By Abdi A. (Asst. Prof.
Jan. 2024
2.1. Human Evolution
2.2. Neolithic Revolution
2.3. The Peopling of the Region
3.4. Religion and Religious Processes
Ethiopia and the Horn is referred to as the
cradle of humankind.
It is also a region where early civilizations
including food production, making tools and
religion took place.
These developments contributed to the social
evolutions, economic formations, and socio-
cultural and political settings.
This unit traces human evolution and Neolithic
Revolution and then describes languages and
peoples settlement along with cultural settings
of the region.
The purpose is to show that the region is home
to diverse peoples, and cultures (languages,
religion, customs…) and economic activities.
How do you think human beings came into
being?
What do you think is cultural evolution?
What do you think is the Neolithic Revolution?
What is religion?
Can you name some religious practices in
Ethiopia and the Horn?
There are two theories on human origin:
the Creationist and the Scientific Views
A) The Creationist View:
Is the belief that the universe, earth and life on it
including human beings were created by the
Supernatural forces with all complete physical
shape and structure.
The creator created all living things to be unique.
God created the world and its inhabitants as a
finished product.
What is Evolution?
Evolution is the theory in which humans
evolved, or changed over time, from lower
being through gradual and natural process of
change.
In a broad sense, the theory which postulates
that the various types of plants, animals, and
other living things on Earth have their origin in
other preexisting types and that the
distinguishable differences are due to
modifications in successive generations.
Archeological evidences suggest that East
African Rift Valley is a cradle of humanity.
Evidences related to both biological and cultural
evolution have been discovered in the Lower
Omo and the Middle Awash River valleys both
by Ethiopian and foreign scholars.
A fossil named:
Ardipithecus ramidus kadabba,
Ardipithecus ramidus ramidus,
Australopithecus afarensis,
Australopithecus anamensis,
Australopithecus garhi, and many species of
genus Homo have been discovered in Ethiopia.
i) Ardipithecus ramidus kadabba
Ardi-earth/ground in Afar language
Pithecus- “ape” in Greek;
Kadabba- “elder” or “father of a family” in Afar
language
Discovered in Middle Awash in 2001 by
Yohannis Haile-sillassie.
Lived in about 5.8-5.2 million years B.P
Was bipedal
is very similar in most features to Ardipithecus
ramidus ramidus but in certain features of its
teeth is more apelike than its younger relative.
ii) Ardipithicus ramidus ramidus
Lived at about 4. 2 million B.P.
was discovered at Aramis in Afar in 1994.
Its brain size 400 CC (cubic centimeter)
Was Bipedal
Ardi’s fossils were found alongside faunal
remains indicating she lived in a wooded
environment.
This contradicts the Open-Savanna Theory for
the origin of bipedalism, which states that
humans learned to walk upright as climates
became drier and the environments became
more open and grassy.
iii) Australopithecus afarensis , Lucy
Nick-named lucy or Dinknesh
Discovered in 1974 in Afar region, Ethiopia, at
Hadar site, middle Awash, Afar.
By Donald Johanson
One of the longest lived and best known early
human species, and, closely related to the Genus
Homo
Lived about 3.18 mya with brain size 375-500cc
with 40% complete body parts, weight 30kg, height
1.07 meters and pelvis looks like bipedal female.
iv) Australopithecus afarensis, Selam
Australopithecus afarensis, Selam, was three
years old child’s fossil (female hominin)
dated to 3.3 million years B.P
was discovered at Dikika site, Mille, Afar in 2000,
which is very older than Hadar.
Discovered in 2,000 by Dr Zeresenay Alemseged
She has often been nicknamed Lucy’s baby
although she is approximately 120,000 yrs. older
than Lucy
She was the most complete (60% of her anatomy)
v) Australopithecus anamensis
The oldest known australopithecine
discovered at Kanapoi, a site near Lake Turkana,
Kenya.
It is a 4.2-m.y.o bipedal species
has many features in common with its younger
relative, Australopithecus afarensis.
is more primitive in other characteristics, such
as its teeth and skull.
It is estimated to have been between 1.3 and
1.5 m tall and weighed between 33 and 50 kg
vi) Australopithecus garhi
Discoverd in 1996, by Tim White & Berhane Asfaw
was discovered at Bouri, Middle Awash, Afar
Garhi – in Afar language = “surprise”
Dating 2. 5 mya
Co-existed with Homo habilis
Was “tool-maker”
Question
What are the two traits that differentiate species of
Genus Homo from its predecessors?
Answer
@ larger brains
@ smaller jaws
The development of the human brain and
reduction is size of jaws are the main feature of
the next stage of human evolution, which
produced the genus Homo, believed to have
emerged 2-2.5 million years B.P.
Different evidences of the genus homo have
been recovered in different parts of Ethiopia and
the Horn.
A partial skull of a fossil termed as Homo
habilis, which is derived from Latin terms "Homo"
(human being) and "Habilis" (skillful use of
hands), dated 1.9 million years B. P. has been
found in the Lower Omo.
A fossil named Homo erectus (walking upright,
dated 1. 6 million years B. P.) was discovered at
Melka Kunture, Konso Gardula and Gadeb with
900-1100 cc brain size.
Homo erectus seems to have originated in
Africa and then spread out to the rest of the
world. (the first to move out of Africa)
Skeleton of Archaic Homo sapiens
(knowledgeable human being, dated 400, 000
years B.P.) named Bodo with brain size of 1300-
1400cc was discovered in Middle Awash.
Fossils of Homo sapiens sapiens (100, 000
years B.P.) were discovered at Porc Epic near
Dire Dawa, and Kibish around Lower Omo (in
1967).
In 2004, Kibish fossils were re-dated to 195,
000 B. P, the oldest date in the world for
modern Homo sapiens.
Homo sapiens Idaltu, found in Middle Awash in
1997, lived about 160, 000 years B.P
Cultural evolution is related to technological
changes that brought socio-economic
transformation on human life.
It can be conventionally grouped in to
1. Stone Age,
2. Bronze Age and
3. Iron Age.
Is a period of human technological
development characterized by the use of stone
as the principal raw material for tools.
It is the first of the Three-Age-System of pre-
history.
Lasted from 3.4 mill. yrs. to 6000 years ago.
Stone age artifacts include tools used by
humans and by their predecessor species in
the genus Homo, as well as the earlier partly
contemporaneous genera Australopithecus &
Paranthropus.
Division of Stone Tools:
Archaeologists have divided the Stone-Age into
different types of tools or tool-manufacturing
techniques.
The most widely used designation for the
successive stages are:
The Paleolithic (Old-Stone-Age) 3.4 million -
11,000 yrs. BP
The Mesolithic (Middle Stone Age) 11,000-
10,000 yrs. BP
The Neolithic (New Stone Age) since 10,000-
6,000 yrs. BP.
Division of Stone Tools:
By taking their features, ways and period of
production, stone tools can be grouped in to
1. Mode I (the Olduwan tools, which was named
based on the first report made at Olduvai Gorge,
Tanzania),
2. Mode II (the Acheulean tools, named after the
first report at St. Acheul, France) and
3. Mode III (the Sangoan tools) which is broadly
analogous to the Mousterian tools in Europe
Mousterian, named after the site of Le-Moustier in
France).
4. Mode IV (the Aurignacian Industry)
5. Mode V (Microlithic industries)
What do you think is the Neolithic Revolution?
The term Neolithic is from Greek term: neo-new; lithic-
stone, hence, the New Stone Age.
The Neolithic Revolution was the radical shift that
resulted in the birth of agriculture (the domestication
of plants and animals), taking Homo sapiens from
scattered groups of hunter-gatherers to farming
villages.
During the Neolithic period human beings
transformed from mobile to sedentary way of life.
It was characterized by stone tools shaped by
polishing or grinding, dependence on domesticated
plants or animals, permanent settlement in villages,
and the appearance of such crafts as pottery and
weaving.
Most archaeologists believe that the
development of farming in the Neolithic was
one of the most important and revolutionary
innovations in the history of mankind. Because
it allowed:
More permanent settlements
Much larger and denser populations
The accumulation of surplus and wealth
The development of more profound status
and rank differences with population
The rise of specialized crafts
Process of domestication
The process of domestication took place
independently in the various parts of the
world.
In Ethiopia and the Horn chiefly in the more
elevated and wetter-parts, people cultivated
plants including
Teff (Eragrotis teff),
Dagussa (Eleusine coracana),
Nug (Guzotia abyssinica),
Enset (Ensete ventricosum) etc. are known as
indigenous crops to Ethiopia
What are evidences of the Neolithic Culture in
Ethiopia?
The discovery of polished axes, ceramics, grinding
stones, beads, and animal remains in sites like Emba-
Fakeda around Adigrat in Tigray as well as Aqordat
and Barentu in Eritrea.
The discovery of agricultural stone tools in the
Gobdera rock-shelter (near Aksum) which are dated
back to at least 5000 BC and comprises axes,
grinding stones, ceramics, beads.
In the same site, Gobdera, the remains of dental
fragments of a camel dated to 2500 BC were also
discovered.
Remains of domesticated cattle, chickpeas and
vegetables have been excavated from a cave around
Lalibela .
Stone tools used for cutting grass and grass like
plants as well as rock paintings of domesticated
animals, dated back to 4000 BP, have been
discoverd at Laga Oda rock shelter near Charchar,
west Hararghe.
Evidence for domesticated cattle dated to the 2nd
millennium BC were also discovered around Lake
Basaqa near Matahara.
Playa Napata and Kado in the Sudan, Cyrenaica in
Libya and Futajalon in West Africa were among
known places of domestication of animals like
Nidamawa and Zebu (Bos indicus) cattle that in due
course expanded to Ethiopia and the Horn
There are about 90 languages with 200
dialects in Ethiopia and the Horn.
Linguists classify languages of Ethiopia and the
Horn into two major language super families.
These are Afro-Asiatic and Nilo-Saharan.
A. Afro-Asiatic Super Family is sub-divided into
Cushitic, Semitic and Omotic families:
1.1. Cushitic: linguists divided this language
family into four branches
A) Northern Cushitic: is represented by Beja,
spoken in northwestern Eritrea bordering the
Sudan
B) Central cushitic: Agaw includes Awign,
Kunfel, Qimant; Hamtanga and Bilen.
C)Eastern Cushtic: this includes diversified
linguistic groups like Afar, Ale, Arbore,
Baiso, Burji, Darashe, Dasanech, Gedeo,
Hadiya, Halaba, Kambata, Konso, Libido,
Mosiye, Oromo, Saho, Sidama, Somali,
Tambaro, Tsemai, etc.
D) Southern Cushitic: represented by Dhalo in
Kenya and Nbugua in Tanzania.
1.2 Semitic: is divided into two:
A) North Semitic: Ge'ez, Rashaida (spoken around
Eritrea-Sudanese border); Tigre (spoken in
Eritrean Lowland); Tigrigna (spoken in highland
Eritrea and Tigray).
B) South Semitic: is further divided into two
i) Transverse: Amharic, Argoba, Harari, Silte,
Wolane and Zay.
ii) Outer: Gafat (extinct), Gurage and Mesmes
(endangered).
[Link]: Anfillo, Ari, Bambasi, Banna,
Basketo, Bench, Boro-Shinasha, Chara, Dawuro,
Dime, Dizi, Dorze, Gamo, Ganza, Gayil, Gofa,
Hamer, Hozo, KachamaGanjule, Karo, Keficho,
Konta, Korete, Male, Melo, Nayi, Oyda, Sezo,
Shekkacho, Sheko, Wolayta, Yem, Zayse etc.
Among its groups, Ometo includes Wolayta and
Gamo while main Gonga is Keficho.
B. Nilo-Saharan: Anywa, Berta, Gumuz, Kacipo-
Balesi, Komo, Kunama, Kwama, Kwegu, Majang,
Mi'en, Murle, Mursi, Nara, Nu’er, Nyangatom,
Opo, Shabo, Suri and Uduk
Language classification did not remain static.
Factors like population movements, warfare,
trade, religious and territorial expansion,
urbanization etc. have resulted in intense
linguistic processes that forced languages to be
affected.
In this process, some languages died out or
have been in danger of extinction while others
thrived off the social phenomenon that is
evidently observed.
A settlement pattern, the distribution of
peoples across the landscape, is the results of
long historical processes in northeast Africa.
In some areas, settlement was dense and in
other areas sparse.
Some people inhabited extensive highlands and
others the lowlands.
Based on historical linguistic and history of
inter-peoples relations, studies indicate that
environmental, socio-economic, and political
processes significantly shaped and reshaped
the spatial distribution of peoples in the region.
The Neolithic Revolution (domestication of plants
and animals) gave humanity two interdependent
modes of life: agriculture and pastoralism.
While there may be pure pastoralists, it is very
rare to think of a farmer without a head of cattle
or two.
Likewise, in Ethiopia and the Horn, these two
forms of livelihood have coexisted and quite
often interrelated.
Yet, topographic features and climatic
conditions largely influenced economic activities
in Ethiopia and the Horn.
The plateaus have sustained plough agriculture
for thousands of years supporting sizable
populations. Majority of the populations were
engaged in mixed farming. It is here that
sedentary agriculture had been started and
advanced at least since 10, 000 years B. P. by the
Cushites, Semites and Omotic groups.
The major economic activity of the Omotic has
been mixed farming and trade in northern Omo
while southern Omo have predominantly
practiced pastoralism and fishing.
Many of the Omotic groups have also been
famous in metallurgy, weaving and other crafts.
Eastern lowland region: pastoral economy
Pastoral economy namely the production of
camel, goat, and cattle has been the most
common economic practice of region since
early periods.
Pastoralism is major economic activity for Afar,
Saho and Somali as well as Karayu and Borana
Oromo.
While the Afar and Karrayu have depended on
the Awash River, the Somali have owed a great
deal to Wabi Shebelle and Genale (Jubba)
Rivers.
In the sparsely populated western lowland
region, pastoralism, shifting agriculture,
fishing, apiculture and hunting were the
dominant economic activities
For instance, sorghum, millet, cotton have been
largely cultivated in the lowlands along Ethio-
Sudanese border since antiquity.
The Nilotes along the Blue Nile and Baro-Akobo
Rivers have been shifting cultivators where
sorghum has been a staple food.
Among majority Nilotic communities, cattle
have high economic and social values. Berta
and other Nilotes had trade and other social
contacts with northern Sudan.
[Link] Religion
2. Judaism
3. Christianity
4. Islam