Module - 2
Features of Infrastructure
Features of Infrastructure
Natural
monopoly
High sunk Possibility of
costs price exclusion
Infrastructure
Non-rivals in Non-tradability
consumption of output
Externalities
Infrastructure: Natural Monopoly
When one firm can potentially supply market’s entire demand for goods and
services at most efficient price, it is said to exist natural monopoly
When the fixed costs become so large that only one firm can feasibly operate,
and the average costs continue to fall over the entire range of production, the
one firm will emerge as natural monopoly
The production of certain goods and services are subject to scale economies-
like Infrastructure facilities
The production of infrastructure facilities ( like railways, electricity, tele-
communications, gas-pipelines and other public-utilities) require a certain
minimum scale of production
Natural Monopoly is often viewed as market-failure
Infrastructure: Natural Monopoly
Figure 1 shows cost and demand curves of a
natural monopoly. The firm produces output
Q1, where MC=MR. At this point the price per
unit of production is P1 and average cost is
AC1. It is clear from the figure that price is
greater than average cost ( P1>AC1), the profit
per unit of output = [P1-AC1].
If this natural monopoly starts to operate as
perfect competitive firm, the marginal cost
pricing [P=MC] principle, then it must
produce output Qa and price will be Pa. In this
situation, there is a loss (ACa-Pa) per unit of
output.
Figure 1: Natural Monopoly
Infrastructure: Sunk Costs
The expenditures that has already made and cannot be
recovered even when the firm go out of business
Sunk costs may be a barrier to entry into infrastructure
development projects for private investors
If sunk costs are high relative to marginal cost, price will
almost surely exceed marginal cost, even though economic
profits are zero
Cont.
Examples of sunk costs include investments in product
development, the construction of a specialized production
facility, large infrastructure projects etc. Such
expenditures cannot be recovered and are therefore
essentially irrelevant for any on going decisions that the
firm must make
Sunk costs should not be considered for future
investments decisions
Examples: telecommunication towers, sewerage, railways
etc. have high sunk costs
Infrastructure: Non-Tradability of Output
Infrastructure output are the services that are evoked from the use of
particular infrastructure facility. Thus the characteristics of services are
equally applicable to infrastructure: intangible nature and non-tradability
This means that infrastructure services must be consumed/purchased at the
place they are produced
These services generally can not be transported (with some exceptions)
This characteristic has significant policy implications, because the viability
of a particular infrastructure establishment has little role to play
For instance: roads, railways, bridges, airports etc. can not be transported
Infrastructure: Non-Rival Consumption
Consumption by an individual does not affect the consumption
by others
Thus an additional consumer can enjoy the benefits of
consuming a good or service without conflicting the benefits
of others
Zero marginal cost of providing the benefits of a good to an
additional consumer
For instance: roads and telecomm
Infrastructure: Price Exclusion
The benefits will be provided only to those who pay for the
services/goods
Price exclusion is a feature of private goods
Perfect competition and efficiency merit marginal cost pricing,
i.e., P=MC, that the prices must be set at marginal cost
But, in the case of infrastructure, it will be very difficult to
recover the costs of providing the facilities
Thus, pricing of infrastructure facilities are not regulated
through market forces
Infrastructure: Externalities
Externalities are the spillover effects (costs or benefits) that are not
included in the prices and accrue to other (third) parties than those
involved in the transaction. For instance: health and education
Externalities are said to exist when production or consumption of an
entity affect the productivity or well being of another entity
Two conditions are necessary for an externality
1. Interdependence between economic entity
2. Non-compensation for the effects of interdependence
Two types of Externality:
i.) Positive Externality
ii.) Negative Externality