SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION SYSTEMS
1. The energy potencial of the sun
The sun is a sphere of ionized gas (72% H, 26% He, 2% C,N,O,Ne…). Has three main parts: core , radiative zona and
convective zone. T – 15.7 million K . Energy is produced by nuclear fusion, converting hydrogen into helium.
2. The laws of radiation
Thermal radiation is electromagnetic radiation generated by the thermal motion of the charged particles in
matter. All matter with the T > 0 absolute emits thermal radiation.
Absorptivity: the ratio of the energy absorbed by the wall to the energy incident on the wall for a particular
wavelength
Emissivity: the ratio of energy radiated by particular material to energy radiated by a black body at the same T.
Black body e=1, any relal object e<1.
3. Classification and division of secs
Direct radiation: component of solar radiation propagating along the line joining the
receiving surface and the sun on a horizontal surface
Diffuse radiation: solar radiation scattered by particulates
( any definite direction)
Reflected radiation: radiations reflected from the ground and other objects near surface of collector.
4. Solar energy collector
Liquid collectors: flat-plate, vacuum tube, storage , flexibe, concentrating.
Air- ducting collectors: flat absorber, with extended area, with porous , overpressure.
5. Construction materials for solar collectors
Cover: one or more sheets of radiation-transmitting material
Absorber: plate that converts solar radiation into heat
Seal and insert spacer
Heat removal fluid passageway: tubes, fins, ducts
Headers or manifolds: pipes and ducts to admit and discharge the heat transfer fluid
Insulation: to minimize the heat loss from the back and sides of the collector
Container/ housing: convers the housing elements and protects them from dust and weather conditions.
6. Thermal analysis of solar collectors
Solar irradiance at the collector plane
Air speed above the collector
Ambient air temperature
Fluid temperature at the collector inlet
Fluid flow rate
7. Concentrating collector
Photo-optics of concentrating collectors:
Collector aperture: projection of the concentrator surface into a
plane perpendicular its axis.
Absorber: absorbent surface
Concentration ratio: the ratio of the aperture area to the absorber
area
Receiver: the part of the collector in which concentrated radiation
is absorbed and transformed into another form of energy
Concentrator: an optical system that directs radiation towards the
receiver (reflector/refractor
8. Thermal efficiency, heat capacity of a collector
9. Theory of the photoelectric effect
Photovoltaic modules are solid-state devices that convert
sunlight directly into electricity without an intervening
heat engine or rotating equipment.
[Link] cell characteristics
Advantages:
Noiselessly operating , no exhaust pollutants , no moving parts, independence
of the electric transmission lines presence.
[Link]-thermal energy conversion system
Cost reduction:
• Higher-reflectivity mirrors;
• More sophisticated sun-tracking systems;
Better receiver selective coatings, with higher absorptance and lower emittance;
• Better mirror-cleaning techniques;
• Better heat transfer techniques by adopting direct steam generation;
• Optimized hybrid integrated solar combined-cycle system designs to allow maximum solar input;
• Development of trough system designs that provide the best combination of low initial cost and low
maintenance,
• Development of thermal storage options that allow nighttime dispatch of solar-only trough plants.
Heat transfer fluid:
• water-steam;
liquid sodium;
molten nitrate salt;
• molten sodium nitrate - potassium nitrate.
Thermal storage medium:
• oil mixed with crushed rock;
molten nitrate salt;
• liquid sodium.
[Link]-T heat applications
Solar water heating:
•direct or open loop systems (water is heated directly in the collector);
• indirect or closed loop systems (water is heated indirectly by a heat transfer fluid that is heated in the collector
and passes through a heat exchanger to transfer its heat to the water).
Natural convection systems:
• thermosiphon;
• integrated collector storage;
Forced circulation systems:
• direct heating;
• indirect heating;
• air systems
• heat pump systems
Over-T protection in storage system:
Stopping circulation in the collection loop
Discharge overheated water from the system and replacing it with cold one
Using a heat exchanger coil for rejecting heat to the ambient air.
Solar installations
Passive: freely flow through the different parts of the system caused by a difference in T
Active: the circuit of the heat carrier in the system is enforced by a pump of a fan
Related equipment
Batteries: nominal capacity- number of ampere hours (Ah) that can be maximally extracted from the battery
under predetermined discharge conditions.
Inverter: converts the direct current into alternating current electricity
Charge controller: regulates the power from PV modules to prevent the batteries from overcharching
Normal operating condition- where the battery voltage varies between the acceptable max and min values
Overcharge/over-discharge- which occurs when the battery voltage reaches a critical value
Peak-power tracker- optimizes the operating voltage of a PV system to maximize the current