Theme 1 Space Technology

X-ray Polarimeter Satellite (XPoSat):

● XPoSat is ISRO's inaugural satellite dedicated to conducting research on

space-based polarization measurements of X-ray emissions from celestial
sources.
● Positioned in a low earth orbit (~ 650 km) with a low inclination (satellite orbits
close to the Earth's equator) of approximately 6 degrees.
● It is slated for a mission life of around five years.
● The XPoSat satellite will primarily study polarized X-rays from celestial
objects. It will pay special attention to events like magnetars or neutron stars
passing through Earth’s shadow (regions of darkness where the Sun's light is
blocked by the planet).
● Scientific Payloads:
○ XPoSat houses two main payloads:
■ Indian X-ray Polarimeter (POLIX) : POLIX features a collimator
and four X-ray proportional counter detectors to observe a
range of astronomical sources.
■ X-ray Spectroscopy and Timing (XSPECT): XSPECT will analyze
various sources including X-ray pulsars, black hole binaries, and
active galactic nuclei (AGNs).

● Comparison with Global X-ray Missions:

○ While Indian astronomers utilized AstroSat for X-ray studies, XPoSat's
focus on polarization measurements fills a crucial gap.
○ NASA's IXPE, launched in 2021, operates in the soft X-ray band (2 to 8
keV), whereas XPoSat extends observations to the medium X-ray band
(8 to 30 keV), complementing existing missions.
● Related Concept: Polarization in X-ray astronomy is about how X-ray light waves
from space align as they travel. Unlike ordinary light, which vibrates in multiple
directions, polarized light waves vibrate mainly in one direction. This occurs due to
interactions with magnetic fields, gravitational forces, or when light reflects off
surfaces. Studying this polarization, especially through missions like ISRO's
XPoSat, helps scientists understand more about celestial objects like black holes
and neutron stars. It offers clues about their structure, magnetic fields, and the
physics driving their X-ray emissions, enhancing our knowledge of the universe's
most extreme phenomena.
Gaganyaan Project:

India’s maiden human space flight mission under the Gaganyaan programme is targeted to
be launched in the fourth quarter of 2024.
● The Gaganyaan project aims to demonstrate India's capability in human
spaceflight by sending a three-member crew on a three-day mission to a 400
km Low Earth Orbit (LEO), with a safe landing planned in the Bay of Bengal or
Arabian Sea.
● Upon completion, India will become the fourth nation to achieve human
spaceflight capability, joining the US, Russia, and China.
● Components:
○ Crew Module (CM): Designed to provide a habitable space with Earth-like
environment for the crew during the mission and equipped for safe re-entry
during descent.
○ Service Module (SM): An unpressurized structure providing support to the
CM while in orbit.
○ Launch Vehicle: Utilizing the Launch Vehicle Mark III (LVM3), also
known as GSLV Mk III, as the carrier rocket for the mission.

● International Collaboration:
○ ISRO collaborated with Russia's Glavkosmos for astronaut selection and
training.
○ The US offered advanced training opportunities for the selected Indian
astronauts.
● Vyom Mitra: The mission's second phase involves the launch of Vyom Mitra, a
female humanoid robot serving as a prototype for future Gaganyaan missions.
 ● Astronaut Training Facility: Established in Bengaluru to facilitate comprehensive
training for the selected astronauts.
● LVM3 & HLVM3:
○ LVM3: ISRO's heaviest rocket, comprising solid, liquid, and cryogenic
stages.
○ HLVM3: Human Rated LVM3, configured to meet human rating
requirements, equipped with a Crew Escape System for crew safety.
● Part of the Mission:
○ Integrated Air Drop Tests: Simulating crew module descent and parachute
deployment for safe sea landing.
○ Test Vehicle Missions: Launching a single-stage liquid propulsion rocket
with crew module and escape system.
○ Pad Abort Tests (PAT): Evaluation of launch escape system's functionality
in emergency scenarios.
○ Uncrewed Mission: Technological demonstration, safety verification, and
system performance evaluation prior to crewed flight.
○ Manned Flight Mission: Carrying human crew members for operational
tasks and control operations in space.

Chandrayaan-3:

● India became the fourth country to land on the lunar surface, particularly
reaching near the lunar south pole.
● Launched via the Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle Mark III from
Sriharikota.
● Launch Vehicle Mark III (LVM3) Stages:
○ First Stage: Comprising two S200 boosters.
○ Second Stage: Powered by two Vikas engines (L110 -liquid-fueled rocket
engines).
○ Uppermost Final Stage: Utilized a Cryogenic engine (C25).
● Chandrayaan Series:
○ Chandrayaan-1, launched in 2008, detected evidence of water on the
Moon.
○ Chandrayaan-2, launched in 2019, attempted( Lander Vikram crash
landed ) a landing near the Manzinus C and Simpelius N craters.
○ Chandrayaan-3 continued the exploration legacy of its predecessors.
● Components of Chandrayaan-3:
○ Consists of an indigenous Lander module (LM), Propulsion module
(PM), and a Rover.
○ The Lander facilitated a controlled lunar landing and deployed a Rover for
 on-site chemical analysis of the lunar surface.
○ The place where lander ‘Vikram’ touched down on the lunar surface is
named as Shiv Shakti Point.
● Rover Payloads:
○ Laser Induced Breakdown Spectroscopy (LIBS) and Alpha Particle X-
ray Spectrometer (APXS) for chemical and mineral composition analysis.
○ LIBS confirmed the presence of Sulphur (S) on the lunar surface.
● Lander Payloads:
○ Radio Anatomy of Moon Bound Hypersensitive ionosphere and
Atmosphere – Langmuir Probe (RAMBHA-LP), Chandra’s Surface
Thermophysical Experiment (ChaSTE), and Instrument for Lunar
Seismic Activity (ILSA) for various measurements.
● Propulsion Module Payload:
○ Spectro-polarimetry of HAbitable Planet Earth (SHAPE) aimed at
studying Earth's spectro-polarimetric signatures.
● Orbiter Objectives:
○ The Orbiter focuses on studying Earth's signs of life and identifying
exoplanets that could potentially support life.
● Exploration of Lunar South Pole:
○ Remains unexplored due to rugged terrain and holds evidence of water in
permanently shadowed craters.
○ Offers insights into the early Solar System through the preservation of
materials in extreme cold conditions.
● Artemis Accords:
○ India's recent signing of the Artemis Accords aligns with cooperative
civil space exploration efforts initiated by the US and seven partners.
○ Principles include non-military use of space, safety cooperation, and sharing
scientific data.
● Deboosting and Translunar Orbit Injection:
○ Techniques utilized by Chandrayaan-3 to adjust its trajectory towards
the Moon and transition into lunar orbit.
● Tidal Locking:
○ Describes the synchronization between the Moon's rotation and its orbit
around the Earth, leading to phenomena like the Near and Far sides and
gravitational distortion effects.
 ● India and the US have agreed to enhance space collaboration within the
framework of the 'initiative on critical and emerging technology.'
● NASA's ARTEMIS program, short for 'Acceleration, Reconnection,
Turbulence and Electrodynamics of Moon’s Interaction with the Sun,'
is the agency's upcoming Moon mission.
● The goal of ARTEMIS is to land the first woman and next man on the
Moon by 2024, marking NASA's Artemis Project.
● The program consists of three missions:
○ Artemis 1: An uncrewed test flight orbiting and traveling beyond the
Moon.
○ Artemis 2: A crewed mission journeying beyond the Moon.
○ Artemis 3: Intends to land the first female astronaut and the first
astronaut of color on the Moon, where they will spend a week conducting
scientific research on the lunar surface.

Chandrayaan-4:

● ISRO plans to launch Chandrayaan-4, aiming to bring back samples from the
Moon within four years.
● Following the success of Chandrayaan-3 and the launch of Aditya-L1, ISRO's goal is to
retrieve lunar surface samples with Chandrayaan-4.
● Chandrayaan-4 is a lunar sample return mission designed to land and collect
samples from the lunar surface.
● The mission will feature a significantly larger rover compared to its predecessor,
Chandrayaan-3, with a 350 kg rover and an exploration area of 1 km x 1 km.
● Chandrayaan-4 aims for a precise landing on the Moon's rim and relies on
Japan’s Smart Lander for Investigating Moon (SLIM) spacecraft for success.
● SLIM is a compact lunar lander designed for precise Moon landings, focusing on
assessing downsized landing gear efficiency and exploring the Moon's origins.
● SLIM's findings will inform the trajectory and technology behind Chandrayaan-4.

NASA-ISRO Synthetic Aperture Radar (NISAR):

● NISAR is a collaborative project between NASA and ISRO, designed as a Low Earth
Orbit (LEO) observatory.
● Weighing 2,800 kilograms, NISAR is comparable in size to an SUV.
● The satellite is equipped with both L-band and S-band synthetic aperture radar
(SAR) instruments, making it a dual-frequency imaging radar satellite.
 ● NISAR will pioneer the use of two radar frequencies (L-band and S-band) to
monitor changes in Earth's surface.
● SAR technology enables data collection day and night, regardless of weather
conditions, by penetrating clouds.
● NASA contributed the L-band radar, GPS, a high-capacity solid-state recorder,
and a payload data subsystem, while ISRO provided the S-band radar, the
GSLV launch system, and spacecraft.
● Mission Objectives:
○ Measure changes in Earth's ecosystems, dynamic surfaces, and ice
masses to provide insights into biomass, natural hazards, sea level rise,
and groundwater.
○ Globally observe Earth's land and ice-covered surfaces with a
regularity of every 12 days on ascending and descending passes.

Indian Space Policy 2023

● The Indian Space Policy 2023 serves as a comprehensive framework

delineating roles and responsibilities within the Indian space sector.
● Its primary aim is to bring clarity to space reforms and stimulate greater
involvement from private industries.
Objectives:
● To bolster space capabilities and enhance commercial presence.
● To leverage space for technological advancement and global collaboration.
● To foster international relations and establish an ecosystem for effective space
application implementation.
Key Features:
● Establishment of four distinct entities:
○ Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO)
○ Indian National Space Promotion and Authorisation Centre (InSPACe)
○ New Space India Limited (NSIL)
○ Department of Space
● Empowerment of the private sector to engage in end-to-end space activities,
including satellite launching, ground infrastructure development, and service
provision.
● Encouragement for private entities to develop space situational awareness and
explore commercial opportunities in asteroid mining.
● Private participation restricted to domestic companies, with unresolved issues
surrounding foreign direct investment.
● InSPACe designated as the central authority for authorizing space activities
and setting industry standards.
 ● ISRO is directed to focus on research, innovation, and technology development.
● NSIL tasked with commercializing space technologies and providing services.
● Department of Space entrusted with policy implementation, dispute resolution,
and international coordination.
● Enables open satellite data access:
○ Access to satellite data granted for ground sample distance (GSD) greater than
five meters, with tighter restrictions for GSD less than 30 cm due to security
considerations.

● Second Space Age:

○ The Second Space Age signifies a shift from government-dominated space
exploration to greater involvement by private companies, with SpaceX
playing a prominent role.
○ India embraced the second space age with the establishment of the Indian
National Space Promotion and Authorization Centre (IN-SPACe) in 2020,
streamlining approvals for private sector activities in space.

Shukrayaan 1:

● Shukrayaan 1, ISRO's inaugural mission to Venus, aims to explore the planet's surface
and atmosphere using a spacecraft weighing 2500 kg equipped with advanced
scientific payloads.
● The Shukrayaan Mission will be carried out by a GSLV Mk II rocket, with the scientific
payloads of a high-resolution synthetic aperture radar and a ground-penetrating radar.
Objectives:
● Probe Venus's surface and atmosphere to reveal geological secrets and analyze its
composition.
● Investigate the interaction between solar radiation and surface particles for insights into
planetary evolution.
Significance:
● Offers insights into Earth's past and potential microbial life on Venus.
● Raises global scientific interest and curiosity.
Noteworthy missions to Venus include:
● Venera Series (1961-1984): Spearheaded by the Soviet Union, the Venera series
marked the pioneering exploration of Venus.
● Pioneer Venus (1978): The United States' inaugural mission to Venus provided
crucial insights into various aspects of the planet's atmosphere and surface features.
 ● Magellan (1989): Launched by NASA, Magellan utilized radar imaging to
meticulously map Venus's surface over a span of four years, contributing to our
understanding of its geology.
● Akatsuki (2010): Japan's orbiter mission aimed to study Venus's atmospheric
dynamics using infrared cameras.
Future missions to Venus include:
● VERITAS: NASA's forthcoming mission slated for 2026, focusing on radar
imaging to map Venus's surface and study its geology.
● DAVINCI: A NASA mission anticipated by 2026, aiming to explore Venus's
atmosphere using a descent sphere.
● EnVision: Europe's ESA plans to launch EnVision in the 2030s, utilizing radar
imaging to generate high-resolution maps of Venus's surface features, providing
deeper insights into its geology.

Aditya-L1 Mission:

Overview:
● The Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) recently launched the Aditya-
L1 mission, marking India's first space-based mission to study the Sun and the
solar corona.
● Named after the Sanskrit word for "Sun God,"
● Aditya-L1 is also ISRO’s second astronomy observatory-class mission after
AstroSat (2015).
Mission Objectives:
● Study solar upper atmospheric dynamics, including the chromosphere and
corona.
● Investigate chromospheric and coronal heating, partially ionized plasma
physics, coronal mass ejections (CMEs), and flare origins.
● Gain deeper insights into the Sun’s behavior, including radiation, heat, particle flow,
and magnetic fields.
Mission Details:
Spacecraft: Aditya-L1 will be placed in a halo orbit around Lagrangian point 1 (L1) of
the Sun-Earth system, approximately 1.5 million km from Earth.
Payloads:
● Visible Emission Line Coronagraph (VELC)
● Solar Ultraviolet Imaging Telescope (SUIT)
● Solar Low Energy X-ray Spectrometer (SoLEXS)
● High Energy L1 Orbiting X-ray Spectrometer (HEL1OS)
● Aditya Solar Wind Particle Experiment (ASPEX)
● Plasma Analyser Package for Aditya (PAPA)
● Advanced Tri-axial High-Resolution Digital Magnetometers
Associated Concepts:
● Sun’s Corona: The outermost layer of the Sun, characterized by high temperature
and fast-moving particles.
● Chromosphere: The layer of gas above a star’s photosphere, with temperatures
ranging from 6,000 to 20,000 degrees Celsius.
● CME (Coronal Mass Ejections): Large eruptions of magnetized plasma from the
Sun's corona.
● Solar Flares: Intense bursts of radiation associated with sunspots, visible as bright
areas on the Sun's surface.
● Plasma: A gas consisting of electrons and ions, moving independently due to high
temperature.
About Lagrange Points:
● Named after Italian-French mathematician Joseph-Louis Lagrange.
● Five Lagrange points (L1 to L5) exist between any two celestial bodies, where
gravitational forces balance.
● L1 point provides an uninterrupted view of the Sun and is home to the Solar
and Heliospheric Observatory Satellite SOHO.

Solar Missions by Different Countries:

● United States:
○ Parker Solar Probe (August 2018): Touched the Sun’s upper atmosphere,
sampled particles and magnetic fields in December 2021.
○ Solar Orbiter (February 2020): Explores the Sun’s changing space
environment.
● Japan:
○ Hinotori (ASTRO-A, 1981): Studied solar flares using hard X-rays.
○ Yohkoh (SOLAR-A, 1991): Studied solar activity.
○ Hinode (SOLAR-B, 2006): Studied the Sun’s impact on Earth.
● Europe:
○ Ulysses (October 1990): Studied space environment above and below the
Sun’s poles.
○ Proba-2 (October 2001): Part of solar exploratory missions.
 ○ Upcoming: Proba-3 (2024), Smile (2025).
● China:
○ Advanced Space-based Solar Observatory (ASO-S, October 2022):
Launched to observe the Sun.

Navigation with Indian Constellation (NavIC):

Context: ISRO launches its first second-generation satellite, NVS-01, into

Geosynchronous Transfer Orbit for the NavIC navigation constellation.
● NVS-01 is part of ISRO’s NVS series of payloads.
● NVS-01 features Rubidium atomic clock technology onboard.
● Second-generation satellites like NVS-01 have a mission life of over 12 years,
compared to the 10-year mission life of existing satellites.
About Navigation with Indian Constellation (NavIC):
● ISRO developed NavIC, a regional satellite navigation system catering to India's
positioning, navigation, and timing requirements.
● Formerly known as Indian Regional Navigation Satellite System (IRNSS).
● Consists of a constellation of 7 satellites and a network of ground stations operating
continuously.
● Three satellites are in geostationary orbit, and four are in inclined
geosynchronous orbit.
● NavIC provides precise positioning accuracy (<20 meters) and timing accuracy
(<50 nanoseconds), surpassing many global navigation satellite systems.
● Offers Standard Position Service (SPS) for civilian users and Restricted
Service (RS) for strategic and defense navigation.
● Services provided in L5 and S bands.
● Coverage extends up to 1500 km beyond the Indian boundary.
● NavIC signals are interoperable with signals from other GNSS systems.
● NavIC satellites in high geostationary orbit provide constant coverage over
the same region on Earth.
 ● Applications:
○ NavIC integration planned for Aadhaar enrolment devices.
○ Indian cell phone manufacturers are encouraged to make devices NavIC-
compatible.
○ Used by the National Disaster Management Authority

About Geosynchronous and Geosynchronous Transfer Orbit:

● Geosynchronous Orbit (GEO): Low inclination orbit with a period of 23
hours 56 minutes 4 seconds; spacecraft appears stationary above a fixed
longitude.
● Geostationary Orbit: Geosynchronous orbit restricted to the equatorial plane,
orbiting Earth's equator with a period equal to Earth's rotational
period.
● Geosynchronous Transfer Orbit (GTO): Initial orbit to attain
geosynchronous orbit; spacecraft uses onboard propulsion for orbit-raising
maneuvers.

Other Navigation Systems:

● United State (US)-Global Positioning System (GPS)
● Russia-Global Navigation Satellite System (GLONASS),
● European Union-Galileo,
● China-BeiDou,
● Japan- Quasi-Zenith Satellite System (QZSS).
 Collaboration Overview:
● The Centre for Railway Information Systems (CRIS) has partnered
with ISRO to implement live tracking systems, aiding Indian
Railways in operational efficiency.
Integration of Technologies:
● NavIC, Bhuvan, Quantum Encryption, and Artificial Intelligence (AI) are being
integrated into Indian Railways' operations.
● Bandwidth from ISRO has been allocated to Indian Railways, enabling the
integration of their systems with NavIC and Bhuvan.
Live Tracking Implementation:
● Each locomotive is equipped with a device and a SIM card, facilitating real-time
communication of the train's precise location to satellites.
● Real-time tracking assists in accident prevention, flood and landslide
management, enhancing safety measures.
Potential Applications:
● Terrestrial, aerial, and marine navigation.
● Disaster management initiatives.
● Vehicle tracking and fleet management.
● Integration with mobile devices for user accessibility.
● Precise timing synchronization.
● Mapping and geodetic data acquisition.

Laser Interferometer Gravitational - Wave Observatory (LIGO):

● The Indian government has approved the establishment of India’s Laser

Interferometer Gravitational-Wave Observatory (LIGO).
● LIGO is part of an international network of laboratories dedicated to detecting
spacetime ripples caused by celestial objects such as stars and planets.
● LIGO-India will be the third observatory of its kind globally, following those in
Louisiana and Washington in the United States.
● The project is being undertaken collaboratively by the Department of Atomic Energy,
the Department of Science and Technology, and various other institutions under a
memorandum of understanding with the National Science Foundation.
● The observatory will be located in the Hingoli district of Maharashtra, with scientific
operations slated to commence in 2030.
● Working of LIGO:
○ LIGO measures the minute effects of gravitational waves on the
fabric of space-time.
○ It consists of two vacuum chambers, each 4 kilometers long and
arranged perpendicular to each other, housing reflective mirrors at
their ends.
○ Laser beams traverse these chambers, bouncing off the mirrors
before being recaptured.
○ Under normal circumstances, light returns from both chambers
simultaneously.
○ However, the presence of a gravitational wave causes one chamber
to stretch while the other compresses slightly.
○ This results in a time delay between the return of light beams,
indicating a phase difference and thereby confirming the detection of a
gravitational wave.
 Gravitational waves:
● Gravitational waves are distortions or 'ripples' in the fabric of space-time
caused by violent and energetic events in the Universe.
● According to Albert Einstein's General Theory of Relativity (1916),
moving objects generate gravitational waves, which briefly distort space-
time as they propagate.
● When a gravitational wave passes through Earth, it causes the planet
to compress in one direction and bulge in the perpendicular
direction. However, the effect is minimal due to gravity being the weakest of all
natural forces.
● Gravitational waves travel at the speed of light and carry information
about their origins, providing insights into the nature of gravity and the
events that produce them.

AstroSat:

Context: ISRO made an announcement of opportunity (AO) to allow scientists and

researchers to analyze data from AstroSat.
● AstroSat is India’s premier multi-wavelength space observatory, dedicated to
studying celestial sources across X-ray, optical, and UV spectral bands
simultaneously.
● Launched on September 28, 2015, via the Indian PSLV rocket from Satish
Dhawan Space Centre, Sriharikota, it has a lift-off mass of 1515 kg and orbits at an
altitude of 650 km with an inclination of 6 degrees to the equator.
● Mission control operations are conducted from the Mission Operations Complex
(MOX) of ISRO Telemetry, Tracking and Command Network (ISTRAC) in
Bengaluru.
● The minimum expected operational life of AstroSat is around 5 years.
● Scientific objectives include understanding high-energy processes in binary star
systems with neutron stars and black holes, estimating magnetic fields of
neutron stars, studying star birth regions, and analyzing high-energy phenomena
in star systems beyond our galaxy.
● Additionally, it aims to detect new, briefly bright X-ray sources in the sky and
conduct a limited deep-field survey of the Universe in the Ultraviolet region.

Electromagnetic Ion Cyclotron (EMIC) waves:

Context: Indian scientists recently discovered and analyzed Electromagnetic Ion

Cyclotron (EMIC) waves at the Indian Antarctic station, Maitri.
● EMIC waves are a type of plasma waves observed within Earth's
magnetosphere.
 ● Plasma, considered the fourth state of matter, is a highly energized
gas where electrons are stripped away from atoms, resulting in ionization.
● The magnetosphere, encircling Earth, is primarily governed by
Earth's magnetic field, shielding the atmosphere from diverse solar
radiations.

● Generated in the equatorial magnetospheric region, they propagate towards the

mid-latitude ionosphere along geomagnetic field lines.
● These waves play a crucial role in the precipitation of "killer electrons," highly
energetic particles hazardous to space-borne technology and instruments.
● Killer electrons are trapped in Earth's outer radiation belt, located between
12,000 km and 64,000 km above the planet's surface.

Moon Dust Coolers:

● Researchers propose launching billions of tonnes of moon dust into space,

where Earth's and the Sun's gravitational fields cancel out.
● The dust would be positioned to cast a shadow on Earth, dimming sunlight to offset
carbon emissions.
● Solar Radiation Management (SRM) aims to reduce global warming by
reflecting UV rays from the sun.
● Concern: Stopping aerosol spraying may lead to a rebound effect, causing a
temperature rise.
● Methods for SRM:
○ Space Sunshades: Mirrors placed in space or vast satellites at Lagrange
Point.
○ Stratospheric Aerosol Injection: Involves injecting sulfate aerosols into
the stratosphere.
○ Marine Cloud Brightening: Spraying fine seawater into the air or
seeding high cirrus clouds with ice nuclei.
○ Surface-Based Options: Such as whitening roofs and cultivating more
reflective crops.

ISRO's Launch of 36 OneWeb Satellites:

ISRO launched 36 OneWeb satellites aboard the LVM3 rocket from the Satish Dhawan
Space Centre, Sriharikota.
About Launch Vehicle Mark 3 (LMV3):
● Capable of launching 4,000-kilogram class satellites into GTO and 8,000
kilograms into LEO.
● Consists of three stages: two solid propellants and a core stage with L110
liquid stage and C25 cryogenic stage.
● This launch marks the sixth flight of LVM3, with five consecutive successful
missions including Chandrayaan-2.

ISRO's Controlled Re-Entry Experiment for Megha-Tropiques-1 (MT-1) Satellite:

● ISRO recently conducted a successful controlled re-entry experiment for the

decommissioned Megha-Tropiques-1 (MT-1) Satellite.
● The targeted re-entry zone for MT-1 was identified as an uninhabited area in the
Pacific Ocean between 5°S to 14°S latitude and 119°W to 100°W longitude.
● Controlled Re-entry Process:
○ Involves de-orbiting large satellites or rocket bodies to very low
altitudes to ensure impact occurs within a designated safe zone.
○ Aimed at limiting the risk of ground casualties by directing the satellite's
re-entry trajectory.
● Aero-Thermal Fragmentation:
○ During controlled re-entry, satellites undergo aero-thermal
fragmentation due to extreme heat and pressure experienced while
traveling through Earth's atmosphere at high speed.
○ Satellites are specifically designed to withstand aero-thermal
fragmentation during end-of-life re-entry.
● Key Points of MT-1 Satellite:
○ Indo-French Earth Observation Satellite launched in October 2011 for
tropical weather and climate studies.
○ Main objective is to understand the life cycle of convective systems
influencing tropical weather and climate, and their role in the associated
energy and moisture budget of the atmosphere.
○ Features a circular orbit inclined 20° to the equator, making it a unique
satellite for climate research and aiding scientists in refining prediction
models.

Reusable Launch Vehicle Technology Demonstration (RLV TD):

● ISRO successfully conducted the landing experiment of the Reusable Launch

 Vehicle Technology Demonstration (RLV TD) program.
● A reusable launch system designed to recycle its components, aiming for low-
cost access to space.
● The RLV-TD configuration resembles that of an aircraft and is planned to be
expanded into India's two-stage reusable orbital launch vehicle.

ISRO’s SSLV-D2 Launch:

● ISRO's Small Satellite Launch Vehicle (SSLV-D2) is scheduled to place the

EOS-07 earth observation satellite, Janus-1, and AzaadiSat2 into orbit
around the Earth.
● These satellites serve various objectives and are part of different initiatives.
○ EOS-07:
■ Purpose: Developing payload instruments compatible with
microsatellite buses and essential technologies for future
operational satellites.
○ Janus-1:
■ Janus-1, a technology demonstrator satellite, is a collaborative
effort between the US-based Antaris software platform and
Indian partners.
○ AzaadiSAT-2:
■ AzaadiSAT-2 is a collaborative project involving approximately 750
female students from across India, under the guidance of
Space Kidz India.
○ About Small Satellite Launch Vehicle (SSLV-D2):
■ SSLV-D2 is a cost-effective launcher designed for rapid
turnaround time and flexibility in accommodating multiple
satellites.
■ It can deploy satellites weighing up to 500 kg into Low Earth
Orbits, offering a "launch-on-demand" service.

PSLV-C55/TeLEOS-2 Mission:

● ISRO launched the PSLV-C55/TeLEOS-2 mission from the Satish Dhawan

Space Centre (SDSC) in Sriharikota, Andhra Pradesh.
● Undertaken as a dedicated commercial mission through ISRO's commercial arm,
NewSpace India Limited (NSIL).
● Carried two Singapore satellites, TeLEOS-2 and Lumelite-4, into space.
● PSLV-C55 features a four-stage rocket, with the first three stages falling back into
 the ocean post-launch, while the final stage (PS4) becomes space debris.
PSLV Orbital Experimental Module (POEM):
● Platform launched alongside the PSLV-C55 mission to conduct in-orbit
experiments using the spent PS4 stage of the rocket.
● Utilizes solar panels mounted around the PS4 tank and a Li-Ion battery for
power.
TeLEOS-2:
● Earth Observation Satellite aimed at providing high-resolution imagery of the
Earth's surface.
Kessler Syndrome:
● Phenomenon where orbital debris accumulates to a critical mass, leading to a
cascade of collisions that generate additional debris.
● Poses significant risks to satellites, astronauts, and space missions due to the
proliferation of debris in Earth's orbit.

Celestial Bodies in News:

● Red Supergiant Star Betelgeuse:
○ Entering its late carbon-burning stage, Betelgeuse is a massive star in
the Orion constellation.
○ Stars like Betelgeuse burn hydrogen, then helium, carbon, and
other elements, eventually leading to a supernova explosion.
Star's Evolution:
● Helium Production: Stars convert hydrogen into helium, generating
energy that counteracts gravitational collapse.
● Hydrogen Fuel Depletion: Massive stars like Betelgeuse exhaust
hydrogen fuel within a few crore years, transitioning to helium
fusion.
● Consumption of Helium and Elements:
○ Stars burn helium quickly, then progress to carbon, silicon, and
other elements.
○ This fusion process continues until the core accumulates iron, leading to
unstable conditions.
● Late-Carbon Stage:
○ Terminal phase where carbon burns rapidly over a few
hundred years.
○ Iron-rich core experiences decreased temperature and pressure,
collapsing into a neutron star or black hole.
○ The collapse generates shock waves, ejecting surrounding layers into
interstellar space.

● Green Comet C/2022 E3 (ZTF):

○ Closest approach to Earth on February 2, 2023, after nearly 50,000 years.
○ Discovered in 2022, it emits a green glow due to diatomic carbon reacting
to UV rays.
○ Visible in Ladakh and Eastern India.
● Comet Nishimura:
○ Discovered in mid-August by amateur astronomer Hideo Nishimura.
○ Brightness and Visibility:
■ Comet, officially named C/2023 P1 Nishimura, has brightened since its
discovery.
■ Due to its proximity to the Sun, visibility is limited to early mornings or
late evenings.
○ Location and Path:
■ Currently positioned in the constellation Leo.
■ Traverses the inner solar system on its orbit around the Sun.
● Diyodar Meteorite:
○ Identified as an aubrite meteorite, possibly from asteroid 3103 Eger or
Mercury.
○ Primarily consists of enstatite and holds significance for studying early solar
system history.
● Super Blue Moon:
 ○ Rare occurrences involving a full Moon, Supermoon, and blue Moon.
○ Blue moon refers to the second full moon in a month, while a Supermoon
is when the moon is closest to Earth.
○ The Super Blue Moon appears larger and brighter than usual.
● Asteroid Bennu:
○ Samples collected by NASA’s Osiris-Rex indicate high carbon content
and water-bearing clay minerals.
○ Bennu is a near-Earth asteroid that passes close to Earth every six years,
acting as a time capsule for understanding the early solar system.

First Earth-sized Exoplanet:

The James Webb Space Telescope recently identified its inaugural new exoplanet, LHS
475 b.
● About LHS 475 b:
○ Positioned 41 light-years away, it revolves around a nearby red dwarf star
in the Octans constellation.
○ The exoplanet boasts a size comparable to Earth.
● Exoplanets:
○ These celestial bodies exist beyond our solar system and exhibit diverse
characteristics such as size, composition, and extreme temperature
ranges.
○ They range from gas giants to rocky planets akin to Earth.
○ The first exoplanet discovered was 51 Pegasi b, yet their detection remains
challenging due to their diminutive size and difficulty discerning them amidst
their luminous host stars.
● Hycean Planets:
○ Hycean planets represent a category of exoplanets deemed potentially
habitable in the quest for extraterrestrial life.
○ The term "Hycean" derives from the combination of hydrogen and ocean,
signifying the presence of liquid water and a hydrogen-rich atmosphere
conducive to sustaining life.
○ Such environments support the conditions necessary for biochemical
activities, with water acting as a vital solvent and hydrogen playing a
crucial role in life processes.
 James Webb Space Telescope (JWST):
● Result of collaboration between NASA, ESA, and the Canadian Space
Agency, launched in December 2021.
● Positioned at Sun-Earth L2 Lagrange point, approximately 1.5 million km
from Earth.
● Largest and most powerful infrared space telescope, successor to
Hubble Telescope.
● Capable of observing distant galaxies, stars, planets, and the evolution of the
universe since the Big Bang.
Objectives of JWST:
● Examine cosmic history from the Big Bang to the formation of galaxies,
stars, planets, and our Solar System.
● Goals include observing the first stars and galaxies, understanding
galaxy assembly, studying star and planetary system formation, and
exploring extrasolar planet atmospheres.
Differences from Hubble Telescope:
● Observes primarily in the infrared spectrum (0.6 to 28 microns),
while Hubble observes ultraviolet and visible light (0.8 to 2.5
microns).
● Orbits the Sun at 1.5 million km from Earth, unlike Hubble which
orbits Earth at 575 km altitude.

Molecular Clouds:
● The James Webb Space Telescope discovered various ices in the
darkest and coldest regions of molecular clouds.
● Molecular clouds are accumulations of interstellar gas and dust, also
known as dark nebulae, where new stars are formed.
● These regions have low temperatures and are dark due to dense
opaque gas and dust blocking light from stars behind them.

Light Pollution

Context: Six hamlets within the Changthang Wildlife Sanctuary in Ladakh were designated as
“dark sky reserves”.
Dark Sky Reserves:
● Designated areas with unpolluted night skies.
 ● Obligates the reserve to maintain light pollution-free skies, especially for
astronomical observatories.
Night Sky and Skyglow:
● Skyglow refers to the brightening of the night sky due to artificial light sources
like streetlights and floodlights.
Consequences of Skyglow:
● Deters sea turtles from nesting on lit beaches.
● Affects the ability of trees to sense seasonal variations.
● Impedes young burrow-nesting seabirds from taking flight in well-lit areas.
● Prevents clownfish eggs from hatching when exposed to artificial light at night.
● Disrupts insect life cycles and extends hunting time for insect predators.
● Alters circadian rhythms, impacting sleep, mood, and cognitive functions, and
increases the risk of breast cancer among night shift workers.

Geomagnetic Storm

Context: Recently, a geomagnetic storm that hit the earth was given a severity grade of G4
(second highest grade) by the US National Ocean and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA)
Geomagnetic Storm Overview:
● Occurs due to disturbances in Earth's magnetic field from solar emissions like
Coronal Mass Ejections (CMEs) or fast solar streams.
● CMEs hitting Earth's magnetosphere allow solar wind particles to penetrate the
atmosphere, particularly at the poles.
● Intensifies auroras, making them visible in areas where they're not typically
seen.
Effects of Geomagnetic Storm:
● Enhanced Aurora Visibility: Auroras become visible at lower latitudes than usual.
● Satellite Damage: Geomagnetic storms can damage satellites in orbit.
● Communication Disruptions: High-frequency radio signals may experience
interference.
● Navigation System Errors: Geomagnetic storms can cause errors in navigation
systems.
● Power Grid Failures: Voltage fluctuations can lead to power grid failures.
● Pipeline Corrosion: Long pipelines may experience corrosion during geomagnetic
storms.
● Hazardous for Astronauts: Astronauts in space are at risk, and spacecraft
operations can be disrupted.

Acoustic Shocks in the Solar Chromosphere

Context: A recent study reveals that bright grains in the Sun’s chromosphere are caused by
rising shocks in solar plasma.
Chromosphere Overview:
● The chromosphere is a dynamic layer in the solar atmosphere responsible for
transferring energy, particularly non-thermal energy, to heat the corona and propel
the solar wind.
● It plays a vital role in the solar system's energy dynamics, converting most of the
energy into heat and radiation, which contributes to the corona and solar wind.
Acoustic Shock Waves:
● Acoustic shock waves are sudden heating events occurring in the chromosphere,
resulting in transient brightenings known as grains.
● These shock waves are essential in solar and plasma astrophysics, as they carry
energy and influence the heating mechanisms of the chromosphere.

Jupiter Icy Moons Explorer Mission

Context: European Space Agency (ESA) is all set to launch the ‘Juice mission’ from its
spaceport in French Guiana on an Ariane 5 launcher.
Mission Overview:
● The JUICE (Jupiter Icy Moons Explorer Mission) is slated to reach Jupiter by
2031.
● Its primary objective is to conduct comprehensive studies on Jupiter's
formation, history, and evolution, along with exploring its icy moons.
Detection Capabilities:
● While JUICE is not equipped to detect life directly, it possesses the capability to
identify potential habitable zones around Jupiter where conditions conducive to life
may exist.

Previous Jupiter Missions:

● Galileo Probe: Orbited Jupiter from 1995 to 2003, providing valuable
data and images of the planet and its moons.
● Juno: Currently in orbit around Jupiter since 2016, conducting detailed
studies of its atmosphere, magnetic field, and composition.
Upcoming Jupiter Missions:
● NASA’s Europa Clipper: Expected to arrive at Jupiter by 2030, this mission
will focus on studying Jupiter's moon Europa, particularly its potential
habitability.

Space Science and Technology Awareness Training (START)

 ● ISRO introduces Space Science and Technology Awareness Training (START), an
online training program aimed at fostering Indian students into space science
professionals.
● START offers a comprehensive overview of various aspects, research, and career
opportunities in the field.
● Eligible candidates, including postgraduate and final year undergraduate
students in sciences, can apply for the program through the Jigyasa portal.
● The Jigyasa portal is a student-scientist connection initiative managed by the
Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR) in partnership with Kendriya
Vidyalaya Sangathan (KVS).

Other News related to Space Technology:

Atacama Large Millimetre/submillimetre Array (ALMA) Telescope:

● Cutting-edge radio telescope situated in Chile's Atacama Desert, scheduled for

software and hardware upgrades.
● Enables the study of celestial objects, even when obscured by dust, facilitating a
deeper understanding of distant galaxies and stars.
● Located in the Atacama Desert to minimize water vapor interference, providing
optimal conditions for millimeter and submillimeter wave astronomical observations.

Tropospheric Emissions Monitoring of Pollution (TEMPO):

● Instrument launched by NASA to monitor key air pollutants including ozone,
nitrogen oxide, sulfur dioxide, and formaldehyde levels across North America.
● Aids in studying rush hour pollution, the impact of lightning on the ozone layer,
and the dispersion of pollution from forest fires and volcanic eruptions.

Euclid Mission:
 ● European Space Agency (ESA) mission set for launch on July 1, aimed at
exploring the dark Universe's composition and evolution.
● Supported by NASA's Roman Space Telescope, providing hardware and data
processing assistance.
● Focuses on unraveling the mysteries of dark matter and dark energy from the
Sun-Earth Lagrange point L2.

Dark Matter and Dark Energy:

● The visible universe, comprising Earth, sun, stars, and galaxies,
accounts for less than 5% of the universe's mass.
● Dark matter, making up about 25% of the universe, consists of particles
that do not interact through electromagnetic interactions.
● Dark energy, constituting around 70% of the universe, produces a
negative and repulsive force, accelerating the universe's expansion
rate over time.

NASA’s Dragonfly Mission:

● Part of NASA’s New Frontiers Program, set for launch in 2026 and landing in 2034,
aimed at sending a drone to Titan, Saturn's largest moon.
● Aims to explore Titan's landscapes, study pre-life chemistry, and investigate
atmospheric and subsurface features to understand its past habitability.

New Frontiers Program:

Initiative dedicated to solar system exploration, featuring missions aimed at studying
various celestial bodies and phenomena.
Comprises the following missions:
● New Horizons: Mission focused on obtaining a close look at Pluto and
its moons, as well as conducting flybys of Kuiper Belt Objects.
● Juno: Mission aimed at understanding the origin and evolution of
Jupiter, exploring its atmosphere and magnetosphere.
● OSIRIS-REx (Origins, Spectral Interpretation, Resource
Identification, and Security–Regolith Explorer): Mission tasked with
collecting samples from the asteroid Bennu, known for its carbon-rich
composition.
● Dragonfly: Mission aimed at probing Saturn’s largest moon, Titan, to
study its landscapes, chemistry, and potential habitability.
MAIA (Multi-Angle Imager for Aerosols missions):
● Collaborative effort between NASA and the Italian Space Agency ASI to
investigate the health impacts of air pollution in densely populated cities.
● Scheduled to launch before the end of 2024.
● Utilizes the PLATiNO-2 satellite from ASI and NASA-built science
instruments to collect and analyze data from the observatory, ground sensors,
and atmospheric models.
● Targets major urban centers worldwide such as Los Angeles, New Delhi, and
Tel Aviv.

Extravehicular Mobility Unit (EMU) - NASA Spacesuit:

● Essential garment worn by astronauts during spacewalks or extravehicular
activities (EVAs) in space.
● Protects astronauts from extreme temperatures, provides constant air supply, and
maintains optimal pressure.
● Shields against harmful radiation, micrometeorites, and high-speed space
particles.

Low-cost Star Sensor:

● Developed by researchers at the Indian Institute of Astrophysics (IIA) for
astronomy and small CubeSat class satellite missions.
● Acts as a celestial compass, aiding satellites in determining their orientation
in space.
● Utilizes the fixed positions of stars in the sky as a stable reference frame for
accurate orientation calculations.

Pellet-Beam Propulsion:
● NASA-funded experimental space technology aimed at enabling rapid
transits to other celestial bodies.
● Proposed propulsion system capable of potentially propelling a heavy
spacecraft out of the Solar System in less than 5 years, inspired by the
Breakthrough Starshot project.
● Operates with a dual-spacecraft setup, utilizing lasers to beam microscopic
particles at an interstellar vessel for propulsion, reaching speeds of up to 120 km/
second through laser ablation.

Voyager Mission:
● NASA's space exploration program launched Voyager 1 and Voyager 2
spacecraft in 1977.
● Objective: To study the outer planets of the solar system, including Jupiter,
 Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune.
● Recent event: NASA detected a signal from Voyager 2 spacecraft after losing
communication for over a week.

NASA’s INFUSE Mission:

● NASA launched the Integral Field Ultraviolet Spectroscopy Experiment
(INFUSE) to study a stellar event in the Cygnus Loop.
● Cygnus Loop: Remnant of a supernova explosion from a star about 20 times
larger than the Sun, located approximately 2,600 light years away from Earth.
● Sounding Rockets: Carries scientific instruments into space along a
parabolic trajectory at lower vehicle speeds for scientific experiments.

Copernicus Programme:
● Earth observation component of the European Union’s Space programme,
providing precise, timely, and accessible information for environmental
management and climate change mitigation.
● Recent update: March 2023 experienced several meteorological changes, as
reported by the Copernicus Climate Change Service (C3S).

Quasars:
● A recent study reveals that galaxy mergers spark the ignition of quasars,
recognized as the brightest and most potent objects in the universe.
● Quasars, short for "quasi-stellar radio sources," are brilliant and energetic
entities situated in distant galaxies.
● These entities are essentially active supermassive black holes residing at the
cores of galaxies, dwarfing the mass of our sun.
● Quasars exert a powerful gravitational pull, attracting matter and emitting
intense radiation across the entire electromagnetic spectrum, ranging from radio
waves to gamma rays.
● Unlike regular black holes, matter swirling into a quasar generates intense
energy, forming a luminous disc around it.
● The extraordinary brightness of quasars enables scientists to probe the early
stages of the universe, as they are observable from considerable distances.
About Black Holes:
● Black holes represent regions in space with gravitational forces so immense
that not even light can escape, rendering them invisible.
● Gravity becomes exceedingly strong when matter is compressed into a
minuscule space, typically occurring as a star approaches the end of its life cycle.
 ● Black holes are born through the collapse of a massive star's core, which
triggers a cataclysmic supernova explosion.
● Supernovae are colossal bursts of energy marking the final phase of a
star's life cycle.

MIsc News:

Local Bubble:
● Researchers have created a 3D magnetic map of the Local Bubble, a giant
cosmic cavity within the Milky Way galaxy.
● The Local Bubble is approximately 1,000 light-years wide and is where the
Sun and many nearby stars reside.
● It triggers the formation of new stars, planets, and galaxies.

Planet Parade:
● NASA shared an image capturing a rare phenomenon called a planet
parade, where all the planets of our solar system are visible simultaneously
from Earth.
● This astronomical event allows the naked-eye observation of several
planets, including Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn.

Gamma-Ray Eclipses:
● Scientists analyzed data from NASA's Fermi Gamma-Ray Space Telescope
to detect gamma-ray eclipses from a binary star system known as the Spider
system.
● Gamma-ray eclipses occur when gamma rays emitted from a celestial
object are blocked or absorbed by another object, providing insights into
object properties and composition.
● They are caused by the low-mass companion star of the superdense pulsar
briefly blocking high-energy photons emitted by the pulsar.

Zero Shadow Day:

● Bengaluru recently observed a 'Zero Shadow Day' where vertical objects
cast no shadow due to the sun being at zenith.
● Locations between the Tropics of Cancer and Capricorn experience two
Zero Shadow Days annually.
 ● One occurs during Uttarayan (when the Sun moves from south to north), and the other
during Dakshinayan when the Sun moves southwards.
● Places with a latitude matching the Sun's equatorial angle will experience Zero
Shadow Day, with shadows directly underneath at noon.

Fast Radio Bursts (FRBs)

● Researchers discovered that when two neutron stars collide and are about to merge,
they release Fast Radio Bursts (FRBs) along with gravitational waves.
● FRBs are brief, intense bursts of radio waves from space that last only
milliseconds.
● These bursts create a range of radio frequencies as they move through space, a
property known as dispersion.
● Due to dispersion, higher-frequency bursts reach telescopes before lower-
frequency ones.

Gravitational Lensing:
● Gravitational lensing is a phenomenon described by Einstein's General Theory
of Relativity, wherein the gravitational field of a massive object bends and
magnifies light from objects behind it.
● Astronomers utilize gravitational lensing to observe distant stars and galaxies that
might otherwise be too faint or obscured.
● This phenomenon also aids in mapping the presence of dark matter and studying the
universe's expansion.
● Einstein Cross and Rings:
○ The Einstein cross refers to a unique case of gravitational lensing where
the curvature of space-time around a foreground object splits light behind it into
four, resembling the points of a cross.
○ Einstein rings occur when two galaxies align nearly perfectly, with one
positioned behind the other, creating a ring-like structure due to gravitational
lensing.
Deep Space Optical Communications (DSOC):
● DSOC is a cutting-edge laser communication technology developed by
NASA.
● It encodes data in photons using near-infrared wavelengths to facilitate
communication between deep space probes and Earth.
● The Psyche spacecraft, part of NASA's Psyche mission, is the first to carry a
DSOC transceiver, aiming to test high-bandwidth optical communications.
● NASA's Psyche Mission focuses on studying the metal-rich asteroid of the
same name located in the asteroid belt between Mars and Jupiter.

Auroras:
● Researchers have conducted the first analysis of "carbon dioxide auroras" data.
● Auroras, also known as Polar Lights, are natural phenomena displaying
colored lights such as green, red, yellow, or white in the sky.
● They occur when electrically-charged particles from the sun collide with
gases like oxygen and nitrogen in the Earth’s atmosphere.
● Auroras are predominantly visible in polar regions (Arctic and Antarctic)
around 70-degree latitudes in the auroral zone.
● They can manifest in various forms including streamers, patches, arcs, scattered
light, and diffused light.
● In the Northern hemisphere, they are called Aurora Borealis, while in the
Southern hemisphere, they are known as Aurora Australis.