Module-2

Electrically Activated Materials: Piezoelectricity, Piezoresistivity, Ferro

electricity, Piezoelectric materials- piezoelectric effect, Piezoceramics,
Piezopolymers, Piezoelectric materials as sensors, Actuators and bimorphs, nano
carbon tubes
2.0 Electro-responsive / Electrically activated materials are smart materials with the capability
to change their physical /mechanical properties in response to external stimuli, such as electric
fields.

Electroactive materials are playing an ever increasing role in science and technology. At present
the wide range of applications for these materials include electrodes and membranes for
electrochemical energy conversion and storage, electro ceramic devices and sensors, organic
diodes, magnetic and optical devices, and photo resists.

Examples for Electrically Activated Materials

Ferroelectric polymers.
Electrostrictive graft polymers.
Liquid crystalline polymers.
Electro rheological fluid.
Ionic polymer-metal composite.
Stimuli-responsive gels.

2.1 Piezoelectricity:

Piezoelectricity, also called the piezoelectric effect, is the ability of certain materials to generate
an AC (alternating current) voltage when subjected to mechanical stress or vibration, or to vibrate
when subjected to an AC voltage, or both.
An unusual property exhibited by a few ceramic materials is piezoelectricity, or, literally, pressure
electricity: polarization is induced and an electric field is established across a specimen by the
application of external forces. Reversing the sign of an external force (i.e., from tension to
compression) reverses the direction of the field.
Piezoelectricity provide us with a means of converting electrical energy to mechanical energy and
vice versa
2.1.1 Features of piezoelectric material:

Figure (a) Dipoles within a piezoelectric material. (b) A voltage is generated

when the material is subjected to a compressive stress.

Piezoelectric materials are utilized in transducers, which are devices that convert electrical
energy into mechanical strains, or vice versa.

Application: phonograph cartridges, microphones, speakers, audible alarms, and ultrasonic

imaging.
 In a phonograph cartridge, as the stylus traverses the grooves on a record, a pressure variation
is imposed on a piezoelectric material located in the cartridge, which is then transformed into
an electric signal and is amplified before going to the speaker.

 Piezoelectric materials include titanates of barium and lead, lead zirconate (PbZrO3),
ammonium dihydrogen phosphate (NH4H2PO4), and quartz.

 This property is characteristic of materials having complicated crystal structures with a low
degree of symmetry.

 The piezoelectric behavior of a polycrystalline specimen may be improved by heating above

its Curie temperature and then cooling to room temperature in a strong electric field

An example of applications in this area is the electric cigarette lighter, where pressing a button
causes a spring-loaded hammer to hit a piezoelectric crystal, thereby producing a sufficiently high
voltage that electric current flows across a small spark gap, heating and igniting the gas.
2.2 Piezo Resistivity

The piezoresistive effect is a change in the electrical resistivity of a semiconductor or metal when
mechanical strain is applied.

Piezoresistivity is defined as change of resistance of semiconductors from the applied mechanical

stress.

The term “piezoresistance” was coined by Cookson in 1935, when he defined the term as the
change in conductivity with stress.

In the 1960s, at least a couple of companies started manufacturing commercial silicon strain
gauges, and in 1962, an “integrated” device using diffused piezoresistors was used to make
pressure sensors at Honey well .

From the early piezo resistive strain gauges to the present implanted piezoresistive pressure sensors
and accelerometers, this technology required the three-dimensional micromachining of silicon.
This requirement led to the development of bulk etching technology, and the development of
MEMS technology.

2.2.1 Principles of Piezoresistivity

The change in electrical resistance under mechanical strain is called the piezoresistive effect.
Transducers and sensors working on the principle of the piezoresistive effect are used in
automobiles and commercial devices to convert electrical energy to mechanical energy and vice
versa.

2.2.2 Piezo resistive materials

piezoresistive materials are semiconductors, and the effect is associated with band structure
changes that alter the carrier mobility and number density much more significantly than an applied
stress would change, for example, the resistance of a similar metal.

2.2.3 Piezo resistive effect

The piezoresistive effect is a change in the electrical resistivity of a semiconductor or metal when
mechanical strain is applied. In contrast to the piezoelectric effect, the piezoresistive effect causes
a change only in electrical resistance, not in electric potential.

Difference between piezoelectricity and piezoresistivity

 Piezoelectric is the property of a material to generate a voltage when mechanical force is applied
to it. In contrast, the piezoresistive effect is the property of a material's resistivity to change when
subjected to a mechanical loading.

2.2.4 Fabrication

The most commonly used fabrication processes for doping piezoresistors are diffusion and ion
implantation..

1. Diffusion: Diffusion is the migration of dopant atoms from a high-concentration region to a low-
concentration region. The fabrication steps for diffusion, most commonly involve pre-deposition
and drive-in step. During pre-deposition, the wafers are placed in high temperature (900–1,300°C)
with a gas-phase or a solid-phase dopant source. The dopant source (e.g., diborane, phosphine, or
arsine) is carried in an inert gas (N2 or Ar). The resulting dopant profile is approximated by a
complementary error function. After the pre-deposition step, the dopants are driven in deeper with
high-temperature annealing. Diffusion method is still useful for high-dose doping (near solid
solubility).

2. Ion implantation: Ion implantation provides better control of the dopant dose. The process starts
by accelerating the dopant ions at high energy into the substrate. The implanted ions leave a
cascade of damage in the crystal structure. Dopant distribution is approximated by a symmetric
Gaussian distribution. During implantation, 7° tilt angle used to avoid ion channelling effect. After
implant, a short high-temperature annealing is used to restore the crystal lattice. Typical masking
material is photoresist, silicon dioxide, or silicon nitride.

2.2.5Alternative Piezo resistive Materials and Structures

most commercially available piezo resistive sensors use silicon as the material. With the
advances in material science, researchers studied new materials or scaling of the silicon to
enhance the properties in sensitivity, and higher melting temperature.

Silicon Carbide (SiC)

Silicon carbide was attractive because of its superior mechanical properties over silicon such as
higher modulus, higher sublimation temperature, and inertness to corrosive environments.

Diamond

Diamond has higher Young’s modulus, yield strength, and thermal conductivity than silicon.

Carbon Nanotube (CNT)

Carbon nanotubes are the strongest and most resilient materials known in nature.

Silicon Nanowires
Silicon nanowires are simply reducing the dimension of conventional single crystal silicon
components. Very high gauge factor, higher than 6,000, was reported for silicon nanowires in
dimensions under 100 nm.

2.2.6 Applications

Piezo resistors have wide applications such as

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cleaners; Automotive Applications: Oil level, gas level, air pressure detection; Biomedical
Applications: Blood pressure measurement, etc... and
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The piezoresistive effect of semiconductor materials can be several orders of magnitudes larger
than the geometrical effect and is present in materials like germanium, polycrystalline silicon,
amorphous silicon, silicon carbide, and single crystal silicon.
The sensing of the strain or stress of a structure is important for numerous applications, such as
structural vibration control, traffic monitoring, weighing (including weighing in motion), building
facility management, and security. The structures include lightweight structures (such as the
airframe made of continuous carbon fiber polymer–matrix composites) and the civil infrastructure
(such as bridges, buildings and oil wells that involve cement-based materials.

The sensing of strain or stress is the function of a large variety of devices. Examples are stretchable,
skin-mountable and wearable strain sensors [which are useful for personalized health-monitoring,
human motion detection (motions such as pronunciation, coughing, and breathing) sports
monitoring, human–machine interfaces soft robotics, etc. in addition to tactile sensors biosensors
biofidelic surrogates strain-sensing adhesives and smart insole (plantar pressure sensing). For most
of these devices, mechanical softness is necessary. To provide the softness, silicone and
polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) and elastomers are commonly used as the polymer matrix. This is
in contrast to structural materials, for which stiffness is required.

2.3 Ferroelectricity

Ferroelectricity is a characteristic of certain materials that have a spontaneous electric

polarization that can be reversed by the application of an external electric field. Typically,
materials demonstrate ferroelectricity only below a certain phase transition temperature called
Curie temperature. Ferroelectric materials can be defined as dielectric materials in which
polarization remains permanently, even after removing the applied electric field. Moreover, the
direction of the dipole moment can be switched by applying electric field.
Ferroelectric materials have spontaneous polarization, and this varies with external electric field,
so in a polarization versus electric field curve, a hysteresis loop is shown (Fig.). However, the
ferroelectricity is shown only after the phase transition below a certain temperature, called Curie
temperature (TC). Above the Curie temperature, ferroelectricity disappears.

Examples of Ferroelectric Materials Include:

 Lead titanate, (PbTiO3)
 Lead zirconate titanate (PZT)
 Lead lanthanum zirconate titanate (PLZT)

2.3.1Ferroelectric Properties
There are two types of properties that are exhibited by the ferroelectric compounds:

1. Pyroelectric Properties and Spontaneous Polarization:

All ferroelectric materials are pyroelectric in nature, however pyroelectric materials are not
ferroelectric. Below a transition temperature called the Curie temperature, the ferroelectric
and the pyroelectric materials are polar and possess an electric dipole moment that is also
known as spontaneous polarization. But this polarity can be re-oriented or reversed
partially or fully by the application of an electric field with ferroelectric materials.
Complete reversal of the spontaneous polarization is known as “switching”. The non-polar
phase that can be encountered above the Curie Temperature is known as the para electric
phase.
  The direction of this spontaneous polarization conforms to the crystal symmetry of the
material. While the re-orientation of the spontaneous polarization occurs as a result of
atomic displacements. The magnitude of the electric dipole moment is greatest at a
temperature below the Curie temperature and approaches zero as the temperature is nearer
to the Curie temperature.

2. Piezoelectric Properties:
Due to the reason that all the pyroelectric materials are piezoelectric, this means that the
ferroelectric materials are inherently piezoelectric. This means that in response to an
applied mechanical load, the material is capable of producing an electric charge that is
proportional to the load. Similarly, in response to the applied voltage, the material will
produce a mechanical deformation.

Properties including the piezoelectric, dielectric, and electro-optic coefficients may vary
by several orders of magnitude in the narrow temperature band around the Curie
temperature. Especially the changes to these coefficients are much more gradual when
these are compared to other temperature ranges. The piezoelectric coefficient is much
greater in the region of CT. Other properties such as dielectric strength and electro-optic
properties also change more markedly in the region of the Curie temperature when
compared to other temperature ranges.

2.3.2 Ferroelectricity Applications

 The nonlinear nature of the ferroelectric materials is often required for the purpose to make
capacitors with adjustable capacitance. Typically, a ferroelectric capacitor simply consists
of a pair of electrodes that are sandwiching a layer of ferroelectric material. The
permittivity of these ferroelectrics is not only adjustable but is commonly also very high.
This happens especially when the phase of the temperature changes. Because of this reason,
the ferroelectric capacitors are small in physical size when compared to dielectric
capacitors of comparable capacitance.
 The spontaneous polarization of ferroelectric materials, when plotted on the graph, leads
to a hysteresis effect which may be used as a memory function. Ferroelectric capacitors are
sometimes required to make ferroelectric RAM that is used for computers and RFID cards.
In these applications, a thin film of ferroelectric materials is typically used. Due to the
reason that this allows the required field to switch in between the polarization that has to
be achieved with a moderate voltage. However, while using thin films an excellent deal of
attention must be paid to the interfaces, electrodes, and sample quality for devices to figure
out the reliability.
 Ferroelectric materials are piezoelectric and pyroelectric. These combined properties of
piezoelectricity, memory, and pyroelectricity make the ferroelectric capacitors very useful
for example in sensor applications. Ferroelectric capacitors are utilized in medical
 ultrasound machines, top-quality infrared cameras, in different sensors such as vibration
sensors, fire sensors, sonar, and even in the fuel injectors on diesel engines.
 The recent interest is the ferroelectric tunnel junction (FTJ) during which a contract is
formed by a nanometer-thick ferroelectric film that is placed in between the metal
electrodes. The thickness of the ferroelectric layer is enough to permit the tunnelling of
electrons. The piezoelectric and the interface effects are also because the depolarization
field may cause an enormous electroresistance (GER) switching effect.
 Another burgeoning application is multiferroics. In this, the researchers are looking for
ways to couple the magnetic and ferroelectric ordering within a material or heterostructure.
 The catalytic properties found in ferroelectrics have been studied since 1952. It was
observed by Parravano, in the anomalies of oxidation rates of CO over the ferroelectric
sodium and potassium niobates near the Curie temperature of those materials. The surface-
perpendicular component of the ferroelectric polarization can dope polarization-dependent
charges on the surface of the ferroelectric materials. This opens the possibility of
performing catalysis beyond the limits of the Sabatier principle. On the other hand,
ferroelectric polarization-dependent chemistry can offer the possibility of switching the
surface of adsorbate interaction from strong adsorption to strong desorption. Hence a
compromise between desorption and adsorption is not needed. Ferroelectric polarization
can also act as an energy harvester.

2.4 Piezoceramics:

Piezoceramics, a significant group of piezoelectric materials, are ferroelectric materials with

polycrystalline structures (peroskite, tetragonal/rhombohedral crystals). Above the Curie
temperature, these crystals exhibit simple cubic symmetry in structure.

Examples: Lead zirconate titanate (PZT), barium titanate (BT), and strontium titanate (ST) are the
most widely used piezoelectric ceramic materials.

Lead zirconate titanate (PZT), barium titanate (BaTiO3), lead titanate (PbTiO3), potassium niobate
(KNbO3), lithium niobate (LiNbO3), lithium titanate (LiTaO3), sodium tungstate (Na2WO3) and
zinc oxide (ZnO) are some of the most typical piezoceramics.

2.4.1 Properties: These materials are hard, stiff, and brittle with very high piezoelectric
coefficients and dielectric constants. Piezoceramics consist of both ferroelectric materials, like lead
zirconate titanate (PZT), barium titanate (BaTiO3), and non-ferroelectric materials, like zinc oxide
(ZnO) and aluminum nitride (AlN).

2.4.2 Manufacturing of piezoelectric ceramics:

To prepare a piezoelectric ceramic, fine PZT powders of the component metal oxides are mixed
in specific proportions, then heated to form a uniform powder. The piezo powder is mixed with an
organic binder and is formed into structural elements having the desired shape (discs, rods, plates,
etc.).

2.4.3 Piezo Materials Based on Lead Zirconate Titanate (PZT)

 PI Ceramic provides a wide selection of piezoelectric ceramic materials based on modified

lead zirconate titanate (PZT) and barium titanate.

 The designations of "soft" and "hard" piezo ceramics refer to the mobility of the dipoles
or domains and hence also to the polarization and depolarization behavior.

 For actuator applications, ferroelectrically soft piezoceramics with low polarity reversal
field strengths are used.

 Ferroelectrically hard PZT materials are primarily used in high-power acoustic

applications.

 In addition, PI Ceramic offers lead-free piezo ceramics, currently used especially as

ultrasonic transducers, and a crystalline actuator material.

Soft Piezo Ceramics

Important fields of application for soft piezo ceramics are: Actuators for micro-positioning and
nano positioning, sensors, such as conventional vibration detectors, ultrasonic transmitters and
receivers, e.g., for flow or level measurement, object identification or monitoring, as well as for
electro-acoustic applications as sound transducers and microphones, and also as sound pickups on
musical instruments.

Hard Piezo Ceramics

Especially high-power acoustic applications benefit from the properties of hard piezo materials.
Examples of their fields of application include ultrasonic cleaning (typically in the kHz frequency
range), the machining of materials (ultrasonic welding, bonding, drilling, etc.), ultrasonic
processors (e.g., to disperse liquid media), the medical sector (ultrasonic tartar removal, surgical
instruments, etc.) and sonar technology.

2.5 Piezo electric Polymers

Piezoelectric (PE) PBSCs are those polymer-based composite materials that operate via the
thoughtful conversion of applied stress into usable electrical charge (direct PE effect) or convert
an applied electrical potential to mechanical strain (inverse PE effect).
Piezoelectric polymer composite materials are a class of materials that belong to smart and
multifunctional materials. The ability to transduce mechanical to electrical signals and vice-versa
provide their materials with increasing technological interest for the development of sensors and
actuators or energy harvesters in the form of thin, flexible and potentially large area films.

Piezo electric Polymers are flexible and deformable materials that allow an easy assembling to
curved surface and at the same time are resistant to Mechanical Impacts.

Heiji Kawai discovered piezoelectric effects in the synthetic polymer poly(vinylidene fluoride)
(PVDF) in 1969.

Polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) is the most widely reported piezoelectric polymer.

Crystallographically, it has very low symmetry because poling is achieved by uniaxial or biaxial
stretching rather than the application of an electric field.

Examples
Common polymers which are used for piezoelectric-based EH are (poly vinylidene difluoride)
(PVDF) and its copolymers like PVDF–trifluoroethylene (PVDF-TrFE), PVDF–
hexafluoropropylene (PVDF-HFP), and PVDF–chlorotrifluoroethylene (PVDF-CTFE), cellulose,
polylactic acids (PLA), polyamides (PA), and polyurethanes (PU).

2.5.1 Classification:

Piezoelectric polymers can be divided into three categories:

 Bulk polymers,
 Voided charged polymers, and
 Polymer composites
  Bulk polymerization or mass polymerization is carried out by adding a soluble initiator to
pure monomer into liquid state. The system is simple and does not require thermal
insulation. The polymer is obtained pure. Large castings may be prepared directly. Very
high molecular weights are obtained.

Bulk polymerization has several advantages over other methods, these advantages are
1. The system is simple and does not require thermal insulation.
2. The polymer is obtained pure.
3. Large castings may be prepared directly.
4. Very high molecular weights are obtained.

Disadvantages
1. Heat transfer and mixing become difficult as the viscosity of reaction mass increases.
2. The problem of heat transfer is compounded by the highly exothermic nature of free radical
addition polymerization.
3. The polymerization is obtained with a broad molecular weight distribution due to the high
viscosity and lack of good heat transfer.

 Voided charged polymers(VCP) are a different type of thin polymer films with gas voids
made in it. These gas voids are charged by an application of an electrical field to form
internal dipoles which are responsible for a piezoelectric effect.

Polymer surfaces surrounding the voids are charged, the voided charged polymer behaves
as an electronic piezoelectric material considering electrical and mechanical energy. This
concept can be called as “ferroelectrets” or “piezoelectrets.”

The electronic voided charged piezoelectric polymers have the ability to reduce actuation
through polarization, exhibit attractive advantages such as

 High strength, high impact resistance,

 Low dielectric constant,
 Elastic stiffness,
  Have very low density with higher voltage resistivity,
 Low acoustic and mechanical impedance,
 high dielectric breakdown
 operating field strength,
 Good sensor characteristics,
 The ability to pattern electrodes on the film surface.

 Polymer composites are made of piezoelectric ceramic nano particles combined with
polymers like PVDF, PDMS (poly dimethylsiloxane), and PP. The piezoelectric effect in
these materials is basically imparted by the piezoelectric ceramic particles and flexibility
to the composite is introduced by polymers.

Low stiffness and flexibility of the polymers encourage researchers to use piezoelectric ceramics
as filler material for tailor-made applications such as sensors and actuators.

These filler materials are largely from piezoelectric ceramics such as BaTiO3, PZT, PMN-PT,
ZnO, AlN. Owing to its high piezoelectric performance, PZT and their nano particles are widely
experimented on combining with polymers like PDMS, PVDF, epoxies and resins.

2.5.2 Applications :

Common applications are, in Cell phones, diesel fuel injectors, grill igniters, ultrasonic
transducers, acoustic guitar pickups, vibration sensors, certain printers, and musical greeting cards
etc. utilizes piezoelectricity ploymers.

2.6 Piezoelectric Materials as sensors

 A piezoelectric sensor is a device that uses the piezoelectric effect to measure changes
in pressure, acceleration, temperature, strain, or force by converting them to an electrical
charge.
OR
 Piezoelectric sensors are electronic components that are able to convert a mechanical or
thermal input into an electrical signal.

 It works by the principle of electromechanical coupling. Piezoelectricity is the

phenomenon that some materials will produce an electrical voltage when subjected to
mechanical stress and vice versa.
  They use the piezoelectric effect to measure the electrical potential caused by applying
mechanical force to a piezoelectric material.

 They are based on the principle of electromechanical energy conversion and primarily
measure force, as well as other quantities such as pressure, acceleration, temperature, and
strain by converting the acquired data to an electrical charge.

 Flex motions, touch, vibrations, and shock measurement all use piezoelectric sensors.

 They are used in sectors such as healthcare, aerospace, consumer electronics, and nuclear
instrumentation.

 They are important as vibration and shock shorten the life of electronic and
electromechanical systems so delicate leads and bond wires tend to be stressed.

 Due to impact and impulse shock, an intermittent failure may occur as a result of system
failure.

2.6.1 How do Piezoelectric Sensors Works

Piezoelectric sensors work on the principle of the piezoelectric effect. Piezoelectric originates from
the Greek word piezein, which literally means to squeeze or press. As the latter suggests, we are
squeezing quartz crystals to make an electric voltage. Hence, piezoelectric sensors work by
applying mechanical energy to a crystal in the following steps:

A piezoelectric crystal is placed between two metal plates that are in a perfect balance (even if
they’re not symmetrically arranged) and does not conduct an electric current.

Metal plates apply Mechanical force or stress to the material. Electric charges forced within the
crystal are out of balance. Excess negative and positive charges appear on opposite sides of the
crystal face.

The metal plate collects these charges and produces a voltage that sends an electrical current
through a circuit. This transforms to piezoelectricity.
Piezoelectric Sensors based on the piezoelectric effect can operate from transverse, longitudinal,
or shear forces, and are insensitive to electric fields and electromagnetic radiation. The response
is also very linear over wide temperature ranges, making it an ideal sensor for rugged
environments.

2.6.2 Characteristics of Piezoelectric Sensors

Piezoelectric sensors are strong, lightweight and constructed of flexible plastic enabling them to
be available in a range of sizes, shapes and thicknesses. They will often be moulded or glued into
place within applications.

Piezoelectric sensors have the following characteristics;

 High strength
 High voltage output
 Elastic compliance
 Wide frequency range
 Impact resistance
 High mechanical strength
 High stability

2.6.3 Applications

Piezoelectric sensors are versatile tools for the measurement of various processes. They are used
for quality assurance, process control, and for research and development in many industries.

They have been successfully used in various applications, such as

in medical, aerospace, nuclear instrumentation, and as a tilt sensor in consumer electronics or a
pressure sensor in the touch pads of mobile phones.

In the automotive industry, piezoelectric elements are used to monitor combustion when
developing internal combustion engines. The sensors are either directly mounted into additional
holes into the cylinder head or the spark/glow plug is equipped with a built-in miniature
piezoelectric sensor.

2.6.4 Piezo Sensor Applications

Piezo sensors are used for many applications; some of them are within everyday objects. For
example;
 Intruder alarms
 PIN pads
 Medical devices
 Key fobs
  Alarm Clocks
 Fire alarms
 Carbon monoxide detectors
 Microwave ovens
 Ultrasonic pet training collars
 Ultrasound equipment
 Within microphone

 Pulse measurement - they are sensitive enough to record pulse measurements and can be
bonded to the patient’s body with self-adhesive.

 Stethoscopes - because of their high sensitivity and robustness piezo sensors are often used
within stethoscopes.
 Anaesthesia Effectiveness - piezo sensors are used to measure the effectiveness of
anaesthesia as they measure the response of muscles to electrical stimulation.
 Sleep Studies - piezo sensors are used to measure the movements of patients during sleep
studies. They can be attached to various parts of the body and will give a reading even if
the smallest movement is detected.
 Pacemakers - Piezo sensors are used within pacemakers to detect the level of physical
activity meaning the pacemaker can be adjusted where needed.

2.6.5 Advantages of Piezoelectric Sensors

 They offer very high-frequency responses to rapidly sense parameter changes.

 High transient response as they are able to detect the events of microseconds and also give
the linear output.
 They offer a high output to measure the electronic circuit.
 They have small dimensions and have rugged construction which means they are easy to
handle.
Disadvantage of piezoelectric sensors

 Cannot be used for truly static measurements

 Often effected by temperature , suitable only for measurement at ambient temperature.
 Output is low , hence some external circuit is attached to it.
 It is very difficult to give desired shape to this material and also desired strength.

2.7 Piezoelectric Actuator

Piezoelectric actuators are transducers that convert electrical energy into a mechanical
displacement or stress based on a piezoelectric effect, or vice versa.

A piezo actuator is used to control hydraulic valves which work like a special-purpose motor,
small-volume pump & in other applications which uses force or movement. The piezoelectric
actuator diagram is shown below.

2.7.1 Piezoelectric Actuator Working Principle & Operation

The working principle of a piezoelectric actuator is, once the voltage is applied to piezoelectric
actuators then they generate a small displacement through a high force capacity, so these are
used in many applications like ultra-precise positioning, in high forces handling & generation in
stationary or dynamic conditions.

The configuration of the piezoelectric actuator can change greatly based on application. These
devices are Ultrasonic actuators which are designed specifically to generate strokes of numerous
micrometers at ultrasonic frequencies above 20 kHz. They are particularly used for positioning,
controlling vibration & quick switching applications.
The important specifications of piezoelectric actuators mainly include force, displacement, &
operating voltage. The factors that need to consider while using these actuators are capacitance,
stiffness & resonant frequency.

The term stiffness is used to describe the energy required to attain a certain deformation of an
arrangement. For piezoelectric actuators, stiffness is the energy required to extend the device
through a certain quantity, usually stated in terms of Newtons for each micrometer. The
capacitance is a task of the excitation voltage frequency and resonance is the frequency where
the piezoelectric actuators react with the highest o/p amplitude.

2.7.2 Types of Piezo Actuators

Piezo actuators are available in different types like stack, stripe, longitudinal, shear, tube, and
contracting.

A Piezo stack actuator is used to provide a low stroke through a high blocking energy. Based
on your design necessities, this type of actuator is either discrete or co-fired.

The Stripe Actuator is known as a bending actuator, used to generate a large mechanical
deflection reasonably in response to an electrical signal.

Longitudinal actuators are also known as piezo stacks which are formed by coating several
piezo elements on top of each other so that each element’s expansion effect will generate a useful
force & movement.

In shear piezo actuators, the different elements are horizontally polarized & the electrical field
can be applied orthogonally.

Tube actuators include radial polarization & also use the transverse piezoelectric effect to make
displacement. These types of actuators experience radial, axial, or lateral motion based on the
voltage applied which is relative to the electrodes.
Flat actuators including two piezo elements can generate contracting motion once both
elements operate mutually.

2.7.3 Advantages
The advantages of the piezoelectric actuator include the following.

 Simple design
 Least moving parts,
 High-reliability characteristics
 These are simply optimized for particular applications like a non-magnetic, cryogenic,
ultra-high vacuum & high stiffness.
 High force for each unit area
 Resolution is unlimited
 Vacuum & Clean Room Compatible
 Generation of High Force
 No Wear & Tear
 Energy consumption is low
 No Magnetic Fields
 Quick Response
 Operates at Cryogenic Temperatures

Disadvantages:
 Limited range of displacement
 Drive voltage is large
 Very low speed,
 short travel ranges,
 short lifetime,
 very high cost,
 external encoder needed.

2.7.4 Applications of piezoelectric actuators

 A piezoelectric actuator is used to adjust different types of equipment like lenses,
machining tools, mirrors, etc.
 These are used in various precision motion control-based applications.
 These actuators are also used to control hydraulic valves which work like a special-
purpose motor or a small-volume pump
 These are used in applications where force or movement is required.
 These are used in different industries like aviation, automotive, consumer electronics,
medical, aerospace due to many benefits.
  Piezo actuators are used in braille & precision knitting machines.
 Piezo actuators are used in mobile phones and video cameras equipped with microphones
due to silent drive characteristics.
 These actuators don’t need lubrication to function, so used in vacuum & cryogenic
environments.

Piezoelectric actuator materials: modified Lead Zirconate Titanate ceramics

Two parameters which are considered in piezo actuators

 Blocking force (Fb) - is the highest force that can be produced once the maximum
voltage is applied & the actuator is not permitted to move.
 Free deflection (Xf)- is the movement attained once the maximum voltage is applied &
no force is generated.
What does piezoelectric actuator do?

The piezoelectric actuator changes an electrical signal into an exactly controlled physical
displacement. This is used to control hydraulic valves, operate like a special-purpose motor or a
small-volume pump, and is used in applications where force or movement is required.

The main function of this actuator is the inverse piezoelectric effect because once we apply
voltage, then the actuator will expand or contract but, once we block the piezo actuator from
moving, then it will produce a force.

2.8 Piezoelectric Bimorphs

 A piezoelectric bimorph is a cantilever that is used for actuation or sensing and consists
of two active piezoelectric layers adhered together.
 The piezoelectric bimorph can also have a passive layer between the two active layers
acting as a supportive substrate.

Piezo bimorphs are often made into strips and discs

Piezoelectric bimorphs, as the name suggests, involve two separate pieces of piezoelectric
ceramic put together in such a way that when a voltage is applied, the piece bends (only actuators
do this, of course. Sensors and other applications may vary).

This is a way to greatly magnify the power and range of a piezoelectric actuator. While a single
piezoelectric crystal can only shrink or expand by a few millimeters at most, bimorphs can bend
well over ten or a hundred times that range at the same voltage.

These designs are extremely common in sound production; one can often find a piezoelectric
bimorph in fire alarms, buzzers, and other sound producing devices.

Piezoelectric bimorph consists of two piezoelectric layers and one substrate layer. As shown in
Figure 1, the polarization direction of the two piezoelectric materials is the same. The same
voltage signal is connected to the upper and lower surfaces, and the substrate is grounded.

2.8.1 Effect of bimorph

In actuator applications, one active layer contracts and the other expands if voltage is applied,
thus the bimorph bends. In sensing applications, bending the bimorph produces voltage which
can for example be used to measure displacement or acceleration. This mode can also be used for
energy harvesting. This physical deformation can be used to generate displacement.
In piezo sensor applications, the piezo bimorph generates an electrical signal as a response to a
mechanical input, such as force or pressure. In piezo transducer applications, the piezoelectric
bimorph can receive either electrical or mechanical inputs and produce either electrical or
mechanical outputs depending on the desired results.

Piezo Direct has an outstanding reputation in providing high-quality and high-performance

custom piezoelectric components. We have delivered some of the most difficult and challenging
piezo ceramic assemblies to our customers at very competitive prices. We can make any type of
custom piezoelectric bimorph according to your exact requirements.
2.9 Nano Carbon Tubes

Carbon nanotubes (CNTs) are nanoscale tubular structures that possess large length to diameter
ratios with nanoscale diameters and are structurally similar to rolled honeycomb carbon networks
of graphite sheets.
 It possesses superior mechanical and electronic properties suited for various applications ranging
from nano-electronics and MEMS devices and for various advanced composite structures.

Boron-Nitride nanotubes are pyroelectric, piezoelectric and photo-galvanic media. The photo-
galvanic effects occurs because excitation of the electrons with light polarized along the tube
direction produces a charge current on the tube wall with a direction determined by the tube
chirality.

Boron-Nitride is a III-V analog to graphene; it can be formed in a two dimensional honeycomb

lattice with the inequivalent sub-lattice sites occupied by the group III (B) and group V (N)
elements. This sub-lattice symmetry breaking allows for new electronic phenomena not found in
graphene or carbon nanotubes.

Although the Boron-Nitride(BN) bond is partially ionic, there is no net electric polarization of the
BN sheet because of its threefold symmetry. When the sheet is wrapped to form a tube, the
threefold symmetry is lifted and an electric polarization is allowed.

Fig : Threefold symmetry

The electric polarization can be modified by any perturbation that couples to the bandgap, e.g. an
elastic mechanical strain. Thus the BN nanotubes are piezoelectric materials. The strains that can
modulate the electric polarization depend on the tube wrapping vector. For the armchair structure
shown on the right, uniaxial strain (stretch) and bend do not linearly couple, but tube torsion does.
Thus twisting an armchair BN tube generates a voltage between its ends and conversely, an applied
voltage induces torsion.

Although piezoelectricity or pressure electricity is restricted to non-centrosymmetric materials,

CNTs that are inherently non-piezoelectric can be effectively utilized to fabricate multifunctional
and advanced composites with inorganic piezoelectric materials, piezoelectric polymers, etc.

CNTs also enhance piezoelectric properties when used as a nanofiller in various piezoelectric and
ferroelectric systems. Recently flexoelectric property, which is similar to piezoelectric effect, was
also discovered in carbon nanostructures like CNTs, fullerenes, etc. which can extend the horizon
of CNTs to a new level.
 fullerenes

2.9.1 Types of nano carbon tubes

 Single Wall Carbon Nanotubes (SWNT): SWNTs have excellent mechanical and
electrochemical properties. Incorporating SWNT into polymers at high loadings is
difficult. SWNT have a wall one atom thick and diameters typically 1.4 nm but range
0.3–2 nm, are 200C nanometer length; grown by catalyzed chemical vapor deposition
(CVD), cost purified is w$500/g.
 Multi-Wall Carbon Nanotubes (MWNT): MWNT’s have multiple walls and diameters
of 10 nm and larger. They have good electrochemical properties, the cost is moderate,
and incorporating the nanotubes into polymers may be possible by growing arrays of
nanotubes and casting the polymer around the arrays.

 Carbon Nanofibers (CNF): CNFs have moderate electrochemical properties and

incorporating CNF into polymers is easier because the fibers are large. CNFs have
multiple concentric nested tubes with walls angled 208 to the longitudinal axis. While
CNF are similar to large diameter MWNT, CNF are not continuous tubes and their
surfaces show steps at the termination of each tube wall.

The three materials can also be used in combination to develop intelligent materials