but one God,
and Mohammed is his prophet"), to pray five times a day, to
fast, to give alms to the poor, and to make at least one pilgrimage
to Mecca. The next world is graphically described in the Koran.
Hell is depicted as a dismal place. 'The companions of the left-
hand shall dwell amidst burning winds, and scalding water, undr
the shade of a black smoke neither cool nor agreeable." Heaven
is described as a superoasis. "Youths shall continue in their bloom
forever . . and there shall accompany them fair damsels having
large black eyes; they resembling pearls hidden in their shells
They shall have their abode among trees free from thorns and
trees of Mauz loaded regularly with their produce from top to
bottom; under an extended shade, near a flowing water and
amidst fruits in abundance."
Spread of : Moliaminedanism. Mohammed was driven from
Mecca by his enemies in 622. His flight to Medina, called the
Hegira, was the turning point in the development of Moham-
medanisrn, since from that time it began to spread. The enthusiastic
bearers of the faith crossed North Africa, spread into Spain, and
went as far north as Tours in France, where they were defeated
in battle in 732, just a century after the death of Mohammed.
 THE MIDDLE 1GES 289

They maintained their hold in Spain until the close of the 115th
century, and they are still predominant in northern Africa. In the
middle of the xth century, the Ottoman Turks, having accepted
Islam, conquered Constantinople and pushed northward through
the Balkan peninsula to the very gates of Vienna, where they
were stopped in a bloody battle in 1529. Twice, the Mohammedans
made a serious threat to overrun Europe; twice, Christendom had
a narrow escape. Islam met with less opposition in its spread east-
ward into India, China, and Japan.
Later Development. Mohammedanism has had its ups and
downs, its periods of purity and retrogression, the same as any
other religion. Owing to the Jack of a central authority, many
variations developed. In the more remote region, the idolatrous
practices of the native tribes persisted, and in India some of the
characteristics of Hinduism were added. A sect in Persia, called
the Shiites, worshiped Mohammed's son-in--law, Ali, as a prophet.
There were, in all, some 72 different sects, but most of them were
of minor importance. The greatest discredit to the religion came
when the Ottoman Turks adopted Mohammedanism and enthusi-
astically, but selfishl y , sponsored its cause. Most Occidentals are
inclined to think of Turks and Mohammedans as synonymous,
but such is obviously not the case. In recent years, great. changes
for the better are evident in Turkey; the time may come when its
people will no longer be a discredit to Islam.
Estimate. It is very difficult for an Occidental to appreciate
and evaluate Mohammedanism. Judged by Western standards, it
- contains many undesirable characteristics. Polygamy was sanc-
tioned and justified in the Koran. A man was permitted to have
four wives and as many concubines as he could afford. Polygamy,
it may be remembered, was quite generally accepted in these
countries before Mohammedanism was introduced—in fact, the
adoption of Mohammedanism improved somewhat the status of
women among the desert tribes. Under its tenets, infanticide for
girls was condemned and the number of wives a man might have
was limited. Mohammedanism is frequently condemned as a war-
like religion. There is no need of denying that many bloody deeds
were .comthitted in the name of the prophet. However, Moham-
medans make the same charges against the Christians and refer to
the Book of Kings in the Bible and to the bloody acts of the
 9O A HISTORY OF WORLD CIJ'ILIZATION

Inquisition as proofs of their contentions. There are many passages

in the Koran, just as there are in the Bible, that indicate an
opposite point of view. "Paradis6 is prepared for those who expend
in alms, who repress their rage, and pardon men. For Allah loves
the kind. Let no man treat his neighbor as he himself would dislike
to be treated."
Mohammed was a religious teacher and a social reformer, and
the Koran is both a book of religion and a book of law. The conduct
of life and details of etiquette are carefully regulated. Wines and
other intoxicating liquors are prohibited, as is gambling. In-
fanticide and murder are condemrd, and kindlier treatment of
slaves is recommended. In contrast with Christianity, the Moham-
medan form of worship is extremely simple. There is a conspicuous
lack of sacraments, sacerdotal priesthood, and ecclesiastical hier-
archy. Religion, to the faithful Mohammedan, is an everyday
affair, not a concentration of religious practices into one holy day
in the week. Islam, a dynamic religion, today is winning converts
with ease at the expense of other religions.
Litc,aturc. Much of the literature of the Arabs was not written
until after it had passed from mouth to mouth for many gener-.
ations. They took great pride in reciting their poems and had no
trouble in finding enthusiastic listeners. Two very necessary
qualities for the production of good literature were theirs—a clear
and concise way of expressing themselves and vivid imagination.
Much of their literature idealized the people,as fierce, bold, hospi-
table, and truthfulTheir histories and .biographies were numerous.
A Biographical Dictionary, published in the 13th century, contains
accounts of 865 i mpo rta n t Mohammedans. World, history, as
written by the Arabs, laid strong emphasis upon the Moslem point
of view. One of the most famous of these works is the Annals of
the Apostles and Kings, written by Al-Tabari.
Poetry was a favorite form of literary expression. Omar Khay-
yam (izth century) was the author of the Rubáiyt, the. best
known of the Moslem poems. Gulistan and Bustan, mythical and
philosophical odes, were written by Saadi (late 13th century).
In prose literature, The Arabian Nights is the most famous work.
Almost everyone has read at least parts of this great tale and has
been entertained by it. Within it is included [Link] variety of
matrial: proverbs, adventures, and fables, covring territory all
 THE MIDDLE,JEs 291

the way from China to western Europe. The Arabs, deeply inter-
ested in the scientific development of their language, worked out
dictionaries, grammars, and books on philology. A language
beautiful in expression and scientific in organization was perfected
by the 13th century.
Science. One of the first things that the Moslems did when
they conquered a territory was to build a mosque. To this building
they frequently attached a school, the main purpose of which was
to teach the people to read the Koran. Science, literature, and. art
were ultimately added to the list of subjects taught. Free from
the influence of Christian theology, the scientific contributions of
the Greek scholars were preserved and expanded. In this wa y, the
scientific works of Aristotle, Galen, and Euclid were passed on to
Western civilization. Moslems built universities and libraries in
Spain. The University of Salerno, in Italy, was one of the first to
teach scientific medicine. Major operations were - performed and
the insane were treated scientifically. Moslem scientists discovered
alcohol, potash, nitrate of silver, nitric and sulphuric acids. They
had learned the secrets of dyeing and discovered a new process for
making paper. They knew, also, how to graft tees and plants so
as to produce new varieties.
The prestige of the Moslem scholars in the field of mathematics
is indicated by the mathematical terms that we borrowed from
them: zero, cipher, and algebra. They developed algebra to second-
degree equations. They invented the tangent and the cotangent
in trigonometry. In physics, they discovered the principle of the
pendulum. Geographers, with the use of physics and mathematics,
made accurate measurements of latitude and longitude. They
wrote descriptive geography and deduced principles of geographical
science.
Evaluation. Moslem civilization was composite. It gathered
ideas from the waning civilizations of India, Byzantium, Persia,
and Egypt. The Moslems continued the work begun in these earlier
cultures and passed it on to Western peoples to serve as a part of
the foundation of the Renaissance. Medicine, astronomy, mathe-
matics, physics, chemistry, and art of the West depended much
upon Arabic knowledge. Thomas Aquinas, whose work served as a
bridge between the medieval and modern ages, was influenced
greatly by the Arabs. The Dark 1ges is really only a convenient
 92 A HISTORY OF WORLD CIVILIZATION

term used to pass over the period in which Byzantine and Arabic
civilization outshone that of the West.

V. THE FAR EAST: DOMINATION OF THE MONGOLS

The Mongolian, people have been considered only insofar as
they disturbed the peoples of the West. While their effecc on
Occidental culflirevas not pronounced, they should not be passed
over as of no consequence. They were a nomadic and destructive
people, w4o, were inclined to conquer, destroy, and then move on
to other lands. At intervals they were united under one man, but
only for short periods. In some cases, they mingled with other
people and imposed their government upon them, as, for instance,
in India, in China, and in the Near East.
The Great Mongol Empire. Near the end of the 12th century,
the Mongols began the establishment of a rather loosely organized
empire in the northern part of what is now China, under the
leadership of Genghis Khan (i 16z ?-1227). He was one of the most
remarkable men of his time, a military genius who developed a
well-trained army and an elaborate spy system that kept him in
touch with even the remote regions of his empire, which, at the time
of his death, reached from the Pacific Ocean to the Dneiper
River. At no time since has that territory been so efficiently
ruled.
The successors of this powerful leader continued the conquests,
but neglected the administration of the territory. In 1238, they
took Moscow; in 1241, they overran Hungary and entered the
Balkan peninsula. Kublai Khan (1216?-1294), grandson of Genghis
Khan, assumed the governorship of China and was elected Great
Khan (1259). He built a marvelous capital in Peking, constructed
canals, and carried out irrigation projects. Marco Polo, after visit-
ing his court, carried back to Europe stories of the grandeur of
the Oriental empire. The united empire. did not last longer than
the Great Khan. Several divisions arose: the Ottoman Turks in the
Near East, another group in southwestern Asia, another in eastrn
Europe, and still another in China. Much of their time was spent
in pillage and warfare. One of the most warlike of the rulers was
Tamerlane (1336?-1405), who overran Asia Minor,' , Pèrsi, aiid.
Mesopotamia. Some of the territory has never recovered from those
ravages.
 THE MIDDLE AGES 293

China and India. China was slow in its recovery from the
Mongol invasions. In 1368, the Ming dynasty was established
and the Mongols were driven out. The Ming dynasty held sway
until 1644, when it was conquered by the Manchus, a group de-
scended from the Mongols. They ruled China until the recently
established republic began. The recent ruler of Manchukuo claimed
to be a descendant from the Manchu line. Chinese civilization did
no more than hold its own during that period. In I526 an empire
was established in India, with a capital at Delhi. It soon decayed
and a number of small states took its place. When the British
intervened, in the i8th century, they allowed many of the. petty
rulers to hold nominal power.
Indian Art. Occidentals should keep in mind that Oriental
artists did not emphasize the literal portrayal of man and nature,
but represented both as symbolic of the .srpiriotual, forces that domi-
nate them. The artist attempted to express the passions that
animate the subject rather than to reproduce a complete external
likeness. Without this understanding, Oriental art seems fantastic.
The people of India erected beautiful tombs and palaces. The
exquisite Taj Mahal atAgra, built in the s7th century byShah Jahan
as a mausoleum for his favorite wife, is one of the most famous
and exquisite of their buildings. Constructed of white marble, it is
crowned by a lofty bulb-shaped dome, surrounded by four lesser
çlomes. It is set on a high square platform of marble inthe midst of
a rich tropical garden, richly decorated with mosaics and arabesques.
The exterior has a most pleasing effect because of its7 rare beauty
of proportion and sweep of majestic curves. Some parts of the
exterior are ornamented with delicate floral designs, inlaid with
agate, bloodstone, and jasper The Taj Mahal ranks with such
architectual works as the temple of Karnak, the Parthenon, St.
Sophia, and the Gothic cathedrals.
Statues of Buddha dominate the sculpture of-India. He is por-
trayed seated, with his legs crossed, his hands folded in his lap, and
his eyes downcast as if in sleep. Such examples of painting as'
are still in existence consist mostly of frescoes on the wails of
temples. Beginning in the middle of the 16th century, the paintings
fall into two classes: the Rajput and the Mughal. The Rajput
tends to be more worldly than the earlier type. Everyday life and
stories from history, as well as incidents from the lives of gods, are
 294 A HISTORY OF WORLD CIVILIZATION

portrayed. The Mughal group shows a decidedly Mongol influence.

Painting was used mainly for the decoration of, the palaces of the
rulers; and court scenes, hunts, animals, and flowers are the usual
themes.
Japan. The Ainu, who were the earliest known inhabitants
of Japan, remained in possession of the islands for many centuries.
Finally, about the beginning of the ioth century, they were pushed

FIG. 34.—Taj Mahal (17th century), thought by many to be the most beautiful building in
the world. (Photograph by Ewing Galloway, Nw York.)

into the northeastern part of the country by a Mongoloid race

from Korea. The modern Japanese developed principally from
the Mongolian invaders. However, they have an independent
language, which is related neither to the [Link] group nor
to the Chinese. The civilization of Japan, on the other hand, is
derived mainly from Mongoloid or Chinese sources. With the
introduction of Buddhism, many ideas and practices were intro-.
duced, including writing. Buddist priests, ascetics, sculptors, and
architects were accepted in Japan at about the same time (588).
Furthermore, the Japanese imitated the Chinese government, and,
 THE MIDDLE AGES 295

by the 8th century, plans for cities were copied from those in China.
Aside from these innovations, Japan remained backward and
secluded until the middle of the 19th . century.

VI. THE MIDDLE AGES IN EUROPE

x. THE LAND AND THE PEOPLE
The Land. The geographical characteristics nf southern
Europe have been described in earlier chapters, but a word should
be said concerning the northern European lowlands, that were
destined to become the center of intellectual and industrial activity
in Europe. This vast area is separated from the Mediterranean
region by an irregular and broken mountain range, including the
Pyrenees, the Jura, the Vosges, the Alps, and the Carpathian
mountains. The modern states of Germany, Poland, Denmark,
the Baltic states, the Netherlands, Belgium, England, and most of
France lie wholly or in part within this region. The climate is
temperate, there is plenty of rainfall, the soil is fertile, and t'e
growing season is long enough for staple crops to mature. Valuable
natural resources make industrial development possible, while the
coast line affords many excellent harbors on which are located
cities of 4utstanding commercial importance. The value of the
land, the density of 'population, and the lack of natural boundaries
between the different states unfortunately have made strife and
warfare common.
The People. The peoples who led in the cultural development
of this region were neither pure Germans nor pure Latins, but a
mixture of the two. In spite of the civilizing influence of the
Romans, they lived in a semibarbaric state for a long time. Not
until the 12th century had most of them reached a point at which
they could appreciate the cultural progress of the Greeks and the
Romans. For convenience sake, most of the people can be divided
into two groups: the Nordic and the Alpine, although there were
many other racial elements that helped to make up the total
population.
The Nordics, who lived around the Baltic .Sea, were distin-
guished by their fair skin, gray eyes, and light hair. They had well-
developed bodies, impulsive natures, and indomitable courage.
The Alpines, living in the highlands of the central part of Europe,
 296 A HISTORY OF WORLD CIVILIZATION

were of stocky build and dark-skinned, with straight, coarse hair.

There were many groups living on the plains of northeastern
Europe who possessed • Mongoloid characteristics—remnants of
numerous Mongolian invasions. The heterogeneous population of
Europe has never been cosmopolitanized. Those in the northern
part have retained a 'great many of the Nordic characteristics,
while those in the southern part lean more toward the Alpine
type. Taken, as a whole, they are active and progressive, forming
one of the most dynamic peoples in the world. They have colo-
nized a great part of the world, and their culture has penetrated
the most distant lands.
2. GOVERNMENT
Effects of the Fall of Rome;' The breakup of the Roman Empire
in the West deprived the people of an effective system of political
administration There were attempts to keep alive the Roman
tradition of unr but, except for brief periods when the barbarians
were able to construct a tottering imitation of the Roman govern-
ment; and when the Byzantine Empire held sway, general con-
fusion reigned. Foreign invaders roamed to and fro where once the
Roman legions h-id held dominion. The Lombards in northerrl Italy
and the Ostrogoths in t'e central part, the Visigoths in Spain, and
the Franks in Gaul sLwly evolved their own form of government.
The founders of these new political systems borrowed many ideas
from Rome, and several of them attempted to construct empires
oti the model of Rome in her glory.
Foundation of the Frankish Kingdom. The most outstanding of
the attempts to form a government, immediately after the fall
of Rome, was that of the Franks. Under the leadership of Clovis
from 481 to 511, they crossed the Rhine River and were converted
to-Christianity. This was destined to have a great influence on
both the Franks and the Roman Catholic Church. Clovis was th
only German ruler ot importance in the West who was a Catholic at
the close of the 5th century. He conquered most of Gaul and made
headway in organizin'g a government. His immediate successors
lacked his ability, but the vitality of the government was kept
alive by the Mayor's of the Palace, who finally established a new
line of kings.
Charles Martel (7I4-74), the most famous of the "mayors,"
 THE MIDDLE AGES 297

organized a powerful military state and led an army that defeated

the Saracens at the battle of Tours in 732, thus saving Europe
from being overrin by the Mohammedans. Pepin, son of Charles
Martel, was crowned king of the Franks (751) by the Pope.
Thus "A German chieftain was transformed into the Lord's
anointed." He saved the church from being conquered by the
Lombards and gave, the papacy the territory of the Exarchate
of Ravenna, from which the Papal States were formed. The
possession of this land made the Pope a temporal as well as a
spiritual ruler. The Papal States were held by the church until
they were annexed by the kingdom of Italy in 1870.
Charlemagne. Charlemagne (768-814), the son of Pepin,
was the greatest of the kings of the Franks. If the conclusions
of his biographer Einhard are dependable, he was a very striking
individual—powerful in body, pleasing in personality, and possess-
ing a brilliant mind. Few personages in history have had greater
inuence than Charlemagne. Professor Emerton' says, "He stands
at the end of one age, and at the beginning of another, and what
he did was the foundation of all the future history of Europe."
Charlemagne's Conquests. Charlemagne was, first of all, a
great soldier. He suppressed rebellions within his territory and
conquered the most threatening of his neighbors. He drove the
Saracens farther south in Spain and, after a long struggle, he sub-
dued the warlike Saxons. This was a big undertaking, for the
Saxons were a powerful tribe. Only through dogged persistence
were they finally conquered and then converted to Christianity.
Charlemagne next proceeded to conquer Bavaria, the Avars, and
Aquitaine. This made him supreme in western Europe. His task
then was to devise a government that would hold his people
together.
Political Organization. Charlemagne inaugurated. a number of
plans, unique in those days, in order, to cement into one unit the
numerous provinces—inhabited by seminomadic people—that he
controlled. He sent messengers ("missi dominici") to observe the
work of the provincial governors. Two of these envoys were sent
out together, 'one being a layman of rank and one, high officer
in the church. They held assemblies in the various provinces four
times a year. They heard appeals from dissatisfied subjects; they
1 introduction to the Middle Ages (Harvard Press). 180.
 298 .4 HISTORY OF WORLD CIVILIZ4TION

corrected abuses, punished offenders, and then sent to Charlemagne

elaborate reports of the conditions that they found in the provinces.
The messenger served a valuable purpose. The work of these men
probably furnished a precedent for the establishment Of the
itinerant justices in England. Each of the more remote provinces
(marks) was governed by a marquis (Markgraf), who had more
extensive powers than the ordinary count. Charlemagne traveled
extensively over his kingdom and personally supervised many f
the routine duties of the government. His rule was a long step in
the direction of a fusion of the Roman and German elements.
The Holy Roman Empire. One of the most extraordinary
experiments of this period was the establishment of the Holy
Roman Empire. As one historian remarked, it was neither holy,
Roman, nor an empire, but it lasted, in name at least, for over a
thousand years. it grew out of the close relationship between the
church and the Franks. They were dependent upon eaci other to
a great degree. Charlemagne hoped that the formation of an empire
would aid in the unification of his kingdom and possibly fevive the
glories of ancient Rome. The Pope was by no means secure in his
position, and he hoped to strengthen it with the support of the
Franks. The church was at the mercy of the Lombards, and Pope
Leo had made bitter enemies. Ch'arlemagc's coronation on
Christmas Day in the year 800 made him the temporal head of
Roman Christendom. Almost from the beginning, there was a dis-
pute between the Emperor and the Pope as to which was the
supreme head. Charlemagne believed himself to be the servant
of the church, but thought that he could best serve it by being
supreme in authority. The Pope, on the other hand, showed no
inclination to surrender his exalted position. The issue, which was
never decided, served as the basis of many bitter quarrels.
The State after Charlemagne. Since the Frankish empire did
not last long after Charlemagne's death, one is led to conclude
that much of its success depended on the personality of Charle-
magne. With the death of Louis, the son of Charlemagne, the
partitioning of the empire began. The Treaty of Verdun in 843
divided the territory into three parts. Lothair received that part
bounded by the Scheldt, Meuse, Saône, and Rhone, on the west,
by the Rhine and the Alps on the east, and Frankish Italy. Louis
received the land lying between the Rhine and the Elbe, including
 THE MIDDLE AGES 299
Bavaria, Thurigia, Franconia, and Saxony. Charles was given
the western part of thee Frankish lands. Louis's dominion included
the German elements, while Charles ruled the Romanic elements
of the old kingdom.
The theoretical title Emperor went to Lothair,, the eldest of
the three brothers. The position of Lothair as emperor was less
impressive than that of his grandfather. His brothers did not
recognize the "missi" whom he sent. In fact, these messengers
became little more than the leading churchmen,of each province.
With the death of Charles the Fat, in 887, the empire lost all
semblance of unity. The practice of dividing a kingdom equally
among the Sons of the former ruler led to the creation of a number
of small independent states. Two important political developments
arose on the-ruins of the Frankish state. One was feudalism, the
natural consequence of political degeneration, and the second was
nationalism, which became the dominating characteristic of
modern political history.
Origin of Feudalism. Feudalism was one of the most compli-
cated developments of the Middle Age. The great variety of
different types (most of the units having . 'their own character-
istics) makes it difficult to generalize about the system as a whole.
The people in the wetern part of Europe were without the pro-
tection of a state and were harassed by barbarians. Year after
year, the Norsemen appeared and terrorized the populace. The
castle seemed to be the only refuge, which the nobleman was will-
ing to offer in return or possession of land and other obligations
from the vassal. This resulted in the development of small political,
economic, and social' units in which each group lived a more or
less secluded life. The feudal idea was not new. A feudal society
developed in Egypt when the Old Kingdom was destroyed (zoo
B.C., see page 5 i,). During the Homeric Age in Greece (see page izi),
a form of feudalism existed in the city-states; and Japanese society
was predominately feudal until the middle of the 19th century.
Medieval feudalism was but another ma nifestation of the same
general condition.
The Land Element. There are many Conflicting opinions as to
the origin of the elements that appear in feudal institutions.
However, it is safe to assume that- most of them were'either
German or Roman in origin. Land played an important part in
 300 1 HISTORY OF WORLD CIJ'ILIZ1TION

the development of the relationship between vassal and lord. In

many cases, all that the vassal had to offer in return for protection
was land. Land tenure was the basis of the political organization, in
which the vassal gave his overlord the services that are expected
of a citizen of a state. It was practically impossible for a small
landholder to protect himself and his property; consequently, he
was willing to give it over to a lord and receive it back to cultivate
as a tenant-at-will. This gave him some security from invaden
and made him a member of a society that offered stability. Own-
ership of property by the individual was unknown to the German.
Land to him was the common property of the,tribe. Consequently,
the very important land element in the feudal system was certainly
Roman in origin. Furthermore, there is a decided resemblance
between the feudal land system and the old Roman villa. Each
was a great estate, managed from a coimnon center and existing
more or less as an independent unit.
Personal Element. The foundations of the feudal system in-
cluded more than a formal transfer of land. There were personal
bonds, in which was given an oath of allegiance binding vassal and
lord. This seems to have come from a practice of the Germans in
their corn itatus, in which protection, service, and support were
included in a contract between freeman and chief. The formal
ceremony was performed with the vassal on both knees before the
lord and with the statement, "Sir, i enter your homage and
faith and become your man by mouth and hands, and I swear
and promise to keep faith with you against all others and to guard
your rights with all my strength." Certain specific demands were
understood: In return for protection the vassal was expected to
give military service, attend the lord's court when summoned, and
to give money grants or their equivalent on the occasion of the
marriage of the lord's eldest daughter and the knighting of the
eldest son, and as ransom for the lord in case of capture. On
the other hand, the feudal lord (suzerain) had certain obligations
which lie had to perform. Justice in the feudal court and pro-
tection against intruders were prime considerations. The vassal's
honor as husband or as father was inviolable.
Chivalry. Feudalism in practice presented many phases and
contrasts. Chivalry, the romantic side of feudalism, has been pre-
served in song and story. The knight was pictured as "friend of
 THE MIDDLE AGES 301
God and woman," and as a person who spent his life combating
infidels or fighting "just" wars. He was the exponent of justice
and fair play. There were cases in which this was true, but there
were many exceptions. Life in the medieval castle was pictured as
gay and festive. Tournaments, feasts, and elaborate ceremonies
in which brave and daring knights appeared clad in shining armor
and ladies dressed in the gayest of fashions presented only one
side of the picture. The other was not so alluring. Warfare was
the general rule 'rather than the exception. Castles were some-
times besieged for months, with the attendant misery and star-
vation. Scarcity of food, cold winters, tyranny of many of the
unscrupulous lords, and the very .restricted life that most people
had to live darken the more romantic side. Nevertheless, it cannot
be denied that chivalry promoted in medieval society, a higher
standard of honor, greater generosity, and an attitude of reverence.
The Fief. Land and almost everything else that provided
revenue was given to a vassal. The land fief, which was the most
important, was really the central core of the feudal structure; it
was the vassal's chief source of income. The fief also became the
principal unit of justice and administration in medieval Europe,
in which the feudal lord enjoyed a high degree of sovereignty.
Kings were not strong enough to control local communities, and
the responsibility for maintaining order and dispensing justice
was assumed by local feudal lords. Large landlords frequently
"subinfeudated" their holdings by granting portions to lesser
nobles, who became their vassals. This practice further compli-
cated the whole feudal structure.
Law and Justice. The feudal lord held two courts of justice,
one for the noble vassals and another for the tenants. In the former,
feudal obligations and contracts were considered; while in the
latter, matters of fines, taxes, and fees were decided. This provided
a substantial source of income and was frequently conducted in a
questionable manner. From these courts, a new type of legal
system evolved. Although feudal law, which was based essentially
on the customary and the personal, differed widely among the
various feudal states, by the i zth century there was a -degree of
uniformity.
Feudalism and the State. Theoretically the king was the
ultimate suzerain n the feudal system, but in reality his power
 302 A HISTORY OF WORLD CIYILIZATION

rested on the fact that he 'as a feudal lord and on the number of
his vassals and fiefs. There were cases, in France especially, where
vassals were more powerful than the king. The well-established
practice of "immunity" often exempted an estate from control
by the king and vi rtuall r established an independent political
unit within the domain of the ruler. It was only the rise of the
middle class, which sided with the king against the feudal lords,
that gave the king control over the state.
Feudalism and the Church. The complexity of feudalism was
increased through the influence of- the church, which was the
largest landholder and possessed many privileges that had been
granted by the later Roman eruperors and the Franks. Insofar as
most of the wealth of the church was derived from land, a feudal
st'riicture was developed. Bishops and abbots performed the duties
of the feudal lords, in addition to their religious activities. Chu'rch
land was held in mortmain (dead hand). This meant perpetual
ownership—as the church never dies—and an escape fromfeudal
inheritance tax. The clergy, however, did serve as a moderating
influence in the chaotic feudal period. Through the Peace of God
(c-a. i000) an appeal was made against constant warfare. The
Truce of God (1027)asked all men to refrain from warfare "from
the setting of the sun . the fourth day of the week until the rising
of the sun. on Monday."
Estimate. Inherently, the feudal period represented a dis-
organized society in which confusion and conflict were the general
rule in all activities. This was a transitional stage between the
breakdown of the Roman Empire and the establishment of the
national state. Not all feudal practices were detrimental. In
thewords of Stubbs, the English historian,
It would have been an excellent device if it had been administered by arch-
angels. . . . The essence of the system was mutual fidelity, and its proper conse-
quence the creation of a corporate unity, and the recognition of it by every
member, from the king to the villein The bond was a voluntary one, to be taken
up and put aside at pleasure: the principle of cohesion was uniform throughout
the mass.

Nationalism. Both the Roman idea of an all-inclusive state

and the feudal idea of decentralization, proved unsatisfactory
systems for political administration. There appeared in the later
part of the Middle Ages a system that has been named the na-
 THE MIDDLE ACES 03

tional state. The settlement of the various German tribes in

the old Roman Empire and their mixing, physically and culturally,
with the peoples already there formed the nuclei about which
several European states grew. A state is a definite territorial unit
with- an independent government, and a nation is a group of people
having a common racial origin, culture, and religion. In actual fact,
one does not exist without the other, but seldom do they combine
and retain all their individual characteristics. A state does not
have all the elements of a nation, but it must possess some of them.
This combination, which contains modified characteristics of both,
will be referred to as a national state.
Factors in Political Unity. There must be a considerable
amount of sentiment to hold the people together in a political unit.
The feeling of solidarity in a group is Jased on several factors.
There is the utilitarian aspect; the feeling that material gain can
be had through forming such a combination is necessarily very
important. The merchant class gave the state support for this
reason, and property owners favored a system that would guaran-
tee their rights. The support of a wealthy middle class was given
to the trend toward a national state. The Medici in Italy, the
Fuggers in Germany, and the Rolins in France financed rulers in
various enterprises. The financial backing that the Fuggers gave
to the Hapsburgs in Austria enabled them to acquire a dominant
place in 16th!.century Europe.
The natural desire for order and stability is one of the important
factors back of patriotism, without which a state cannot long
endure. A common culture helps to bring people closer together.
The development of national languages was very, important; a
common medium of expression is a powerful cementing influence
and it enables the preservation of traditions in the form of litera-
ture. No national state is a reality without traditions. Traditional
stories that appeared in literary form gave support to national
unity. The legend of William Tell in Switzerland, Blind Harry's
Sir William Wallace in Scotland, and the poems of Robert Blondel
in France exalted the nationalistic spirit in these various countries.
These forces developed very slowly and the national state emerged
very gradually. Not until a comparatively recent period did
nationalism come into its OWfl.
Feudalism and Nationalism. The feudal kingdom has been
 304 A HISTORY OF WORLD CIVILIZATION

called the anstor of the national state. Many of the early states
were first organized on the basis of feudalism. Most of the national
states of Europe grew out of the activities of feudal lords. France
was unified by the efforts of the lords of the Tie de France; Spain
came out of the unity of the feudal provinces of Aragon and
Castile; and the. feudal house of Hapsburg ultimately unified
Austria. Feudal practices were used in the government of the
national s;ate and some of them were carried over into the modern
period. Not until the French Revolution (1789) were feudal prac-
tices officially abolished in • Fran-:e. William the Conqueror in
England used a feudal oath (The Salisbury Oath, io86) to bind
his subjects together. Feudal practices were common in England
until the close of the ith century. Feudalism was evident in the
governments of Russia, Austria, and in the German states much
longer than in the western part of Europe. It was still evident in
Russia at the time of the Revolution in 1917.
NationalGorcrnrnent in the Middle Ages: Germany. The modern
national state had its beginning in the Middle Ages. Out of the
confusion that followed the barbarian invasions and feudalism,
the national state slowly emerged. The treaty of Verdun (843)
divided tho Frankish kingdom into three parts, two of which
developed into Germany and France. The last descendant of the
Frankish kings in Germany died in 911, and Henry of Saxony was
elected king of the Germans (919). The empire was extended to
include Brandenburg, Meissen, and Lorraine in a rudimeitary
national state. In 962, Otto I Was rewarded with the crown of the
Holy Roman Empire, which meant nominal political rule over
Christendom. Trouble developed with the church, the investiture
struggle (1075, see page 323), and civil war broke out in Germany,
from which it did not recover for many centuries. The modern
German national state did not emerge until .1871.
England. The English national •state was made possible
through the fusion of various invaders, including Anglo-Saxons,
Danes, and Normans. William of Normandy, with the blessings
of the Pope, landed in England in io66. He defeated King Harold
at Hastings, and completed the conquest of England in 1075.
William ruled England leniently and intelligently. The country
was organized on a feudal basis using some of the Anglo-Saxon
institutions--the sheriff, for example—which seemed advisable.
 THE MIDDLE AGES 3 05

The new ruler succeeded in, forming a strong central govern-

rent. Civil strife was suppressed and machinery of lawmaking and
enforcement was created. Although leniency was shown toward
feudal practices, precaution was taken always to make feudal
lords responsible to the king. As a result, the king could rely upon
his vassals for troops and armed support. The Domesday survey,
(so8—io86) further illustrates how William organized his govern-
ment. This survey provided an accurate census of the economic

(Courtesy F. L. Schuman, International Politics.)

resources and the wealth held by his subjects, to be used as a
basis for taxation.
Henry II and the Development of English Law. Henry Ii
(1154-1189), after some intermission, continued the work of
William the Conqueror. General confusion reigned in the English
judicial system. Through a series of decrees, called assizes, Henry
forged the foundation for the court system of England. Two
judicial agencies, itinerant justices and the jury system, were
introduced and firmly established. Circuit judges have remained
a permanent element in the English legal system. The Jury system
 306 A HISTORY OF WORLD CIVILIZATION

thus established is the basic characteristic of all judicial systems

in English-speaking countries. The direct ancestor of the modern
grand jury can be found also in Henry's famous Assize of Claren-
don. Men were selected to report all crimes that they thought
should be tried before regularly established juries.
Common law was another of the important germs of English
law that emanated from the efforts of Henry II. Unlike Roman
law, English law was not codified. Custoni not legislation, became
the basis for common law. Beginning in the region of Edward I
(1272), Year Books of important decisions and opinions of royal
justices, which became the basis for future decisions, were collected
and preserved. They became law, "common" to all English people,
and superseded the confusing and contradictory local rules and
customs.
France. Royal authority in France began to take definite form
in the 12th century. Philip Augustus (1180-1229) was the first
ruler of united France. He abolished many feudal customs, estab-
lished a royal currency, and organized a national army. Royal
courts were organized and officials were appointed and paid by
the king. During the Hundred Years' War, France was able to
get possession of most of the territory that England had held in
Europe, thereby gaining mastery of her own land.
Other itatcs. At the same time, otirer naf1rl st ytces began to
appear. Poland became a great power in the ioth century. Intçinal
trif . ad wars with Germany led to a division of the kingdom in
I f: There was a revival in the 1 4 th century, when her prestige
was reestablished. Moscow became the center of a great Russian
state in the 12th century. Two centuries later, Russia was a great,
united country. Spain and Austria were also consolidating their
lands into national states before the close of the Middle Ages.
Feudalism was on the decline a nd a new order was emerging.
3 . ECONO j IC DEVELOPMENT
The Manor. The znanorial system dominated the economic
and social as well as the political activities of the early Middle
Ages. The manor had the appearance of a small village. The
proprietor, or the lord, lived in the largest- house, located in the -
most favoible position. It was surronded, at a respectable dis--
tance, by the houses of the tillers of the soil. In some cases, the
 THE MIDDLE dGES 307

whole group lived in a common house, cultivated the fields in

common, ate at the same table, and slept under the same roof.
Agriculture was the chief occupation. and each manor was practi-
cally self-sufficient economically. The agricultural methods were
very crude' A yield. of 8 bushels of wheat per acre was considered
good. Seltive breeding of livestock was not practiced, and the
animals were allowed to suffer during the winter months from lack
of food and shelter. There was little incentive to produce more
than was actually consumed in the manor; consequently, there
was no urge to improve production.,
Manorial Land System. The open-field system was generally
practicdTThe individual holdings of the peasants were separated
from each other by throwing up a ridge of dirt or by omitting a
furrow. Approximately one-third of the land was left fallow each
as
year, it was believed that this would increase the fertility. The
cultivated land was divided into three fields. One was used for fall
planting, another for spring planting, and a third was left fallow.
Certain sections of the manor were set aside for hay lands, from
which each pcasan,t was allowed to gather hay for his animals
during the winter months. Woodland was furnished for fuel and
the common was reserved for pasturage for the peasants' cattle.
Rotation of crops, careful selection of seeds, and the use of legumi-
nous plants were not practicod. The lord of the manor acted in
the capacity of owner. The demesne, or his share of the land, was
cultivated by serfs. Furthermore, they were expected to pay the
lord a portion of their crops and to make additional payments for
the use of such things as the wine press, the flour mill, and the
blacksmith's shop. Trade and the rise of the national state helped
to break down the manor, but in the more remote parts of Europe
there still exist villages that outwardly resemble the medieval
manor.
Barriers to Trade and Travel. Trade developed very slowly in
the Middle Ages. There was little money, and no regulated system
of coinage existed. Travel and communication were dangerous and
difficult. Of the few roads, most were impassable during a great
part of the year. Thieves infested the whole countryside. Tolls
were numerous and excessive. Barriers were erected on roads and
bridges, and the merchant had to pay a fee before he was allowed
to pass. As late as the 14th century, there were 74 tolls levied on
 08 A HISTORY OF WORLD CIVILIZATION

the Loire River, 6o on the Rhone, and 70 an the Garonne. Strand

laws, which allowed the owner of coast land to confiscate the cargo
of a ship wrecked on his shore, .proved disastrous. At times, false
beacons were erected to mislead sailors and cause wrecks. To add
to the difficulties resulting from scarcity of money and the perils
of travel, there was no demand for commodities. Most of the
people lived a secluded and self-sufficient existence. Each manor
was a unit having little contact with the outside world.
One of the very important restrictions on medieval economic
activity was the influence of Chri&tianity. Many Christians did
not recognize the social functions of property and the social
problems of wealth and poverty. "he earth was the Lord's by
divine law, and by natural law it Llonged to all men. Many of
the church fathers believed that wealth was the root of evil, betause
it weakened the soul's desire for virtue. Work was recommended,
not for individual material gain, but. for moral and disciplinary
values. Merchants were frowned upon, speculation was regarded
as a sin, and money lending was bitterly denounced. klmsgiving
was recommended to dispose of wealth, and poverty was idealized.
"Give ea,, ye poor, for your life is precious, and if your flesh is
mortal, your soul shall never die," declared Ambrose. These
points or view were extreme, but their influence was strongly felt
throughout most of the Middle Ages.
Revival of Trade. The crusades helped to break down the
isolationism that was prevalent in the Middle Ages. Crusaders
brought goods from the Holy Land, thus arousing a demand for
such commodities and giving some people a desire to see what was
going on in other parts of the world. The church needed ornaments
and vestments that it could not obtain in the West, and noblemen
desired some of the luxuries that were found in abundance in the
East. While the crusades did not originate commerce, they gave
it a powerful impulse. The Norman conquest of southern Italy
and Sicily helped to break Moslem supremacy in the Med-
terranean. Norse stimulation to trade was felt from the Baltic to
the eastern Mediterranean: fish were obtained in the Baltic, furs
from Russia, resin from Scandinavia, grain from northern Europe,
and Oriental goods from Constantinople. By the end of the x ith
century, overland routes across Europe were being used by traders.
Rue of Towns. Conspicuous(evidence of the influence of trade
 THE MIDDLE AGES 309

and commerce can be found in the rise and development of cities."

Many cities had decayed and disappeared in the years following
the fall of Rome. The population of Rome had decreased from
more than r,000,000 to not more than 50,000, and other cities
that were once prosperous--Mimes in France and Bath in England,
for example----had almost disappeared, leaving onl y ruins to recall
their ancient glory. Lack of trade was the prime reason for this
decline. In Charlemagne's time, trade between we3tern Europe and
the Near East was not more than one-tenth of what it had been
in the 1st century. In the ioth century, new cities began to appear
because of the commercial activities of the Vikings and the
Venetians. The great increase in the population of Europe the
number had doubled between the 5th and the 13th century--also
led to the growth of cities. Rural life, which had been general,
gave way to urban life.,
Location; of Cities. Some cities grew where towns had existed
in classical times, and some where Roman garrisons had been
located; but general accessibility and gcograpiiical conditions were
the main factors in determining the location of the new centers of
population, In northern Italy, Venice, Genoa, Pisa, Cremona,
Bologna, 1ilan, and Florence developed into flourishing centers.
In southern France, Toulouse, Marseille and Narbonne; in the
Rhip Valley, Cologne, Mainz, and Strasbourg; along the North
andBaltic seas, Hamburg, Bremen, and Lübeck; and in England,
London—all these becamecities of considerable size between the
irthand the 14th century. Venice and Genoa, the leaders in the
development of trade between the Mediterranean and the Orient,
controlled- ports in the Near East, where goods brought from the
Orient were purchased. Venetian and Genoese merchants sent
linen and woolen cloth in payment for Oriental goods. Knowledge
of technical processes was acquired from the East—glass, paper,
confectionery, and sirup were made from formulas that merchants
brought to the West.
City Governnt. The development of government in these
cities provided a important laboratory for experiment in politi-
cal administratio.. The cities needed their own orgánizati'ons
to protect them 1. am their enemies and to promote theireconomic
interests. Pirates and bandits were too numerous to make it
possible for a single merchant to protect his cargo, so he relied on
 310 A HISTORY OF WORLD CIVILIZATION

the city to do this. The merchant class often dominated the govern-
ment; the old aristocracy had very little influence in this new type
of political adminitration. The councils of the newly established
towns constitute one of the first successful experiments in repre-
sentative polity and, in many cases, served as precedents for the
formation of national organizations. Regulation of commerce,
defense, charity, enactment of laws, taxation, and judicial pro-
cedure were all included in governmental juzisdiction.
This civic institution was similar in many respects to a state.
It sought colonies, collected customs duties, and made treaties.
Sometimes a group of towns formed a confederation for the pro-
motion of a common interest. The Lombard League (1167), in-
cluding the important cities in northern Italy, was organized, with
the support of the Pope, for defense against German aggression.
The Hanseatic League was a mutual compact between Hamburg
and Lubeck in 1241, to aid each other in protecting their citizens.
By 1300, the Hanseatic League included 70 cities, from Holland to
Livonia. They had a merchant fleet and a navy; they waged war
against pirates and protected shipwrecked sailors; they established
trading posts in London, Novgorod, aid Bruges; they practically'
monopolized Baltic trade.
City Life. The towns—picturesque with theit: walls, turrets,
and cathedrals--were, nevertheless, miserable places in which to
live. The streets were narrow, poorly lighted, and dirty. The
houses, crowded close together, lacked windows, were crudely
furnished, and were without drainage facilities. Yet, in spite of the
absence of luxurious surroundings, the people were not without
means of enjoyment. Feasts, processions, pageants, cockfighting,
bearbaiting, and theatrical productions furnished means of enter-
tainment. The people mingled in the market places, not only to
buy merchandise but also to visit and to hear the news of the
world, brought there by traders from distant lands.
Medieval Fairs. The distribution of goods was one of the
obvious difficulties that confronted the medieval merchant. The
modern system of importers, wholesalers, and means of communi-
cation was lacking. The medieval fair aided in the solution of this
problem. Merchants, under the protection of city, feudal, or state
authorities, held these markets at stated times in the most im-
portant cities of western Europe. Traders from distant lands dis-
 THE MIDDLE AGES 311

played their goods for the benefit of local merchants. The, fairs
were well regulated by the authorities of the city or province or
by 'the free-will organization of the merchants. Traders were
guaranteed protection,, ensured free competition, and prevented
from cornering a market. Special courts were held for trying
offenders. For serious negligence, a merchant was barred from
further participation in trade. The fairs helped to end the stag-
nating period of isolation by enabling people to have some contact
with the outside world. The promise of reward from trade stimu-
lated the more industrious to cast aside their old ideas and occupa-
tions and enter the whirl of commercial activity.
Merchant Guilds. The fair was only one of the numerous
organizations for the promotion of trade that appeared , in the
Middle Ages. The merchant had a struggle in establihinghimseIf
in society as a respectable professional man. The nobility, the
clergy, and men of other professions looked down upon him, but
he was too resourceful to be curbed by such trifles. Guilds were
formed o protect members and add dignity to the work. The
merchant guild was the oldest and most inclusive. Anyone engaged
in the production or merchandising of a commodity was eligible
for membership. Members bound themselves together by a com-
mon oath in which they obligated themselves to sell at stipulated
times, to help protect each other in time of danger or need, to
regulate prices, to exclude nonproducing middlemen, to guarantee
a "just price," and to keep up the standard of the commodities
produced.
Craft Guilds. The craft guild was frequently an outgrowth of
the merchant guild and was composed of indi-viduals engaged in
the production of a specific article. No one could enter any craft
guild as a master craftsman without having served as apprentice and
journeyman. Boys in their teens were put in, the charge of a mastei
—ordinarily for seven years. A contract was signed in which the
apprentice bound himself to the master and promised to be diligent
and obedient. Frequently, the apprentice lived with the master
and was treated as a ward. If he misbehaved, tie was corrected
with the rod. He received no pay, but was given food, clothing,
and a place to sleep The master wa's rcsponsible for teaching his
apprerltjceto read and write, and for advancing his social, moral,
and technical learning.
 312 A HISTORY OF WORLD CIVILIZATION

When the apprenticeship was finished, the candidate became a

journeyman. In this capacity he received wages. The journeyman's
wage ranged from 5 to 20 cents a day and sometimes, although
not always, he was given lodging in the home of the master crafts-
man. His lot was not a pleasant one; wages were low and working
hours were long. However, the ambitious journeyman contented
himself with the hope that he would sOon become a master crafts-
man. In order to acquire this promotion, the candidate had to
submit to an examination to prove his knowledge of the craft. He
had to produce a "masterpiece" that would satisfy the guild
members, and he had to meet certain pecuniary obligations.
4ctivities of Craft Guilds. The craft guilds were well organ-
ized. The assembly of masters elected two or four wardens to
serve as executives. These supervised the work of the guild,
enforced the statutes, settled disputes between masters and work-
men, passed upon the admission of new candidates, and imposed
fines upon the negligent. The wardens examined finished articles
before they were put on the market. Imperfect articles were seized
and either burned or given away. Town officials cooperated with
guild authorities in enforcing regulations. Prices were fixed and
noisy trades—blacksmithing, for example ' were denied the priv-
ilege of night operation. The craft guild possessed the right to
sue in a law court, issue regulations, and hold property. Much of
the guild's activity was social. It provided entertainments, cared
for the sick and needy, established schools and hospitals; it under-
took public projects, such as hospital buildings, sewage systems,
and street improvements.
Guilds and Trade Unions. The medieval guild should not be
confused with a modern trade union. The guild was neither an
employers' not an employees' organization but a combination of
both. It aimed not only at the furtherance of the interests of its
members but also at the maintenance of the quality of the articles
produced. The nearest approach to a modern trade union came in
the late Middle Ages. It was the Association of Journeymen,
which was organized for the purpose of securing higher wages from
the master craftsmen. Journeymen instituted the idea of strikes.
The use of the term probably originated from the Place de Greve
(greve Is the French word for strike), where the journeymen congre-
gated in. Paris to await hire.
 THE MIDDLE 4GES 313

Decay of the Guild. The guilds, important as they were, did

not enjoy a long period of supremacy. As they became wealthy,
they were less democratic; a few masters with wealth dominated
the less fortunate. Wage earners had little, if any, chance to be-
came master workmen. Production and the sale of completed
articles gradually came under the control of a few. As the power
of the state increased, it saw fit to deprive the guilds of much of
their power. The Industrial Revolution swept away the last
vestiges of the guild system.
Money and Banking. The substitution of a money economy
for a natural economy was an important step in the development
of trade. The church opposed moneylending as a matter of princi-
ple, which meant that this lucrative business was monopolized by
the Jews and non-Christians. The lack of facilities for credit and
for the handling of money, the lack of an accepted system of
coinage, and the almost universal practice of debasing coins were
difficult obstacles to surmount. The cities of northern Italy were
among the first to standardize coinage. The Florentine florin and
the Venetian ducat were accepted by merchants of all countries at
their face value. Banks of deposit with current accounts7 were first
established by the Knights Templars of France, but similar insti-
tutions were soon organized in Florence and Siena. The papacy
was the largest and wealthiest institution of the Middle Ages. Its
revenues were handled principally by the bankers of Siena and
Florence; this gained for them great prestige and the title of "the
popes' money changers." Improved letters of credit and bills of
exchange were introduced by the North Italian. cities before the
15th century.
Influence of Medieval Economy. The medieval economic
system affected society as a whole and introduced principles that
are fundamental in the present commercial age. Money aided in
the rise of the national state at the expense of feudalism; it fur-
nished thevery essence of capitalism, as opposed to the medieval
economic system; and it instilled the desire for people to venture
into foreign lands in search of wealth. The church had g great
influence over wealth. It attempted to minimize the materialistic
"economic machine," and to emphasize the importance of salya-
tion and a spiritual life. It endeavored to moralize economic
pursuits, to oppose profit seeking as selfish and devoid of the social
 314 A HISTORY OF WORLD CIVILIZATION

spirit, and to establish the principle of a "just price." Business,

however, proved to be stronger than the medieval conception of
religion. The church has lost its control over the economic system
and has become somewhat victimized by it. In general, it can be
concluded that the beginning of modern coinage, letters of credit,
and banking occurred in the Middle Ages. The inodern concepts of
capitalism and industrialization developed from economic tend-
encies, which also found expression in the Middle Ages.

4. SOCIETY
Nobility. People in the Middle Ages were divided into well-
defined social strata. The upper class, or the nobility, becane
hereditary and class conscious by the end of the 12th century.
One of the things that distinguished a member of the nobility
from the other classes was the possession of a fief; or a complete
fighting equipment, including a horse, armor, and weapons; or
both., At the top of the list were the hereditary rulers, who were
surrounded by a selected group of lesser nobility. The title of
knight was much sought and was the means of gaining honor and
prestige. The upper class enj oyed most of the privileges and
possessed most of the wealth. Their homes presented displays of
formality and ostentation. Their dress was lavish and their entire
surroundings were as elaborate as their wealth allowed. Such
exhibition often determined a nobleman's position on the social
ladder.
Clergy. The upper clergy shared the prestige of the nobility
and were closely associated with them. Their interests were so
nearly identical that they cooperated in political, economic, and
social affairs at the expense of the lower orders. Bishops in wealthy
dioceses lived a sumptuous and worldly life, comparable to that
enjoyed by the wealthy noblemen. With their massive palaces and
luxurious habits and costumes, they presented a striking contrast
to the lower clergy, who lived vith the people and suffered hard-
ships with them. The Vicar of Morolles in Normandy described
the condition of the lower clergy as follows:
We unfortunate vicars living upon the congruous portions, we usually en-
trusted with the larger parishes, we whose lot cries out to the stones and rafters
of our giiserable vicarages, we must tolerate prelates who would prosecute through
their guards a noor vicar cutting a cane in their forests for support on his long
 THE MIDDLE AGES 315

journeys over the highways. . . . When they pass, the vicar is obliged to fall
to the ground, and lie supinely upon the hillside, to protect himself against the
hoofs and the mud-splashing of their horses, and also against the wheels, or per-
haps the whip of the insolent driver. And then, all dirty, with his wretched cane
in the hand, and his old hat in the other, he must greet, humbly and speedily,
through the curtain of the closed and gilded carriage, the puffed-up prelate who
is snoring upon the wool of the herd that the poor vicar pastures and of which
he may keep only the dung and the grease. -

The gulf which existed between the upper and lower clergy in
many respects was comparable to that between the nobility and
the peasants. /
Lower_ClassJ The lower class including all groups other than
nobles and the upper clergy, lived a modest life, and many suffered
numerous privations. Most of them were agricultural workers and
were looked down upon by the nobility because they had to work.
They were forced to do the menial tasks of the nobility, frequently
without pa and were taxed to the limit of their endurance ,' The
lower class was divided into two groups—freemen and those forced
to live- under some kind . 0f bondage, such as serfs and villeins.
The latter were not slaves in the common sense of the word. A
serf could not be sold except with the land which he occupied; he
was "bound to the soil." Serfdom began to disappear toward the
close of the Middle Ages, but the -lot of the freed man did not
improve immediately. He was forced from his home, which he had
enjoyed while serving the nobleman, and frequently he was unable
to find employment.
The home of the peasant was very modest; a single building
often sheltered the livestock as well as the family. Their clothing
was coarse and their food was scanty. They had to work hard
2nd their compensation was small. They had little opportunity
for travel, education, and amusement. They were punished
severely for slight offenses and were deprived of medical aid and,
in some cases, of spiritual comfort. It would be incorrect, however,
to conclude that the peasants were altogether discontented with
their lot. Their social affairs lacked the brilliance and formality of
those of the nobility, but they had their fun and frolics. They
danced in the streets of the village, played games, and when circum-
stances permitted, they drank and feasted. Many were quite
content with their life largely, of course, because they were not
conscious of their limitations and accepted their fate as inescapable.
 V6 A HISTORY OF WORLD CIVILIZATION

Beginning of a Change. The development of trade and industry

revolutionized social life. The change was slow: it was scarcely
noticeable for a bug time, but ultimately it destroyed the medieval
conception f society and developed a new social order. The
wealthy merchant, without the heritage of the aristocracy from
which to claim social prestige, climbed the social ladder through
the influence of his money. He could equal the sumptuous sur-
roundings of the nobility and was able to exert influence in political
matters. The same forces affected the lower social orders. The
commercial class needed laborers. Workmen left the land and
congregated in cities, where they depended upon wages rather than
upon the fruits of agriculture and were subject to the mercies of
the industrialist rather than of the nobility. The day laborer was
an innovation, destined to make up one of the largest groups in
society.
. THE ARTS
Birth of Medieval ilntistic Expression. The Middle Ages was
a period of correlation of artistic ideas and expressions. Roman,
Byzantine, barbarian, and Christian artistic conceptions were
merged, and out of their combination ultimately developed
Renaissance art. Medieval art was one manifestation of a general
intellectual development, expressed also in literature, science, and
politics, and indicating a rebirth of man's emotions and faculties
to a realization of the possibilities of investigating the secrets of
nature, rather than of merely taking them for granted. Art, from
necessity, is a luxury and is produced in a society in which at
least a few have sufficient surplus of wealth to patronize it. In the
Middle Ages, the church and a few wealthy noblemen—the Medici
of Florence, for example—gave material reward to the struggling
artist. The church sponsored art as a means of proclaiming the
glory of God. The noblemen used it for the enhancement of their
surroundings and for the satisfaction of their taste for luxury.
Medieval Architecture. The cathedral was the greatest artistic
expression of the Middle Ages. It was a masterpiece in masonry
and the embodiment of medieval culture. It stood as a symbol of
the age and dominated the intellectual life of the people, just as it
dominated the landscape of the countryside. It was an object of
civic pride, a religious inspiration, and an art museum, all corn-
 THE MIDDLE AGES 317

bined in one. Towns vied with one another to have the finest
cathedral, and fhe people worked in its construction as a matter
of piety and civic pride. When completed, it was a civic center
where rich and poor mingled and where the the finest art objects

F I G 3 S.--Church of St. Trop hme, model of porch. (Co ur& Metro p olitan Museum. of Art,
New York.)

and tapestries that the town possessed were placed. Sometimes

trophies of war embellished the structure and the most eminent
citizens were given niches in the interior for their final resting
places.
The Romanesque Church. Romanesque architecture, so called
because of the free use of the Roman arch in construction, was a
combination of Roman, Byzantine, and early Christian influences.
 318 A HISTORY OF WORLD CIVILIZATION

It followed the plan of the Roman basilica and had thick outer
walls with small windows. The Byzantine idea of richly decorated
interior helped to enliven and lighten the otherwise drab appear-
ance. The ground plan was a long, unbroken hail, with a circular
apse sheltering the high altar at the end opposite the entrance. The
77•.

k
it
LLk___

FIG. 36.—Notre Dame, Paris.

church of San Ambrogio in Milan, built in the early part of the

12th century, is one of the purest of the existing examples of
Romànesque architecture. The building is severely plain, with an
unbroken sloping roof. The façade has a two-storied arcade, with
a squaretower on [Link] side. The ceiling, of a barrel-vaulted type,
is divided into two sections by transversc arches. Other examples
of Romanesque architecture are the cathedral at Pisa, the church of
 THE MIDDLE AGES. 319

San Miniato in Florence, and the church of St. TrQphime and

the Abba) e-aux-Hommes in France.
Gothic .4rchitecture. Romanesque architecture did not attain
the artistic perfection demanded by the idealistic spirit of the
Middle Ages. The people's desire for a fitting monument to . God
on earth found expression in the Gothic cathe4ral. In this , type of
architecture, the ground plan of the Romanesque cathedral was
used, but the decorative effects were much more elaborate. In the
words of Professor Ault,' "The Romanesque church was designed
from the base upward, the Gothic church from the vault down-
ward." The pointed arch, the flying but and the rose window
were outstanding features of the Gothic cathedral. The pointed
arch [Link] much of the massive effect of the walls in earlier
types, adding slenderness and lightness. The flying buttress sup-
ported the walls, making it possible to increase the height 2 and to
[Link] wndows, the glorifying feature of Gothic architecture. Each
flying buttress supported the wall where two diagonai ribs met.
from wo adjoining sections of the vault. The rose windows were
constructed in intricate geometric patterns of stone, with the
intervening spaces filled with richly colored glass. The use of
many colors, blue and red predominating, produces a symphony of
colors iat eludes description.
E.'curations. Architecture, sculpture, and painting all com-
bined ci the glorification of the Gothic cathedral. While deco-
r r ios add much to the appearance of the building, they were
;inL inteJed to conceal, but rather to embellish, the main struc-
ture. '1 . effect is not that of a conglomerate and promiscuous
collectLm, but a carefully planned arrangement, where each detail,
although it may be miniature, was made to fit a definite place an&
add a bit to the general appearance. Sculptured saints, pinnacles,
gargoyles, medallions, pulpits, baptismal fonts, candlesticks,
wrought-iron gates, and panels are features of the adornment and
the furnishing in all Gothic cathedrals. There are more than 4,000
statues on the exterior of Chartres Cathedral.
Sculpture. Medieval sculptors were concerned chiefly with
the beautification of the cathedral; consequently, they used prima-
lIedie-ja/ Europe (Heath), 451.
2
The eight of Reims cathedral, interior, is 125 feet; of Amiens, 139 feet;.andof Beau-
vais, 18 feet.
 320 4 HISTORY OF WORLD CIVILIZATION

rily religious subjects, treated in a reverent manner. The gargoyles

offer the most striking exception. They may have had a religious
significance, or, as had been suggested, in them medieval sculptors
may have given free play to the sense of humor, for many of these
waterspouts are fantastic and grotesque in conception. It is difficult
to imagine a spiritual association of such gargoyles with saints,
but in the architectural setting they mingle agreeably. Medieval
sculpture was graceful and impressive. Sluter's "Well of Moses"
( I 5th century), near Dijon, France, shows realism, energy, and indi-
viduality in-the portrayal of the human figure. Donatello (1382-
1466), of Florence, Italy, marks the beginning of the transition
from medieval to Renaissance sculpture. His themes represent the
spirit of chivalry and saintliness that is characteristically medieval,
but his works, such as the "St. George," the "Young Angels" on
the singing gallery of the cathedral, and a nude statue of the boy
David, in their realism tempered by regard for classic form.
indicate the spirit of a new age.
Painting. Except for the mural paintings in the later Gothic
cathedrals, medieval painting was further divorced from archi-
tectuie and religion than was sculpture. Secular subjects, such as
landscapes, hunting scenes, and tour amcnts, seem to have been
most favored. Religious subjects, however, were not neglected.
Cimabue (1240-1302), Duccio (1255-1319) of Siena, and Giotto
(1266-1337) of Florence, whose paintings were without a rival for
almost a century, originated the type of painting that found its
greatest expression later in the works of Leonardo d Vinci and
Raphael. Giotto introduced nature into the subject matter of his
paintings. His famous picture of Saint Francis' sermon to the birds
was pioneer in this respect. Fra Angelico (1387-1455) of Fiesole,
sometimes called the firsi of the Renaissance painters, was influ-
enced greatly by the works of Giotto.
Decoration by means of colored glass is considered one of the
greafest artistic accomplishments of the Middle Ages. The glass,
which had been colored while in a molten state, was cut into
small pieces and these were arranged in a mosaic design, the pieces
being held together by strips of lead. Besides geometrical and floral
patterns, scenes that depicted Biblical episodes were wrought in
rich colorings of blues, reds, violets, and other hues. The stained-
glass rose window of Chartres Cathedral is one of the most beau-
 THE MIDDLE AGES 321

tiful of many rare examples of this art that added splendor to the
church interiors, where the windows served as adornment and as a
means of instruction in Bibical lore.
Music. Modern music can be traced to the Middle Ages. In
church services extensive use was made of music, at first through
the intoning of the service by the priest and responses chanted in
unison by a choir. Musical notation was introduced late in the ioth
century by a monk, Guido of Arezzo, who utilized the staff of five
parallel lines, upon or between which notes were placed to indicate
pitch. Different types of notes were used to indicate difference in
time. Soon choral music could be rendered, instead of plain song,
in which all voices were singing in unison. For a time, the church
frowned upon these musical innovations. An iith-century writer
described the singers as drunken men "who indeed find the way
home, but (10 not know how they get there." In spite of the re-
strictions, church music began to be influenced by the new ideas.
Musical instruments were revolutionized in the Middle Ages. By
the 13th century, organs with keyboards and stops were common
in churches. The guitar, the guitar fiddle the precursor of the
violin—and the clavichord—the ancestor of the piano—were in
use before the close of the Middle Ages.
6. THE CHURCH AND THE STATE
The Power of the Church. Henry C. Lea, America's foremost
authority on medieval history, wrote concerning the Roman
Catholic Church, "The history of mankind may be vainly searched
for another institution . . . which has exercised so vast an influ-
ence on human destinies." It is difficult for us to imagine the
extent of the influence of the church in the Middle Ages. In
Christendom, its power over religion was all-embracing. Everyone
belonged to it and anyone who questioned its principles was
branded a traitor against God and man. In European civil law in
the 12th century, heresy was made a crime punishable by death.
The church did not have to depend upon voluntary contributions
for its financial support, but reaped a vast revenue from land that
it owned and from the "tithe," a regular tax levied on subjects
in all Christian nations.
The church had no army to crush rebellions, no police force to
coerce offenders, but it did have power that was more effective.
 322 .A HISTORY OF JVORLD CIYILIZATION

The clergy had the power of salvation and could dispense it at

will. The Pope, through the interdict, could forbid all forms of
public worship in a state. This was effective in forcing rulers to
obey his commands, because the people took their religion seriously.
Excommunication deprived the individual of all the privileges of
the church and forbade anyone to associate with the condemned.
Through the HolyInquisition, suspects were brought before a
secret ecclsiastical court and condemned to torture.
The church was more than a religious organization; it per-
formed many of the functions of a state government. The Pope
was at the head of the organization and through his subordinates
exerted absolute authority. The church had its own law (canon
law) and its own courts, before which all cases involving clergymen,
widows, and orphans and all questions of marriage, wills, and
heresy were tried. The Pope had his own ambassadors (papal
legates) who were sent to the various states and made elaborate
reports to Rome. The church, at its height, even claimed supremacy
over the state. Rulers were considered as subjects of the Pope and
was responsible to him. Bishops ruled their dioceses like political
princes, and high officials in the church were given positions of
importance in state governments. Voltaire fittingly referred to the
9th century as "the age of bishops.'
Conflicting Authority of Church and State. The overlapping
authority of the church and the state resulted in a conflict of
jurisdiction that was certain to cause trouble. So long as the
church was strong and the state was weak, there was very little
resistance, but the ruler of a powerful state naturally was opposed
to having an outside power interfere in his government. The popes
looked with distaste on the growth of the power of the state and
also the gradual control that the temporal ruler was gaining over
the officials of the church. In some instances, the emblems of
spiritual authority, the ring and the crosier, were conferred by a
temporal power without much consideration for the church. i\len
of noble birth often sought church offices because of the revenue
and the prestige that accompanied them. Pope Gregory VII
(1o73-1o85) tried to remedy, this practice. In his Dictatus, he
defined the authority of the church. The Pope, he declared, is the
only universal -bishop and might at will appoint and transfer other
bishops. Futhermore, " the Pope is the only person whose feet are
 THE MiDDLE1GES -323

kissed by all the princes"; he could depose emperors and absolve

subjects from allegiance to their king; no one could condemn a
person who appealed to the Pope; no decrees of the Pope could be
annulled, and no one could pass judgment upon his acts. These
decisions were sent to kings and princes, including those of
England, France, and Germany. -
The Investiture Struggle. Henry IV (1o56—no6), the youthful
king of Germany, boldy challenged the power of the Pope. Gregory
VII condemned the German king for his actions in no uncertain
terms:
Incline thine ear to us, 0 Peter, chief of the Apostles. As thy representative
and by thy favor has the power been granted especially to me by God of binding
and loosing in heaven and earth. On the strength of this, for the honor and the
glory of thy Church, in the name of the Almighty God, Father, Son, and Holy
Ghost, I withdraw, through thy power and authority, from Henry the King, son
of Henry the Emperor, who has arisen against thy church with unheard-of-
insolence, the rule over the whole kingdom of the Germans and over Italy. I
absolve all Christians from the bonds of the oath which they have tworn, or may
swear, to him, and forbid anyone to serve him as king.

Henry felt the weight of the Pope's authority. His subjects rebelled
and he hastened to make amends. He met the Pope at Canossa,
where for three days he had [Link] before a closed dor, barefoot
and in [Link], before Pope Gregory would receive him.
Henry's power was ultimately broken, but not before Gregory was
driven from the papal throne. Gregory, although deprived of his
power, held-to his convictions. As he breathed his last, Me is reputed
to have said, "I have loved justice and hated iniquity; therefore
I am left to die in -e5ile."
Later Phases of the'Conflict. TheY investiture struggle did not
end with the removal of these two indomitable rulers. After a
long controversy, a compromise was thdo' in the Concordat of
Worms (1122). The Emperor wflas to allow the church to appoint
the bishops and abbots and renounce his claim to confer the crosier
and the ring, but in a separate ceremony he granted secular pre-
rogatives to the newly appointed churchmen. The spiritual rights
were thus conferred by the church and the state granted the
coveted temporal privileges. The Concordat of Worms did not
[Link] an end the struggle between the church and the state
Frederick I (1152-119o), king of Germany,'challenged the power
 324 4 HISTORY OF WORLD CIVILIZITION

of the papacy. He informed the Pope that the headship of the

empire had been "bestowed upon him by God" and that he felt
no necessity of obtaining the Pope's permission for his actions.
Frederick tried to extend his influence in Italy as well as Germany,
but met the determined opposition of the church and the Lombard
League. In 1176, they defeated Frederick and practically won their
independence.
Age of Innocent III. Innocent III (1198-1216) was successful
in stopping the inroads of the state in the affairs of the church.
He was virtually the arbiter of Europe during the period he was
in power. He intervened in Germany over the election of a king;
he forced John of England to submit to his authority; and at the
Lateran Council (1215) he called together the principal rulers,
bishops, and abbots to discuss religious and political problems.
In spite of Innocent's undisputed success, the church fought a
losing battle with the state. The prestige held by Innocent III
was of short duration and never, after his time, did the church
succeed in acquiring such power. In the long struggle, the papacy
made great inroads on the power of the emperor. German unity was
destroyed and the authority of the church was increased.
Decline of the Medieval Church. The church, both temporally
and spiritually, reached its greatest height under Innocent III. Thi
pinnacle of power was of short duration. Six months after the
Fourth Lateran Council, Innocent III died. Signs of decay began
to be noticeable, as corruption and worldliness became increasingly
evi4ent among the clergy. Pope Alexander VI ( 1 49 2-1 5 03) - dis
-[Link]
often were appointed from a group of noblemen whose interests
were political rather than religious; as a consequence, sees were
neglected and the church suffered. Even the monasteries showed
marked signs of deterioration from their lofty ideals. The wealth
that they had accumulated permitted the abbots and monks to
enjoy luxurious living, residing in fine homes and entertaining on
the scale of wealthy noblemen.
The growth of nationalism and individualism, which had be-
come apparent by the close of the Middle Ages, was detrimental to
the power of the church. Doctrine, however, continued to live, and
insofar as the Roman Catholic Church was concerned, did not
change materially. It should not be concluded that the church lost
 THE MIDDLE AGES 325
all its prestige. Most of the people were deeply religious, and many
reformers tried to remedy the 'defects; A Dutch reformer, Groot-
(1340-1384), founded a society called the Brethren of the Common
Life, which emphasized education. Groot [Link] many of the
practices in the church and declared, "To love God and worship
Him is religion; not the taking of special vows."

7. PHILOSOPHY
Christianity and Philosophy. The early Christians condemned
Greek philosophy because they thought it obscured morals and
encouraged heresy. However, in a later period, theologians—'St.
Augustine, for example began to accept both the conclusions and
the methods of the philosophers. As a result, philosophy, like other
forms of learning, was used as a handmaiden of theology. Theolo-
gians contended that Christianity, through divine revelation,
answered most of the questions that philosophy had raised and
for which they had found no solution. John Scotus Erigena (8w-
875) suggested that reason should have a place beside faith in
attempting to reach ultimate truth. "God," he said, "is the essence
of all things because He alone exists."
The Background for Scholasticism. controversy developed over
this question: Did reality exist in the universal church or in the
individual members with the church? One group, the realists,
believed that it was present only in general class or type of objects.
Another, the nominatists, contended that reality existed only in
the concrete. The principal issue was in the determination of the
power and doctrines of the church. The practice utilized led even-
tually to the basic principles of scholasticism.
Scholasticism. Scholastic philosophy was the most important
cultural adventure of the period. It was a combination of Augus-
tinian theology and Aristotelian logic—an attempted union of
revelation and reason in one philosophy. The ,revival of Aristotle's
philosophy and its application to medieval thought as expressed in
the theology of Augustine was brought about by the importance
attributed to logic by Abélard (1079-1142) and the justification
of pagan logic by Thomas Aquinas (E224-1274). Abélard was one
of the greatest and most original thinkers in the Middle Ages. He
was one of the first great theologians who used the powers of reason
to defend and to explain the faith of the church. He contended:
 326 4 HISTORY OF WORLD CIVILIZATION

"It is through-reason, and not through compulsion, that men can

be brought to accept the Christian faith." However, he believed
that there were mysteries in Christianity that reason could not
fathom; yet, in spite of that, they were not necessarily irrational.
His greatest work was Sic et Non (Yes and No), in which contradic-
tory statements in the Bible and in the teachings of the church
fathers were enumerated. His motive was not destructive but was
intended to provoke thinking. "By inquiring," he wrote, "we dis-
cover truth." Enlightenment was an, intellectual blessing 4nd more
important, in his estimation, than trying to appease God. He
believed that the incarnation of Christ was for the purpose of
illuminating the world through divine wisdom, rather than for
appeasing God.
Thomas Aquinas introduced Aristotelian logic and combined
it with medieval theology. His Sumnia Tlieologica provided the
church with a well-reasoned dogma and gave a new interpretation
of- the world and of man. Aquinas justified faith acquired througf
reasofl and constructed a defense of a world outlook, already
revealed and determined. Through deducti'e reasoning, Aquinas
endeavored to distinguish between knowledge acquired by man
and the revealed truth, to separate the divine and the natural
elements in man. The incarnation, the redemptive work of Christ,
and salvation through grace made by the sacraments were basic
concepts in Aquinas's reasoning. The effort of the scholastics was
to combine the complete system of knowledge, scientific and theo-
logical, into a single unit.i
Estimate of Scholastic sm. Scholasticism satisfied many of the
thinkers of the Middle Ages. Its inclusiveness appealed to the
intellectually curious and represented a step in the direction of
scientific thought. Scholasticism was not scientific, but it attempted
to reduce facts to general principles. The scholastics contributed
Ito progress in science and learning by insisting that one might
examine, without fear of damnation, the nature of God and the
cosmos. Credit must be given them, in spite of their shortcomings,
for much of the intellectual activity that existed in the later part
of the Middle Ages. It did not, however, satisfy the skeptical mind
and it could riot withstand the more penetrative inductive method
of thinking.
Duns Scotus (1270?-308), himself a scholastic, pointed out
 THE MIDDLE AGES 327

some of the fallacies of scholasticism. He showed the limitations

of the logical method and exposed errors in the deductions of
some of his most eminent colleagues. He insisted that the general
acceptance of Aristotle's observations was dangerous, as many of
them were untrue, and suggested the reexamination of all problems
through observational and experimental, rather than merely
logical, methods. Sir Francis Bacon (1561-1626) criticized the
scholastics in bitter terms:

Having short and strong wits and abundance of leisure, and small variety of
reading, but their wits being shut up in the cells of a few authors, chiefly Aristotle
their dictators as their persons were shut up in the cells of monasteries and col-
leges, and knowing little history, either of nature or time, they did Out of no great
quantity of matter and infinite agitation of wit spin out unto us those laborious
webs of learning which are extant in their books.

Scholasticism did not satisfy, the immediate interest in the com-

plexity of growing materialism. It taught little that was not already
known. The new age clamored for new truths, not merely for proof
of what was already known.

8. EDUCATION AND LEARNING

Early Afedival Education. Enough has already been stated
to prove that the"Middle Ages was not barren of intellectual
activity. Imperial Rome had a system of grammar schools in the
cities and towns that was continued in the later period in spite
of many adversities. The barbarian invasions temporarily sub-
merged what was left of the Roman educational system but in
time the new element revived it, adding a Zest and freshness that
the Romans had lacked. There were evidences of this revival in the
time of Charlemagne. He established(^a palace school at Aachen for
the training of men for public [Link] attracted such teachers
and scholars as Alcuin of York and1eter of Pisa to teach in his
schools. He encouraged parish priests to conduct free elementary
schools. He brought about a revived interest in Latin and Greek
and insisted that members of the clergy become better acquainted
with the Latin used in church services.
Charlemagne, although he himself never learned towrite, was
interested in such cultural pursuits as the writing of textbooks,
the collection of Frankish folklore, and the translation of the Greek
 328 A HISTORY OF WORLD CIVILIZATION

New Testament into Latin. The successors of Charlemagne neg-

lected his schools, but the church accepted the responsibility of
carrying on the work. The church, however, refused to admit
pagan teaching, and that meant the exclusion of much classical
learning. Church fathers believed that the main function of edu-
cation was to train, leaders for the church and included in the
curriculum., the study of the psalms, church singing, writing,
grammar, and arithmetic. For some years, the educational ideas of
Charlemagne were suppressed by the/ church.
Christian Theory of Education. During the 4th and 5th cen-
turies, when converts to Christianity became numerous, there was
a recognized need for instruction in the faith. Churchmen resorted
to oral instruction by the catecheticl method, which emphasized
selected Bible stories and prayers. Conversion of some of the pagan
educated classes broadened the scope and content of Christian
instruction. Philosophical schools at Alexandria and Antioch really
became Christian colleges, teaching pagan learning as well as
Christian doctrine. This type of school did not progress very far
because of the limitations of the religious outlook. Critical ap-
proaches were condemned and pagan literary, historical, and
philosophical learning was utilized for the service of the faith. ju}ui
Chrysostom, a great Christian educator, believed that the faithful
should be content to extract the honey from pagan poetry and
philosophy and should disregard the rest.
The monastery provided a limited outlet for cultural activity.
Pagan, as well as Christian, materials were used. Manuscripts were
copied and many valuable works thereby were preserved. Many of
the abbots substituted mental for physical labor, which nurtured
intellectual growth. However, the limitations of such pursuits are
obvious. Monks did not seek the advancement of knowledge, but
only the promotion of spiritual growth. The belief that faith re-
vealed knowledge certainly handicapped the pursuit of worldly
learning.
Nonecciesiastical Education. Mention should be made of two
sources of instruction, in addition to the schools under ecclesiastical
control. They were not schools in the formal sense of the word, al-
though they pro rided important training for laymen. The industrial
guilds afforded training in practical craftsmanship through the
apprenticeship system; many young men became adept in the pro-
 THE MIDDLE AGES 329

fessions through their experience in working for master craftsmen.

Also, a young nian had to go through rigid training to become a
knight. This dicipline was mainly in court etiquette, riding, and the
art of warfare. A boy aspiring to become a knight was taken into
the home of a nobleman other than his father, to serve as a page
and to learn court manners. He gave service as a squire from the
time he was fourteen until he was twenty-one years of age, at which
time he was eligible for knighthood.
Qrigin of Universities. A new spirit in education gradually
developed, in spite of the limited 'encouragement that it received.
From the ruins of classical civilization, a new epoch emerged in
the Middle Ages. The main reason for this was the increased
demand for trained persons. tducation was looked upon as a means
of obtaining a better position in the church and in the state
great increase in the number of students led to a demand for more
teacher hence, this profession came to be regarded with the
highest esteern ,Jrained physicians, lawyers, and theologians were
much in demand. Ambitious young men crowded to the University
of Bologna to study law, to the Universit y of Salerno to study
medicine, and to the University of Paris to study theology.',,
teachers like Ahélard at Paris and Irnerius at Bologna attracted
thousands of students from all parts of Europe.(The idea of uni-
versity education had been introduced. There ere at least 19
universities in the 13th century, and by the time of the Renaissance
there were more than 70 in western Europe.
- [Link] of the Unirersty. The medieval university was
not much like our modern institutions of learning)There were no
formal organizations, no class attendance records, no units of
credit, few buildings, and no athletic stadiums. Students and
teachers gathered in the humblest of quarters, frequently in rooms
without any furniture. The students sat on the floor and listened
to the lectures. The medieval university was a guild 'of teachers
and students (Universita). The .students were apprentices under
the direction of their teachers, the master craftsmen. Upon the
completion of study for the master's or the doctor's degree, a man
was recognized as capable of teaching a particular branch of
learning.
The University of Paris in the 13th century had four faculties:
arts, canon law, medicine, and theology. A dean presided over'
 330 A HISTORY OF WORLD CIJ'ILIZATJQ1V

each group. The students in the arts division were divided into
four nations: French, Norman, Picard, and English. Each had as
a governing official a proctor elected by the student The students
organized themselves into nations for better social relationship
and for mutual protection. They worked together in order to
obtain fair prices on the necessities that they had to purchase, to
avenge insults, and to care for the sick and needy. The university
soon gained a high degree of prestige in the community and re-
ceived concessions from both the church and the state.
Student Life. Students attended the colleges and universities
mainly to prepare for a career, rather than merely to acquire
culture. Their purpose was serious, and they were forced to live
under great hardships. It would, however, be a mistake to con-
clude that student life was all work and no play. Poor living
quarters and scarcity of food did not dampen all the ardor of youth.
Songs and stories of student life that have been preserved show
that it had its frivolous moments. Love affairs, brawls, pranks, and
irreverence, even in theological schools, were common. Many of
the students did, however, come from the lower class and lived a
life of stark privation. They shared stableS with horses and de-
pended upon the generosity of housekeepers for their food. Classes
were sometimes held in the open street, where the students sat on
straw, hence the name Straw Street in the Latin Quarter of Paris.
Hardships and luxury, hard work and a rollicking good time were
contrasts characteristic of medieval, as well as modern, student life.
Curriculum. The curriculum was based essentially on the
liberal arts. Students expecting to go into law, medicine, or the-
ology were asked to complete the liberal arts course. However,
preparation for entrance into the university varied greatly. Sons
of nobles were ti ained by private tutors, the middle-class boys
attended the village schools, and those of the lower orders were
forced to gain what they could as altar boys in the churches.
Some arrived at the institution of higher learning well prepared;
others had only a meager amount of learning. The baccalaureate
was intended to serve as a means of determining the candidate's
fitness for more advanced study. Two additional years, six in all,
were required for the master's degree. The liberal arts included
what was popularly known as the trivium and the quadrivium. The
trivium, by far the more popular of the two, included grammar,

F'
 THE MIDDLE AGES 33 1
rhetoric, arid logic. The quadrivium was made up of music, aritl,l~
metiC, geometry; and astronomy. _
Aristotl~'s w:orks, introduced into Europe by the Arabs, were
beginning to be accepted in the -13th century. Albertus Magnus
and Thomas Aquinas, .Dominican theologiaps, were responsible for
overcoming much of the opposition of the church to these pagan
beliefs. Petrarch (1304-1374) encouraged the study of Latin litera-
ture, which, along with the study of Greek; became an important
part of the liberal arts course. Students of civil law studied Jus-
tinian's Code, together with commentaries written by the teachers.
Gratian's Decretum was the most popular book on canon law. The
works ~f Galen and Hippocrates were the foundations for the study
of medicine. Theological students read the Scriptures and Peter
Lombard's Sentences. I
Importance of Universities. ~he university played an impor-
tant part not only in establishing the culture of the Middle Ages
but also in paving the way for the cultural developments of the
later periods .) The number of- students and teachers was only a
small percentage of the total population, but their influence was
beyond questiop . Litera~y study and experimental science were
both sadly neglected in the universities, but pioneer ork in the
study of la w and theology was basically important. Studehts of
civil and canon law aided in the development of political and
judicial thought as the basis of the national stateJ which was just
emergin ~The universities were not, however, t¥e only centers of
.. cultural A ctivity in the Middle Ages. Monastic and cathedral
schQOls continued to exist. Many of the greatest thinkers in phi-
losbphy and theology received their training in these institutions.
Beginning of Medieval Science. Science commonly is believed
to be a child of the modern .ag~: Literally, this is' true but, like
so many other things that we regard as entirely modern, even
science had 'its origin in more ~emote periods. Compared with
other studies, pure science'made little headway 'in the Middle Ages.
The church was opposed to science, which,-in fact, had had little
. encouragement in the time of the Roman Empire. The opposition
of the church was due to the conviction ' that salvation was the
most important thing and that, in order to acquire this, one must
divorce himself from materialism; "For what shall it profit a man
if he shall gain the whole world, imd lose hi's own soul?" The
332 A HISTORY OF WORLD CIVILIZATION

Arabs of the Near East had advanced further in the realm of pure
science than had the people of western Europe. They had preserved
the learning of the Greeks and had added to it improvements, both
of their own and of the Hindus from Asia.
The crusaders came into contact with these ideas and, later,
Arabian teachers carried them to the universities of western
Europe. They introduced Arabic numerals, the zero, the decimal
system, algebra as far as quadratics, Euclid's geometry, and plane
and spherical trigonometry. Latitude and longitude for making
maps and the sextant for the mariner's use were also added. To
medicine, they brought the works of Galen and Hippocrates and
their own knowledge of medical herbs and drugs. The debt of the
Western world to the Arabs has not been fully recognized.
Medieval Science. Pure science was greatly hindered by scho-
lasticism, but out of scholasticism themodern scientific spirit
developed. Desire to understand, systemize, and elaborate served
as a foundation stone of pure science, as a prerequisite to the work
of Galileo, Descartes, and Newton. A strong impetus to general
intellectual progress came from the popular demand for intelligent
explanations of commonplace things. Thomas Aquinas, a scho-
lastic, contended that "The prime author and mover of the
universe is intelligence." He was not concerned about predicting
the future and controlling nature but about understanding and
contemplation rather than description and control. Roger Bacon
(d. 1294) attacked what he considered to be the basic weakness of
scholasticism. He insisted that firsthand knowledge was the sole
authority. He deplored the hold that Aristotle had over the
cultural world. "If I had my way," he declared, "I should burn
all the books of Aristotle for the study of them can only lead to
loss of time, ptoduce error, and increase ignorance." He reversed
the scholastic's order of procedure and advocated "knowledge of
the creator through knowledge of the created world." In theory,
he urgently suggested the use of laboratory investigation in place
of complete dependence uppn the works of Aristotle.
Modern scientific methods had their first enthusiast in Dr.
Vesalius of Padua, who in 1543 declared, "It is necessary to chal-
lenge every past authority and be grounded only by facts." Medi-
eval science was primitive when compared with later periods.
Scientific procedure was in its infancy and laboratory equipment
 THE MIDDLE 4GES
333
was lacking almost entirely. Even Roger Bacon had no laboratory
equipment of any note. Scientists generally believed the earth to
be round. Astrology and alchemy occupied the attention of many
of the thinkers. Alchemy, although basically wrong in theory,
served as the foundation for chemistry. Some knowledge of metal-
lurgy, pottery making, and glassmaking was gained through
alchemists' experiments. The study of medicine was revived and
transmitted into western Europe by the Arabs. Gynecology,
obstetrics, and ophthalmology were-introduced at the University
of Salerno.
Inventions. 'he most impressive evidence of the extent of
scientific progress in the Middle Ages is found in the inventions.
The inventive spirit of the time can be traced to Roger Bacon, who
predicted airplanes, horseless carriages, and oarless boats. These
were dreams to him, but things just as revolutionary were produced
in his time. It would be difficult to find anything with a more
lasting irrtportance thanthe discovery of gunpowder, the compass,
the lens, and the printing press. The printing press did more than
any, of the others in aiding the development and the perpetuation
of harning.
In our day, with the profusion of printed matter, it is difficult
to imagine a time when a small library was worth a fortune.
Gosimo de Medici employed 45 copyists for nearly two years, in
order to produce 200 volumes for his library. John Gutenberg
probably invented the movable type about 1455. Frederic Harri-
son gives the following estimate of Gutenberg: "We place Guten-
berg amongst the small list of the unique and special benefactors
of mankind, in the sacred choir of those whose work transformed
the conditions of life, whose work, once done, could never be
repeated." Paper was used extensively in Europe br the 15th
century. This provided the printing press with a cheap material,
and books were reduced in price from what they had been when
they were produced on parchment or vellum. It has been estimated
that, by ioo, about 9,000,000 books were in circulation in Europe.

9HLITERATURE
Decline of Latin as the Medium of Expression. Latin was
ecognized generally as the language of learning during the Middle
Preserzt1 Smith, Ag, of iizi Reformation, 9.
 334 A HISTORY OF WORLD CIJ-'ILIZATION

Ages. Writers imitated the Roman classics in the style of Ovid,

Horace, Vergil, and Cicero. Outstanding writers, such as Guibert
of Nogent, Matthew Paris, Albertus Magnus, Thomas Aquinas,
and Roger Bacon wrote in Latin, which was the official language
of the church and was preferred in the royal courts. Vernacular
languages gradually replaced Latin as the most important medium
of expression. Medieval Latin had degenerated from its classical
form. More than a thousand years of usage had naturally brought
about many changes. Classical Latin was not adaptable as a com-
mon means of expression, althcugh it was still used by scholars in
medieval universities. The language of the scholar was not the
language of the people, and for general literature a medium of
expression that could be undostood had to be developed.
Origin of Modern Languages. Local traditions and stories
were written in some other language than Latin, because they were
written for general consumption. There are extant poe jns of nearly
oo troubadours of the 12th and 13th centuries. This literature is
indicative of the development of language groups that were
combinations of local dialects and the existing remnants of Latin.
The Romance group includes what we now refer to as French,
Italian, S p anish, Portuguese, and Rumanian Each of these was
made up of a number of different dialects, which were only gradu-
ally amalgamated. There was a general acceptance, in most
countries, of one dialect. Modern French developed from a dialect
in northern France, langue d'oIl; and Spanish came from the dialect
used in Castile. The Germanic, or Teutonic, classification includes
German, Dutch, English, Swedish, Danish, Norwegian, and
Flemish. While these are freer from Latin influence than are the
Romance languages, it was still discernible in them. Modern
English can be traced to Low-German dialects, the best known
today being written in so-called Anglo-Saxon. It did not appear
until the time of Chaucer at the close of the 14th century. Slavic,
the third important group of languages in Europe, is more closely
related to Greek than to Latin and includes Russian, Polish,
Bulgarian, and Czech: In addition to the language groups men-
ioned, there are many others, which are difficult to classify.
Europe of today has a score of nations, among whose inhabitants
some 6o different languages are spoken.
Troubadours and Minnesingers. Much of medieval literature
 THE MIDDLE ftES

existed in song and story long before it appeared in written form.

Professional wanderers and singers, the troubadours in France and
the minnesingers in Germany, traveled from place to place, re-
citing stories to the accompaniment of a musical instrument. The
Chanson de Roland describes an incident, at the time of Charle,
magne, in which Roland lost his life fighting the Basques in the
Pyrenees Mountains. The so-called Arthurian cycle contains a
great variety of legends centering about King Arthur and his
Knights of the Roupd Table. These stories of bravery, love affairs,
and folklore are among the most famous of their kind. They were
sung by wandering minstrels for generations. Sir Thomas Malory
preserved them in his Morte d'.4rthur, and Tennyson retold them
in his Idylls of the King. Walter von der Vogeiweide and Wolfram
von Eschenbach (early 13th century) . were two of the great
minnesingers who are given credit for Unter den Linden and
Parzifal, respectively. Tristan, by Gottfried von Strassburg, is a
classic in epic romances.
Medieval Literature. Medieval authors and their works make
an impressive list. Nibelungenlied, by an unknown German poet,
relates the story of Siegfried and Kriemhild, a demigod hero and
a queen goddess, whose adventures are connected with the invasion
of the Huns in the 5th century. Two outstanding Anglo-Saxon
works have come to our attention—Beowulf, of the 7th century,
and the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle. Beowulf was written in England,
but the hero and the scene of action were taken from Denmark.
Beowulf slew Grendel, a monster, half demon and half bear, who
threatened to destroy the whole army of Hrothgar, the King of
Denmark. It is a gripping story of dragons, monsters- super-
natural powers. The spirit and content are pagan, although it was
later given a Christian veneer. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle covers
more than 300 years of history following the reign of King Alfred.
It was the first important work 41 medieval vernacular historical
writing.
Modern English begins with Chaucer's Canterbury Tales (14th
century), which is followed by Langland's The Vision of Piers
Plowman. These are both plain stories about plain people. The
Canterbury Tales gives an excellent picture of life in 14th-century
.
England. The story- concerns a group of pilgrims of every sort
and description, who undertook a pilgrimage to the shrine of
 336 d HISTORY OF WORLD CIVILIZATION

Thomas a Becket at Canterbury. Langland's work is a protest

against the abuses of the feudal lords." Spain contributed its
national epic in Poema del Cid, the story of the deeds of a Spanish
soldier in the wars against the Moors (12th century).
Ruskin referred to Dante (1265-1321) as "representing in
perfect balance the imaginative, the moral, and the intellectual
faculties,. all at their highest" His Diviiia Comniedia, or Divine
Comedy, defies comparison with other works of its kind, standing
alone and supreme in beauty of expression and in depth of feeling.
It describes a dream journey through hell, purgatory, and paradise,
with the purpose of opening to its readers a vision to direct one
from wretchedness to blessedness. The Divine Comedy, both as a
literal narrative and as an allegory, demands profound study.

"Brother, the quality, of love constrains our will,

And lets us only wish for what we have,
And thirst for nothing more.
If we should wish to be up higher than
We are, our wills would be at discord
With his will, who put us here,
And that within these circles cannot be,
Since to live to Love is here necessity,
If you consider well Love's nature.
Rather it is the law of this life beatific
To keep ourselves within the Will Divine,
So that our several wills shall make but one.
And so, being as we are, from sphere to sphere
Throughout this realm, gives joy to all the [Link]
And to ofr King, who makes our wills like His,
And His will is our peace."

Dante wrote in his native togue, Italian, which to this day

remains essentially the language which he perfected.
Historical Works. Some notable historical works were pro-
duced in the Middle Ages. Although most of them a1c not very
accurate, they are important in the development of historiography.
Greogory of Tours (38-594) wrote Ten Books of Frankish History,
covering a period of the Merovingian dynasty. Einhard (770—
8 40), in his Life of Charlemagne, and Joinville (1224-1319), in his
 THE MIDDLE AGES 337
Life of St. Louis, head the list of biographers; they were pioneers
in this type of work. Geoffroi de Villehardouin (1160-1213 ?), the
first historian to use the vernacular tongue of northern France,
wrote The Conquest of Constantinople, one of the most important
historical works of the Middle Ages. Bede's (672-735) Ecclesiastical
History of the English Nation, written in Latin, was the most out-
standing historical work produced between the 7th and the izth
century. Bede was careful and thorough, giving long quotations
and stating the sources of most of his information. When he wrote
from hearsay, he frankly said so.
Importance of Vernacular Language. The importance of Latin
in the development of culture is beyond question. An integral part
of learning in the Middle Ages, it became an essential basis for
many modern languages. Although it has lost importance as a
medium of expression, it is still used in designating legal and
scieniiL t is. Nevertheless, the rise of vernacular languages is
a significart ptep in the emergence of modern civilization. Classical
Lati i w- never a language for the masses, and to ,a degree it
outlived it." usefulness. It belonged to the Middle Ages. Vernacular
literature was a significant psychological factor in destroying
medieval culture. It aided materially in the devem lopent of
national consciousness through undermining the feudal order and
the universal church. Vernacular languages provided an important
element for political unity in the national state. The rise of the
national state is one of the most significant developments in modern
history

io. THE END OF THE MIDDLE AGES

Aim of Medieval Civilization. The predominant aim of the
Middle Ages was to establish harmony between the individual and
society. Society was a hierarchy of orders, ranging from servitude
at the bottom to the aristocracy at the top. Man was a member
of one of the groups, not by choice, but by 4ivine interference
from which he had no appeal. Unity in all things—social, religious,
political, and economic—was considered to be the ultimate goal.
Reverence for authority and centralization account for much of
the tyranny so evident in all the organizations. There was no
room for difference of opinion; the fundamental truth was estàb-
lished by a force beyond human power. The chief function of-the
 338 A HISTORY OF WORLD CIVILIZATION

officers in the church was to weed out heretics and punish them.
To doubt the teachings of the church, for example, was treason
against God. Murder, by comparison, was a minor offense. In
spite of this aim, medieval civilization was marked with com-
plexity and confusion, as all transition periods are. The gradual
discarding of classical civilization and the setting of the stage for
the drama of modern civilization is evident in the Middle Ages.
The Middle Ages can be called truthfully the formative period
of modern history. Many of the things that we accept as modern
had their origin then. It was the period in which Byzantine civili-
zation flourished and in which much of the culture of the East
was passed on to the West, where it took on a new vitality and-
blossomed in the Renaissance. Upon the ruins of the Roman
Empire, political institutions developed that bear a close resem-
blance to the modern state. The centralization of government in
the hands of monarchs and the rise of nationalism and of patriotism
formed the basis of present-day political institutions. No single
organization in the present age is more prominent than the national
state.
No force in our time is more far-reaching than patriotism.
Nationalism, as much as any single cause, aided in ending the medi-
eval and introducing the modern. The appearance of the domestic
system in manufacturing, the rise of capitalism and the middle
class, the decay of the guilds and of the manor, and the decline of
serfdom presaged a new economié and social order. The decline of
the monopolistic power of the medieval church enabled the progress
of more liberal ideas in thought and in action.
The invention of printing provided a means for the spread and
preservation of cultural pursuits. The university was another
institution that the Middle Ages bequeathed to the modern world.
Modern science was first championed and its foundation was first
laid in this period. Voyages of discovery opened a new world for
adventure and exploration. The beginnings of colonial and com-
mercial expansion, which is so much a part of our daily program,
were in evidence. Our religion, philosophy, education, science,
languages, art, and government grew out of the Middle Ages
through a long process of development. Although born in that
period, they were not typical of it. Their appearance marked the
b,pginning of modern times.
 THE MIDDLE AGES 339

LINE OF TIME
THE MIDDLE AGES

520
527--Justinian, Emperor in East

570

620---I.- 623--The Hegira (Mohammed's Flight)

670

720 718--Golden Age of Chinese Literature

-L 732--Battle of Tours

770

800-- Charlemagne, Emperor of Holy Roman Empire

82

843--Treaty of Verdun

870 871--Beginning of reign of Alfred the Great in England

92

970

102

11066--Norman Conquest of England

1070 1073--Gregory Vii (Hildebrand becomes Pope)
1086--Salisbury Oath
1096--First Crusade
 340 A HISTORY OF WORLD CivJLfZ4TJON

1120

1170 __J- 1167Format1on of Lombard League

—j.. 1206--Jenghlz Xhan, Chief of Mongols

1220 1- 1215--Magna Charta
1224—Birth of Thomas Aquinas
_4 1240--Birth of Cimabue

1265--First English Parliament

1280--Vjg t of Marco Pole to China
1295- -Model Parliament In England
1320

R1I',.[Link] Questions

i. "The Middle Ages was the formative period for modern history." Explain
2. Define the "Dark Ages." Why has it been misinterpreted?
3. Describe German government, law, and society.
4. What outstanding contributions did the Germans make?
5. How did the Catholic Church continue the traditions of the Roman
Empire',
6. Describe the origin of the Roman Catholic Church. Discriminate between
Christianity as a religious culture and the church as an institutiDn.
7. Why did Rome become the center of the church?
8. How did the church decline in the 15th century?
9. Define and show the influence of scholasticism.
so. Describe a medieval university. Contrast with the modern university
ii. Characterize medieval literature.'
12. Is there any connection between literature in the vernacular and the rise
of nationalism? Explain.
13. Why was Charlemagne called the first modern man?
14. Why did the Frankish government fail?
i , . Define the personal and land elements in fedualism.
s6. What was the importance of chivalry?
57. Define nationalism and show how it originated.
18. Account for the rise of towns in the Middle Ages.
19. Characterize medieval trade.
20. Describe Romanesque and Gothic art.
II. Account for the conflict between the church and the state. What were the
results?
22. What were the causes and results of the crusades?
23. Define and show the importance of monasticism. Contrast the eastern
and western varieties.
 THE MIDDLE AGES 341

24. What were the important featuref of the Orthodox religion? Compare and
contrast with Rome.
25. Account for the survival of the Roman Empire in the East.
26. What contributions did the Arabs make?
27. Give the main characteristics of Mohammedanism. Contrast with Roman
Catholicism.
28. Define: penance, transubstantiation, secular clergy, regular clergy,
sacraments, allegory, vernacular, excommunication, flying buttress, schism, terra
cotta, and humanism.
29. Identify: Edit of Milan, Council of Nicaea, Holy Roman Empire, Hugh
Capet, Gregory the Great, Gregory of Tours, Koran, Islam, Saracen, iconoclastic
controversy, Strasbourg oath, Holy Inquisition, Gratian, St. Francis of Assisi,
Francis Bacon, Abélard, Marco Polo, Albigenses, Wycliffe, Roger Bacon, Hanse-
atic League, Babylonian captivity, Gutenberg, compurgation, Attila, Danelaw,
Domitian, Petrine doctrine, doctrine of apostolic succession, Adrianople, St.
Soph Hegira, Kaaba, Omar Khayym, Genghis Khan, Taj Mahal, Maybrs
of the Palace, fief, chivalry, merchant and craft guilds, Donatello, Urban II,
Benedictine Rule, Cluny, Ambrose, City of God, Groot, Thomas Aquinas,
Petrarch, Chanson de Roland, and Dante.

Problems
I. Find out all you can about money and banking in the Middle Ages. Indi-
cate the trends that developed into modern methods. Can you see any present-
day monetary theories that might be called a reversion to the medieval?
2. Draw a plan of a medieval manor, putting in as many details as possible.
. How did the Roman Catholic Church function as a political institution?
What effect did this have on the national state? on the church?

Bibliography
GENERAL AccouNTs
Adams, G. B., Civilization during the Middle Ages (Scribner's, 1922). An excellent
brief summary.
Collins, R. W., A History of Medieval Civilization (Ginn, 1936).
S;tephenson, C., Medieval History; Europe from the Fourth to the Sixteenth Century
(Harper, 5935). Emphasizes cultural developments.
Turner, R., The Great Cultural Traditions, II, passim.

SPECIAL REFERENCES
The Germans
Adams, op. cit., 5.
Barnes, The history of Western Civilization, I, 12-13.
Cambridge Medieval History (Macmillan, igxi, 8 vols.) I, 7-1I, x; II, 25. The
most comprehensive survey of the medieval period in English.
 342 A HISTORY OF WORLD CIVILIZATION

Emerton, E., Introduñion to the Middle Ages (Ginn, 1916), 2-8, so, 12-13.
Invaluable.
Haskins, C. H., The Normans in European History (Houghton Muffin, 1915).
Tacitus, Germania (various editions). The best contemporary account of the
Germans.
Thompson, J. W., Economic and Social History of the Middle Ages (Ccntiry, 1928),
3. Very comprehensive, with numerous quotations from various sources.
Christianity in the Early Period
Adams, op. cit., 3, 6.
Cambridge Medieval History, I, 21 19.
Emerton, op. cit., 9, ix.
Flick, A. C., Rise of Medieval Church (Putnam, 1909).
Potter, C. F., Story of Religion (Simon & Schuster, 1929), 9. A popular but
authoritative book
Randall, J . H., Jr, Making of the Modern Mind (Houghton Muffin, 1926), 2-4.
One of the most thought-provoking books on the cultural history of man.
Stephenson, op. cit., 4.
Taylor, H. 0., The Medieval Mind (Macmillan, 1925), I, 3-5. Scholarly.
The Roman Empire in the East (Byzantium) and Islam
Arnold, T. W., The Preaching of Islam (Scribner's, 1913). An analysis of the faith.
Bury, J . B., History of the Later Roman Empire (London, 2923, 2 vols.). Includes
the reign of Justinian.
Byron, p.., The Byzantine Achievement (Knopf, 1929).
Cambridge Medieval history, II, io — x . ; IV, io.
Davis, W. S., Short history of the Near East (Macmillan, 1922), 1-211. Good
outline of the political developments.
Diehl, C., History of the Byzantine Empire (Princeton University Press,1925).
Translated from the French. Brief but very good.
Fortescue, A., The Orthodox Eastern Church (Catholic Truth Society, London,
1929). One of the few good books on the Orthodox Church in English.
Gardner, Art through the Ages, 10-12.
Harrison, F., Byzantine History in the Early Middle Ages (Macmillan, 1900).
Good general account.
Huart, C. I., History ofArabic Literature (Appleton-Century, '1903).
Jackson, T. J., Byzantine and Romanesque Architecture (University of Chicago
Press, 1920, 2 vols.). Fine illustrations.
Lane-Poole, S. (ed.),, Speeches and Table Talk of Prophet Mohammed (London,
1915). Useful selections.
Potter, op. cit.,zI.
Runciman, S., Byzantine Civilization (Longmans, Green, 1933). A vivid account
of life in the Byzantine Empire.
Sarton, G., Introduction to the History of Science (Williams & Wilkins, 1927-1931,
2 vols.), I, 28-34. The most comprehensive work of its kind. Good on Arabic
science.
Stephenson, op. Cit., 5-6.
Thompson, op. cit., 7, 15, 22.
 THE MIDDLE AGES 343

The Far East

(See references in Bibliography for Chap. V.)

The Land and the People of Western Europe

Blanchard, W. 0., and S. S. Visher, Economic Geography of Europe (McGraw-Hill,
1931), Part I.
Newbigin, M. I., Mediterranean Lands, A New Regional Geography of the World
(Harcourt, no date), Part I.
Ripley, W. Z., The Races of Europe (Appleton-Century, 1899).
Political Developments in Europe
Adams, op. Cit., 7, 8, iO, 53, 14.
Bryce, J . , The Holy Roman Empire (Macmillan, various editions).
Cambridge Medieval Histor y , III, 18.
Dunning, W. A., History of Political Theories, Ancient and Medieval (Macmillan,
1916), 6-8.
Jenks, Edward, Law and Politics in the Middle Ages (Holt, 1898).
Sellery, G. C., and A. C. Krey, Medieval Foundations of' Western Civilization
(Harper, 5929), 9, II, 12, 16, 20.
Stephenson, op. cit., 8, so, 52, xó.
Medieval Feudalism (Cornell University Press, 1942). Excellent survey.
Thompson, op. Cit., 26

Economic Developments
Adams, op. cit., 1 2.
Ashley, "Beginning of Town Life in the Middle Ages," Quarterly Journal of
Economics, X.
Baldwin, S., Business in the Middle Ages (Holt, 1937).
Beard, M., A History of the Business Man (Macmillan, 5938).
Cambridge Medieval History, V, 19.
Cheyney, E. P., Introduction to the Industrial and Social History of England (Mac-
millan, 1926), 3, , 6.
Dawn of a New Era (Harper, 2936), 1-3.
Day, C., History of Commerce (Longmans, Green, 1907), Part II.
Dopsch, A., The Economic and Social Foundations of Medieval Civilization (Har-
court, 1927).
Gras, N. L. B., History of Agriculture in Europe and Añserica (Crofts, 1925), 2, 4,
. An excellent account of a much-neglected subject.
Gross, C., The Gild Merchant (Oxford, 1890). A detailed study.
Heaton, Economic History of Europe, -xi.
Knight, M. M., Economic History of Europe to the End of the Middle Ages (Hough-
ton Muffin, 1926). Good survey.
Ogg, F. A., and W. R. Sharp, Economic Develop ment of Modern_ Europe (Mac.
rnillan, 1926), 2. A good summary of the medieval period, *hich is used a
an introduction to the modern period.
 344 A HISTORY OF WORLD CIVILIZATION

Pirenne, H. Medieval Cities (Princeton University Press, 1925). The best general
history of the towns.
-, Economic and Social History of Medieval Europe (Harcourt, 1937).
Sellery and Krey, op. cit., 18.
Stephenson, op. cit., x
Summerfield, B., Business in the Middle Ages (Holt, 1937).
Thompson, op. Cit., 23, 29.
Usher, A. P., "Origins of Banking; the Primitive Bank of Deposit,"Economic
Historical Review (April, 5934). The best account of medieval banking.

Society
Cambridge Medieval History, TV, 25; VII, 24.
Cheyney, Introduction to the Industrial and Social History of England, 2-5.
Davis, W. S., Life on a Medieval Barony (Harper, 0923). Gives an excellent picture.
Encyclopaedia Britannica, under "Knighthood" and "Chivalry."
Evans, Joan, Life in Medieval France (Oxford, 0925), 2.
Jarrett, B., Social Theories of the Middle Ages (Little, Brown, 1926).
Meller, W. C., A Kight's Life in the Days of Chivalry (Greenberg, 1924). Popular.
Prestage, E. (ed.), Chivalry (Knopf, 1928).

Art and Architecture

Adams, H., Mont Saint-Michel and Chartres (Houghton Mifflin, 0924). A finc
piece of work.
Arnold, H., Stained Glass of the Middle Ages in France and England (London,
1913). An excellent work on an interesting subject.
Cambridge Medieval History, III, 20.
Gardner, op. cit., 13-14.
Jackson, T. G., Gothic Architecture (Cambridge, 1929, 2 vols.).
Male, E., Reigious Art in France (Dutton, 0903). Good on interior decorations.
Porter, A. K., Medieval Architecture (Baker & Taylor, 1909, 2 vols.). A good
general history.
Sellery and Krey, op. cit., r.ç.

Religion and Philosophy

Adams, op. cit., 10— OX. -
Barnes, op. cit., I, pp. 763-769.
Butler, E. C., Benedictine Monasticism (Longmans, Green, 0924).
Cuthbert, Father, Life of Saint Fr&ncis of Assisi (Longmans, Green, 1927).
Written by an admirer, but well done.
Dawson, C., Medieval Religion (Sheed, 0934). Critical analysis.
Haskins, C. H. Renaissance of the Twelfth Century (Harvard University Press,
0927). A standard work by a leading American scholar.
Lamb, H., The Crusades (Gardee City, 1930). Popular.
\ Lea, l-. C. History of Sacerd -elibacy (Macmillan, 0907). Comprehensive.
 THE MIDDLE AGES 345

Mcllwain, C., The Growth of Political Thought in the West (Macmillan, 1932).
Sec chaps. —8 for Middle Ages.
Poole, R. L., Illustrations of Medieval Thought and Learning (Macmillan. 1920).
Numerous quotations from the works of Ablard, John of Salisbury, etc.
Stephenson, op. cit., 03, 1 - 18 , 22.
Taylor, H. 0., The Medieval Mind (Macmillan, 1925). A good analysis of the
intellectual developments of the Middle Ages.
Wulf, M. M. C. J . de, History of Medieval Philosophy (Harvard University Press,
0907).

Education and Learning

Cambridge Medieval History, VII, i'.
Dampier-Whetham, W. C. D., A History of Science and Its Relation with Philosophy
and Religion (Macmillan, 1942).
Gay, C., History of Music (Knopf, 1928).
Haskins, C. I-I., Rise of the Universities (Holt, 0923).
Studies in Medieval Cult-re (Oxford, ,1929). These two books are out-
standing.
Munro, D. c., "The Medieval Student," University of Pennsylvania Translations
and Reprints, II, 3 . Interesting source material.
Rait, R. S., Life in a Medieval University (Macmillan, 0902).
Randall, op. cit., Part I.
Robinson, Mind in the Making, 5. Good as a supplement to Randall.
Stephenson, op. cit., x8.
Thorndike, L., History of Magic and Experimental Science during the First Thir-
teen Centuries of Our Era (Macmillan, 0923, 2 vols.), I, 742-759.
Tyler, H. W., Short History of Science (Macmillan, 1917), 146-090. General
summary.

Literature
Cambridge Medieval History, VI, 25.
Macy, Story of World Literature, Part II.
Robinson, J . H., An Introduction to the History of Western Europe (Ginn, 1924), I.
An inspiring textbook.
Stephenson, op. cit., 09.