BASICS OF GEOGRAPHY (Unit – 4)
HYDROSPHERE
The hydrosphere (Greek hydor - water and sphera - sphere) refers to the water on or
surrounding the surface of the globe, as distinguished from those of the lithosphere (the solid
upper crust of the earth) and the atmosphere (the air surrounding the earth). More
specifically, the hydrosphere includes the region that includes all the earth’s liquid water,
frozen and floating ice, water in the upper layer of soil, and the small amounts of water
vapour in the earth’s atmosphere. The hydrosphere is the major setting for the earth’s
hydrologic cycle. Origin of water on earth. The most significant feature of Earth, in contrast to
our other neighbouring planets, is the presence of liquid water that covers more than two-
thirds of the planet’s surface. This water came about during the early days of the
formation of the Earth, when the earth’s surface cooled down and the oxygen and
hydroxides contained in the accreted material, diffused toward the surface. These gases
then cooled and condensed to form the Earth’s oceans. It is believed that since then,
there has been little loss or gain in the overall quantity of the hydrosphere, despite minor
fluctuations like gain from continued degassing and in falling comets; and loss at the upper
layers of the atmosphere due to ultraviolet light breaking up of water molecules. Distribution
and quantity of water across the globe. The earth’s water has six major reservoirs in which
water resides. These include the oceans, the atmosphere (split into two reservoirs, one
over the land and one over the oceans), surface water (including water in lakes, streams, and
the water held in the soil), ground water (water held in the pore spaces of rocks below the
surface), and snow and ice.
The Hydrologic Cycle
Water continually circulates between Earth’s surface and atmosphere in what is called the
hydrologic cycle. The hydrologic, or water, cycle is one of the basic processes in nature.
Responding to heat from the sun and other influences, water from oceans, rivers, lakes, soils
and vegetation evaporates into the air and becomes water vapor. Water vapor rises into
the atmosphere, cools, and turns into liquid water or ice to become clouds. When water
droplets or ice crystals get large enough, they fall back to the surface as rain or snow. Once on
the ground water filters into the soil and is either absorbed by plants or percolates downward
to groundwater reservoirs. If water does not filter into the soil, it runs off into streams and
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rivers and eventually into oceans, while some of it evaporates.
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Waters in a lake, snow on a mountain, humid air or drops of morning dew are all part of the
same system. Total annual water loss from the surface equals Earth’s total annual
precipitation. Changing any part of the system, such as the amount of vegetation in a region
or land cover, affects the rest of the system. Water participates in many important chemical
reactions and is a good solvent. Completely pure water rarely occurs in nature because it
carries impurities as it travels through the hydrologic cycle. Rain and snow capture aerosols
from the air. Acidic water slowly dissolves rocks, placing dissolved solids in water. Small but
visible pieces of rocks and soils also can become suspended in water and make some waters
turbid. When water percolates into the ground, more minerals dissolve into water. Dissolved
or suspended impurities determine water’s chemical composition.
Hydrologic Cycle - Numbers in parentheses are the reservoirs of available water
Water moves through the reservoirs by a variety of processes and at different rates, with
unique residence times within any reservoir. This flow of water constitutes the Earth’s
hydrologic cycle. A brief summary of the major processes involved in this movement, along
with the flux, i.e. amount of water transferred per unit time are shown in Figure given below.
Effect of human beings on the hydrosphere
Over the last 200 or so years, sharp rise in population, urbanization, industrial development
and intensification of agricultural practices have combined to largely affect most natural
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water bodies of the earth. This is due to the transport of the waste products from those
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activities by surface water, groundwater and the atmosphere. The scale and intensity of
this pollution varies considerably, e.g. there are global problems such as presence of heavy
metals; regional problems like acid rain; and much more localized ones like groundwater
contamination. Overall, globally, organic material from domestic sewage, municipal waste and
agro-industrial effluent is the most widespread pollutant. The sewage contains pathogens
which lead to disease and mortality among the populations using this water.
Moreover, this organic material has also high concentrations of nutrients, particularly nitrogen
and phosphorus, which cause eutrophication (i.e. nutrient enrichment) of lakes and
reservoirs. This eutrophication results in promotion of abnormal plant growth and oxygen
depletion, which destroys aquatic ecosystems. Excess fertilizers, from agricultural production
areas also have similar consequences. Acidification of surface waters as a result of acid rain
has adverse effects on aquatic life and human health. Salinization i.e. the high concentration
of salts in the soils of irrigated areas, as a result of poor drainage and high evaporative
loss is also a cause of water pollution. Sediments in the form of suspended load may affect
physical structures for e.g. silting up of dams and damage to aquatic life.
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OCEAN CURRENTS
Currents are referred to by their “drift”. Usually, the currents are strongest near the surface
and may attain speeds over five knots. At depths, currents are generally slow with speeds
less than 0.5 knots. We refer to the speed of a current as its “drift.” Drift is measured in
terms of knots. The strength of a current refers to the speed of the current. A fast current is
considered strong. A current is usually strongest at the surface and decreases in strength
(speed) with depth. Most currents have speeds less than or equal to 5 knots.
Ocean currents are like river flow in oceans. They represent a regular volume of water in a
definite path and direction. Ocean currents are influenced by two types of forces namely :
(i) primary forces that initiate the movement of water; (ii) secondary forces that influence
the currents to flow. The primary forces that influence the currents are: (i) heating by
solar energy; (ii) wind; (iii) gravity; (iv) Coriolis force. Heating by solar energy causes the
water to expand. That is why, near the equator the ocean water is about 8 cm higher in
level than in the middle latitudes. This causes a very slight gradient and water tends to flow
down the slope. Wind blowing on the surface of the ocean pushes the water to move.
Friction between the wind and the water surface affects the movement of the water body
in its course. Gravity tends to pull the water down the pile and create gradient variation.
The Coriolis force intervenes and causes the water to move to the right in the northern
hemisphere and to the left in the southern hemisphere. These large accumulations of
water and the flow around them are called Gyres. These produce large circular currents in
all the ocean basins.
Differences in water density affect vertical mobility of ocean currents. Water with high
salinity is denser than water with low salinity and in the same way cold water is denser than
warm water. Denser water tends to sink, while relatively lighter water tends to rise. Cold-
water ocean currents occur when the cold water at the poles sinks and slowly moves
towards the equator. Warm-water currents travel out from the equator along the surface,
flowing towards the poles to replace the sinking cold water.
Types of Ocean Currents The ocean currents may be classified based on their depth as
surface currents and deep water currents : (i) surface currents constitute about 10 per cent
of all the water in the ocean, these waters are the upper 400 m of the ocean; (ii) deep
water currents make up the other 90 per cent of the ocean water. These waters move
around the ocean basins due to variations in the density and gravity. Deep waters sink
into the deep ocean basins at high latitudes, where the temperatures are cold
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enough to cause the density to increase. Ocean currents can also be classified based on
temperature: as cold currents and warm currents: (i) cold currents bring cold water into
warm water areas. These currents are usually found on the west coast of the continents in
the low and middle latitudes (true in both hemispheres) and on the east coast in the higher
latitudes in the Northern Hemisphere; (ii) warm currents bring warm water into cold water
areas and are usually observed on the east coast of continents in the low and middle
latitudes (true in both hemispheres). In the northern hemisphere they are found on the
west coasts of continents in high latitudes.
Major Ocean Currents
Major ocean currents are greatly influenced by the stresses exerted by the prevailing winds
and Coriolis force. The oceanic circulation pattern roughly corresponds to the earth’s
atmospheric circulation pattern. The air circulation over the oceans in the middle latitudes
is mainly anticyclonic (more pronounced in the southern hemisphere than in the northern
hemisphere). The oceanic circulation pattern also corresponds with the same. At higher
latitudes, where the wind flow is mostly cyclonic, the oceanic circulation follows this
pattern. In regions of pronounced monsoonal flow, the monsoon winds influence the
current movements.
Major Ocean Currents
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Due to the Coriolis force, the warm currents from low latitudes tend to move to the right in
the northern hemisphere and to their left in the southern hemisphere. The oceanic
circulation transports heat from one latitude belt to another in a manner like the heat
transported by the general circulation of the atmosphere.
The cold waters of the Arctic and Antarctic circles move towards warmer water in tropical
and equatorial regions, while the warm waters of the lower latitudes move pole wards.
The major currents in the different oceans are shown in Figure given below.
Effects of Ocean Currents Ocean currents have several direct and indirect influences on
human activities. West coasts of the continents in tropical and subtropical latitudes (except
close to the equator) are bordered by cool waters. Their average temperatures are
relatively low with narrow diurnal and annual ranges. There is fog, but generally the areas
are arid. West coasts of the continents in the middle and higher latitudes are bordered by
warm waters which cause a distinct marine climate. They are characterised by cool
summers and relatively mild winters with a narrow annual range of temperatures. Warm
currents flow parallel to the east coasts of the continents in tropical and subtropical
latitudes. This results in warm and rainy climates. These areas lie in the western margins
of the subtropical anti- cyclones. The mixing of warm and cold currents helps to
replenish the oxygen and favour the growth of planktons, the primary food for fish
population. The best fishing grounds of the world exist mainly in these mixing zones.
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TIDES
The periodical rise and fall of the sea level, once or twice a day, mainly due to the attraction
of the sun and the moon, is called a tide. Movement of water caused by meteorological
effects (winds and atmospheric pressure changes) are called surges. Surges are not regular
like tides. The study of tides is very complex, spatially and temporally, as it has great
variations in frequency, magnitude and height. The moon’s gravitational pull to a great
extent and to a lesser extent the sun’s gravitational pull, are the major causes for the
occurrence of tides. Another factor is centrifugal force, which is the force that acts to
counterbalance the gravity. Together, the gravitational pull and the centrifugal force are
responsible for creating the two major tidal bulges on the earth. On the side of the
earth facing the moon, a tidal bulge occurs while on the opposite side though the
gravitational attraction of the moon is less as it is farther away, the centrifugal force causes
tidal bulge on the other side.
The ‘tide-generating’ force is the difference between these two forces, i.e. the gravitational
attraction of the moon and the centrifugal force. On the surface of the earth, nearest the
moon, pull or the attractive force of the moon is greater than the centrifugal force, and so
there is a net force causing a bulge towards the moon. On the opposite side of the earth,
the attractive force is less, as it is farther away from the moon, the centrifugal force is
dominant. Hence, there is a net force away from the moon. It creates the second bulge
away from the moon. On the surface of the earth, the horizontal tide generating forces are
more important than the vertical forces in generating the tidal bulges.
The tidal bulges on wide continental shelves have greater height. When tidal bulges hit the
mid-oceanic islands, they become low. The shape of bays and estuaries along a coastline
can also magnify the intensity of tides. Funnel-shaped bays greatly change tidal magnitudes.
When the tide is channelled between islands or into bays and estuaries, they are called tidal
currents.
Tides vary in their frequency, direction and movement from place to place and from time to
time. Tides may be grouped into various types based on their frequency of occurrence in
one day or 24 hours or based on their height. Tides based on Frequency
Semi-diurnal tide: The most common tidal pattern, featuring two high tides and two low
tides each day. The successive high or low tides are approximately of the same height.
Diurnal tide: There is only one high tide and one low tide during each day. The successive
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high and low tides are approximately of the same height.
Mixed tide: Tides having variations in height are known as mixed tides. These tides generally
occur along the west coast of North America and on many islands of the Pacific Ocean.
Tides based on the Sun, Moon and the Earth Positions
The height of rising water (high tide) varies
appreciably depending upon the position of sun
and moon with respect to the earth. Spring tides
and neap tides come under this category.
Spring tides: The position of both the sun and the
moon in relation to the earth has direct bearing on
tide height. When the sun, the moon and the earth
are in a straight line, the height of the tide will be
higher. These are called spring tides and they occur
twice a month, one on full moon period and
another during new moon period.
Neap tides: Normally, there is a seven-day interval
between the spring tides and neap tides. Currently
the sun and moon are at right angles to each other
and the forces of the sun and moon tend to
counteract one another. The Moon’s attraction,
though more than twice as strong as the sun’s, is
diminished by the counteracting force of the sun’s
gravitational pull.
Once in a month, when the moon’s orbit is closest
to the earth (perigee), unusually high and low
tides occur. During this time the tidal range is
greater than normal. Two weeks later, when the
moon is farthest from earth (apogee), the moon’s
gravitational force is limited, and the tidal ranges are less than their average heights.
When the earth is closest to the sun (perihelion), around 3rd January each year, tidal
ranges are also much greater, with unusually high and unusually low tides. When the
earth is farthest from the sun (aphelion), around 4th July each year, tidal ranges are much
less than average. The time between the high tide and low tide, when the water level
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is falling, is called the ebb. The time between the low tide and high tide, when the tide is
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rising, is called the flow or flood.
Importance of Tides
Since tides are caused by the earth-moon-sun
positions which are known accurately, the tides
can be predicted well in advance. This helps the
navigators and fishermen plan their activities.
Tidal flows are of great importance in navigation.
Tidal heights are very important, especially
harbours near rivers and within estuaries having
shallow ‘bars’ at the entrance, which prevent
ships and boats from entering into the harbour.
Tides are also helpful in de-silting the sediments
and in removing polluted water from river
estuaries. Tides are used to generate electrical
power (in Canada, France, Russia, and China). A 3
MW tidal power project at Durgaduani in
Sunderbans of West Bengal has been established.
Places associated with Tides
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WAVES
Waves are the energy, not the water as such, which moves across the ocean surface. Water
particles only travel in a small circle as a wave passes. Wind provides energy to the waves.
Wind causes waves to travel in the ocean and the energy is released on shorelines. The
motion of the surface water seldom affects the stagnant deep bottom water of the oceans.
As a wave approaches the beach, it slows down.
This is due to the friction occurring between the dynamic water and the sea floor. And,
when the depth of water is less than half the wavelength of the wave, the wave breaks. The
largest waves are found in the open oceans. Waves continue to grow larger as they move
and absorb energy from the wind. Most of the waves are caused by the wind driving
against water. When a breeze of two knots or less blows over calm water, small ripples
form and grow as the wind speed increases until white caps appear in the breaking
waves. Waves may travel thousands of km before rolling ashore, breaking and
dissolving as surf. A wave’s size and shape reveal its origin. Steep waves are fairly young
ones and are probably formed by local wind. Slow and steady waves originate from faraway
places, possibly from another hemisphere. The maximum wave height is determined by the
strength of the wind, i.e. how long it blows and the area over which it blows in a single
direction. Waves travel because wind pushes the water body in its course while gravity pulls
the crests of the waves downward. The falling water pushes the former troughs upward,
and the wave moves to a new position. The actual motion of the water beneath the waves
is circular. It indicates that things are carried up and forward as the wave approaches, and
down and back as it passes.
Motion of waves and water molecules
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Characteristics of Waves
Wave crest and trough: The highest and lowest points of a wave are called the crest and
trough respectively.
Wave height: It is the vertical distance from the bottom of a trough to the top of a crest of
a wave.
Wave amplitude: It is one-half of the wave height.
Wave period: It is merely the time interval between two successive wave crests or troughs
as they pass a fixed point.
Wavelength: It is the horizontal distance between two successive crests.
Wave speed: It is the rate at which the wave moves through the water, and is measured in
knots.
Wave frequency: It is the number of waves passing a given point during a one second time
interval.
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TSUNAMI
Tsunamis are ocean waves produced by earthquakes or underwater landslides. The word is
Japanese and means “harbour wave,” because of the devastating effects these waves have
had on low-lying Japanese coastal communities. Tsunamis are often incorrectly referred to as
tidal waves, but a tsunami is actually a series of waves that can travel at speeds averaging 450
(and up to 600) miles per hour in the open ocean. In the open ocean, tsunamis would not be
felt by ships because the wavelength would be hundreds of miles long, with amplitude of only
a few feet. This would also make them unnoticeable from the air. As the waves approach the
coast, their speed decreases and their amplitude increases. Unusual wave heights have been
known to be over 100 feet high. However, waves that are 10 to 20 feet high can be very
destructive and cause many deaths or injuries. Tsunamis are most often generated by
earthquake-induced movement of the ocean floor. Landslides, volcanic eruptions, and
even meteorites can also generate a tsunami. If a major earthquake is felt, a tsunami could
reach the beach in a few minutes, even before a warning is issued. Areas at greatest risk are
less than 25 feet above sea level and within one mile of the shoreline. Most deaths caused
by a tsunami are because of drowning. Associated risks include flooding, contamination of
drinking water, fires from ruptured tanks or gas lines, and the loss of vital community
infrastructure (police, fire, and medical facilities). From an initial tsunami generating source
area, waves travel outward in all directions much like the ripples caused by throwing a
rock into a pond. As these waves approach coastal areas, the time between successive wave
crests varies from 5 to 90 minutes. The first wave is usually not the largest in the series of
waves, nor is it the most significant. Furthermore, one coastal community may experience no
damaging waves while another, not that far away, may experience destructive deadly waves.
Depending on a number of factors, some low-lying areas could experience severe inland
inundation of water and debris of more than 1,000 feet.
Physical Characteristics of Tsunami
All types of waves, including tsunami, have a wavelength, a wave height, amplitude, a
frequency or period, and a velocity.
Wavelength is defined as the distance between two identical points on a wave (i.e. between
wave crests or wave troughs). Normal ocean waves have wavelengths of about 100 meters.
Tsunamis have much longer wavelengths, usually measured in kilometres and up to 500
kilometres.
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Wave height refers to the distance between the trough of the wave and the crest or peak of
the wave.
Wave amplitude - refers to the height of the wave above the still water line, usually
this is equal to 1/2 the wave height. Tsunami can have variable wave height and amplitude
that depends on water depth as we shall see in a moment
Wave frequency or period - is the amount of time it takes for one full wavelength to pass a
stationary point.
Wave velocity is the speed of the wave. Velocities of normal ocean waves are about 90
km/hr while tsunami have velocities up to 950 km/hr (about as fast as jet airplanes), and
thus move much more rapidly across ocean basins. The velocity of any wave is equal to
the wavelength divided by the wave period.
V = λ/P
Tsunamis are characterized as shallow-water waves. These are different from the waves
most of us have observed on the beach, which are caused by the wind blowing across
the ocean's surface. Wind-generated waves usually have period (time between two
successive waves) of five to twenty seconds and a wavelength of 100 to
200 meters. A tsunami can have a period in the range of ten minutes to two hours and
wavelengths greater than 500 km. A wave is characterized as a shallow-water wave when
the ratio of the water depth and wavelength is very small. The velocity of a shallow-water
wave is also equal to the square root of the product of the acceleration of gravity, g,
(10m/sec2) and the depth of the water, d.
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The rate at which a wave loses its energy is inversely related to its wavelength. Since a
tsunami has a very large wavelength, it will lose little energy as it propagates. Thus, in very
deep water, a tsunami will travel at high speeds with little loss of energy. For example, when
the ocean is 6100 m deep, a tsunami will travel about 890 km/hr, and thus can travel
across the Pacific Ocean in less than one day.
As a tsunami leaves the deep water of
the open sea and arrives at the
shallow waters near the coast, it
undergoes a transformation. Since the
velocity of the tsunami is also related
to the water depth, as the depth of
the water decreases, the velocity of
the tsunami decreases. The change of total energy of the tsunami, however, remains
constant.
Furthermore, the period of the wave remains the same, and thus more water is forced
between the wave crests causing the height of the wave to increase. Because of this
"shoaling" effect, a tsunami that was imperceptible in deep water may grow to have wave
heights of several meters or more.
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