cHAPTER

18

Body fluids and

circulation
 is the transport of nutrients, oxygen, and
excretory products to the concerned tissues or organs.
For circulation, simple organisms
use water from their surroundings. Complex organisms use
body fluids for circulation
CIRCULATORY PATHWAYS
Circulatory system is 2 types- Open and Closed.
- Open circulatory system: Here, the blood pumped by the
heart passes through large vessels into open spaces or
cavities called sinuses. Arthropods and molluscs.

- Closed circulatory system: Here, the blood pumped by

the heart is always circulated through blood vessels. This
system is more advantageous as the flow of fluid can be
more precisely regulated. Annelids and chordates.

-chambered heart (an atrium + a ventricle).

3-chambered heart (2 atria + a ventricle).
3-chambered heart (2 atria +
a ventricle). Ventricle is incompletely partitioned.
• 4-chambered heart.

In fishes, heart receives impure

blood only
Deoxygenated blood from heart - oxygenated by gills -
supplied to body parts - deoxygenated blood - toheart.

- Incomplete double circulation in amphibians & reptiles:

Left atrium receives oxygenated blood from the
gills/lungs/skin and right atrium gets the deoxygenated
blood from other body parts. However, they get mixed up
in the single ventricle which pumps out mixed blood.

-
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 Oxygenated and
deoxygenated blood received by the left and right atria
respectively passes on to ventricles of the same sides. The
ventricles pump it out separately without any mixing up.

BLOOD VASCULAR SYSTEM

1. BLOOD
(55%) & (45%).

A. PLASMA
Straw-coloured, slightly alkaline (pH 7.4) viscous fluid.

Constituents of plasma
• It is a good solvent.
• Plasma proteins Include
- Fibrinogen: For blood coagulation.
- Globulins: Act as antibodies (for defense of the body).
- Albumins: For osmotic balance. Regulate blood pressure.
• Glucose, amino acids, lipids &cholesterol.

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 -
• Inorganic constituents: Na+, K+. Mg2+, Cl , HCO3-
• Gases like CO2, O2, N2 etc.
Plasma without clotting factors is known as

B. FORMED ELEMENTS (RBC, WBC &PLATELETS)

- Biconcave non-nucleated cells. No mitochondria, Golgi

complex etc. Red colour is due to (iron
containing protein). Normal Hb level is g/ 100 ml.
- Count: millions/
- Formed in: Red Bone marrow.
- Average lifespan: Worn-out RBCs are
destroyed in spleen (graveyard of RBCs).
- Function: and transports.

- Colourless nucleated cells. Different types.

- Count: /mm3
.- Formed in: Bone marrow, lymph glands, spleen.
- Average life span: Generally short lived ( days).
- Part of immune system.

Types of WBC: Granulocytes & Agranulocytes

[Link]
They are 3 types:
60-65%. Soldier of thebody.
Function:Phagocytosis.
2-3%. Resist [Link]
allergic reactions.
0.5-1%. Secrete histamine,
serotonin, heparin etc. Cause inflammatory reactions.
[Link]
They are 2 types:
Smallest WBC with largest
nucleus. Includes B- lymphocytes & T- lymphocytes.
Cause immune responses. Secrete antibodies.
Largest WBC.
Function: Phagocytosis.

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 Platelets (Thrombocytes):
- Colourless non-nucleated cellfragments.
lakhs/mm3.
- Formed in: Megakaryocytes in Bone marrow.
days.
Blood clotting.

BLOOD COAGULATION
It is a mechanism for haemostasis (prevention of blood loss
through injuries). At the site of injury, following events occur:

-It forms
throm bokinase enzyme - Thrombokinase
hydrolyses to enzyme in presence of
+
Ca2 - Throm bin converts soluble to insoluble
threads trap dead & damaged blood cells to
form

BLOOD GROUPS
Blood groups were discovered by

1. ABO grouping
It is based on presence or absence of 2 surface
(chemicals that induce immune response) on namely
Similarly, contains (proteins
produced in responseto antigens) namely

Blood Group Antigens on Antibodies Donor’s Group

RBCs in Plasma

A A anti-B A, O

B B anti-A B, O

AB A, B nil AB, A, B, O

O nil anti-A, B O

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 - Antigen A reacts with Antigen Breacts with
- If bloods with interactive antigens & antibodies are mixed
together, it causes of

- Persons with are called because

they can donate blood to persons with any other blood group.
Persons with are called
because they can accept blood from allgroups

2. Rh grouping
- factor is another antigen found on RBC.
- means the presence of Rh factor and -vemeans
absence of Rh factor. Nearly of humans are Rh+ve.
are not naturally found. So Rh-ve
person can receive Rh+ve blood only once but it causes the
development of anti-Rh antibodies in his blood. So, a second
transfusion of Rh+ve blood causes Therefore,
Rh-group should be matchedbefore transfusion.

Erythroblastosis foetalis
- It is a between the Rh-ve blood of a
pregnant mother and Rh+ve blood of the foetus.
- Rh antigens do not get mixed with maternal blood in first
pregnancy because placenta separates the two bloods.
- But during first delivery, the maternal blood may be
exposed to small amount of foetal blood (Rh+ve). This
induces the formation of Rh antibodies in maternal blood.
- In case of her subsequent pregnancies, the Rh antibodies
from the mother leak into the foetal blood (Rh+ve) and
destroy the foetal RBCs. This is fatal to the foetus or cause
severe to the baby. This condition
is called
- It can be avoided by administering to
the mother immediately after the first deliver
2. BLOOD VESSELS
Blood vessels are 3 types: Arteries, Veins & Capillaries.
• They carry blood from heart to other tissues. They
contain oxygenated blood (except pulmonary artery). Their
smaller branches are called . Arteries are 3-
layered- inner (squamous endothelium),
middle (smooth muscles & elastic fibres) and
outer (fibrous connectivetissue).

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 - Veins: They carry blood towards heart. They contain
deoxygenated blood (except pulmonary vein). Their smaller
branches are called Veins are also 3-layered but
tunica media is comparatively thin.
- In tissues, arterioles divide into thin walled and
single layered vessels. They are called They
unite into venules.
3. HEART
Heart is a mesodermally derived organ located in
and protected by double-layered
- The (between pericardial membranes) is
filled with pericardial fluid. It reduces the friction between
the heart walls and surroundingtissues.
- The heart is 4 chambered, two upper (auricles) and
two lower The walls of the
are much than that of the atria.

The atria are separated by an and the ventricles are

separated by
- In between atrium and ventricle there is a thick fibrous
with anopening.
- A tricuspid valve (3 muscular flaps or cusps) guards the opening between
right atrium and right ventricle. A bicuspid (mitral) valve guards the opening
between left atrium and left ventricle. These valves allow the flow of blood
only in one direction, i.e. from atria to ventricles
- The openings of right and left ventricles into pulmonary artery and aorta
respectively are provided with the semi�lunar valves. They prevent backward
flow of blood

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 CONDUCTING SYSTEM OF HEART

- It includes nodal tissues, bundles &fibres.

(specialized cardiac musculature present in
heart wall) are 2types:
• in the right upper corner of the
right atrium.
• in the lower left corner of
the right atrium close to the

- From the AVN, a bundle of fibrous

passes through and
dividesinto right & left branches. Each branch passes through
the ventricular walls of its side. In the ventricular wall, it
breaks up into minute fibres These fibres
along with the bundles are known as

- generate without any

external stimuli, i.e. it is initiates and
maintains contraction of heart by generating action
potentials So, it is called the

CARDIAC CYCLE
It is the cyclic contraction and relaxation of heart for pumping
blood. It involves 3 stages:
It is the relaxed state of all chambers of
heart. When the and blood
from and flows into &
respectively through and
are closed at this stage.
SAN generates an
As a result, both the atria contrac t. It is called
atrial systole. This increases the flow of blood into the
ventricles by about

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 The action potential is conducted to ventricular side
by from where transmits it through the
ventricular musculature. As a result, ventricles contract. It is called

During this, the atria undergo diastole. Ventricular systole

increases the causing
* Closure of and valves due to
attempted backflow of blood into the atria.
* Semilunar valves open. So deoxygenated blood enters
the from and
oxygenated blood enters the from
The ventricles now relax (ventricular diastole) and the
falls causing
* The closure of the which prevents the
backflow of blood into the ventricles.
* The and valves are opened by the
pressure in the atria.
The ventricles and atria again undergo joint diastole and the
above processes are repeated.
A cardiac cycle is completed in

So, normal heartbeat:

It is the volume of blood pumped out
by each ventricle during a cardiac cycle. It is about
• It is the volume of blood pumpedout by
each ventricle per minute,
It is about .
Cardiac output of an athlete is veryhigh.
• During each cardiac cycle, 2 sounds are produced.
The first sound is due to the closure of tricuspid and bicuspid valves.
The second sound is due to the closure of the semilunar valves.
One heartbeat = a lub + a dub.
ELECTROCARDIOGRAPH (ECG)
- It is an instrument used to obtain electrocardiogram (graphical
representation of the electrical activity of the heart during a cardiac cycle).
- To get an ECG, a patient is connected to the machine with 3
(one to each wrist and to left ankle) that monitor heart activity. For a
detailed evaluation of heart’s function, multiple leads are attached to the
chest region.

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 - An ECG consists of the following waves:
• Represents the excitation (depolarization) of
atria which causes atrialsystole.
• Represents of ventricles
(Ventricular systole).
• Represents the of
Deviation in the indicates the abnormality or disease.
So, ECG has great clinical significance.

DOUBLE CIRCULATION

Circulation b/w lungs and heart.

Deoxygenated blood from right ventricle - to pulmonary
artery - to lungs-oxygenated blood - to pulmonary
veins - leftatrium.

Circulation b/w heart and various

body parts.

Systemic circulation provides nutrients, O2 and other

substances to the tissues and takes CO2 and other harmful
substances away for elimination.
It is a system which includes the
hepatic portal vein that carries blood from intestine to the
liver before it is delivered to the systemic circulation.
It is a system of coronary
vesselsthat circulateblood to and

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 REGULATION OF CARDIAC ACTIVITY
- Normal activities of heart are auto-regulated by nodal tissues. So, it is
called myogenic heart.
- regulates cardiac activity through
- of ANS increase the rate of heartbeat, the strength
of ventricular contraction andcardiac output.
- of ANS decrease the heartbeat, conduction of
action potential and the cardiac output.
- hormonesincrease the cardiac output.

LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
- Includes
- As the blood passes through the capillaries in tissues, some water and
soluble substances are filtered out from plasma to the intercellular spaces,
to form It has same mineral distribution as that in plasma.
- Exchange of nutrients, gases, etc. between the blood and the cells occur
through tissue (interstitial)fluid.
- Some tissue fluid enters and the tissue fluid in them is
called lymph. It drains back to major veins.
- is a colourless fluid containing lymphocytes.

• It is the middleman between blood and tissues.

• It carries plasma proteins synthesized in liver to the blood.
• Transports digested fats (through lacteals in the intestinal
villi), fat soluble vitamins, hormones etc.

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 • Filtration of bacteria and foreign particles.
• Lymph nodes produce &antibodies.
• It helps in the defensive mechanism of thebody.

DISORDERS OF CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

Here, the blood
pressure is higher than pressure
(120 mm Hg) and normal pressure (80
mm Hg), i.e. above . If the BP is or
it is . It leads to heart diseases and
affects vital organs

or Atherosclerosis:
Here, Ca, fat, cholesterol and fibrous tissue are deposited
in coronary arteries. It makes the lumen of arteries
narrower and thereby affectsthe blood supply.

An due to
to heart muscles. It occurs due to improper blood
flow. It is common among middle-aged and elderly.

It is the
condition in which heart is not pumping blood enough to
meet the needs of the body. Congestion of the lungs is the
main symptom. Heart failure is not same as
(heart stops beating) or a (sudden damage of
heart muscle due to inadequate blood supply).

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