DMT101: Engineering Mathematics

Dr H. Muzara
Z IMBABWE NATIONAL D EFENCE U NIVERSITY

These notes were compiled by Dr. Hillary Muzara.

First release, March 2023

 Contents

1 SEQUENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.1 Sequences 5
1.2 Limits of Sequences 6
1.3 Theorems on Limits 7
1.4 Sequences Tending to Infinity 8
1.5 Bounded and Monotonic Sequences 8
1.6 Limits of Combination of Sequences 9
1.7 Squeeze Theorem 9
1.8 Infinite Series 10
1.9 Convergent and Divergent Series 10
1.10 Geometric Series 11
1.10.1 Properties of Infinite Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.11 Test for Convergence or Divergence of Series 12
1.11.1 The Integral Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.11.2 p− Series and Harmonic Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.12 Comparisons of Series 13
1.12.1 Direct Comparison Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.12.2 Limit Comparison Test or Quotient Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.13 Alternating Series 15
1.14 Absolute and Conditional Convergence 16
4

1.15 The Ratio and Root Tests 17

1.15.1 The Ratio Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.15.2 The Root Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
1.16 Power Series 19
1.16.1 Definition of Power Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
1.16.2 Radius and Interval of Convergence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
 1. SEQUENCES

1.1 Sequences
Definition 1.1.1 A sequence is a set of numbers u1 , u2 , u3 , . . . in a definite order of arrangement
and formed according to a definite rule.

Definition 1.1.2 A sequence can also be defined as a function whose domain is the set of positive
integers.

Each number in the sequence is called a term and un is called the nth term. The terms or elements of a
sequence are formed by letting n take on values 1, 2, 3, · · · . Thus, {un } is equivalent to u1 , u2 , u3 , · · · .
■ Example 1.1 Determine the values of the first four terms of the sequence defined by
2
un+1 = , u0 = 1, n ∈ N.
un
■

■ Solution 1.1.1
2 2 2 2 2 2
u1 = u0+1 = = = 2, u2 = u1+1 = = = 1, u3 = u2+1 = = = 2.
u0 1 u1 2 u2 1
■

■ Example
 1.2 Write down the four terms of the sequences
1. √1 2. {n2 + n} 3. {(−1)n }.
n
■

■ Solution
 1.1.2
 By substituting, n = 1, 2, 3, 4 in the respective general terms, we obtain
1. √1 = 1, √12 , √13 , 12 , · · · 2. 2, 6, 12, 20, · · · 3. 2, 6, 12, 20, · · · 4. (−1), 1, (−1), 1, · · · .
2
■

Problem 1.1 Define recursively

a0 = a1 = 1, and an = an−1 + 2an−2 , n ≥ 2.

 6 Chapter 1. SEQUENCES

Determine a6 recursively.

1.2 Limits of Sequences

 
1
Lets consider the sequence {un } = . The sequence has the terms 1, 12 , 13 , 14 , . . . . We see that the
n
terms of the sequence tend to or approach 0.
Definition 1.2.1 A number L is called the limit of an infinite sequence a1 , a2 , a3 , . . . or {an }, if
for any positive number ε, we can find a positive number N depending on ε such that |an − L| < ε
for all integers n > N. We write lim an = L.
n→∞

If {an } is a convergent sequence, it means that the terms an can be made arbitrarily close to L for n
sufficiently large.

1 3n + 1
■ Example 1.3 If un = 3 + = , the sequence is 4, 72 , 10
3 , . . . and we can show that
n n
lim un = 3. ■
n→∞
If the limit of a sequence exists, the sequence is called convergent, otherwise, it is called divergent.
1
■ Example 1.4 Prove that lim = 0. ■
n→∞ n

1 1 1 1 1
Proof. Let ε > 0, we can find N(ε) such that −0 = = < ε. But n > . So N = . Taking
n n n ε ε
1 1
N to be the smallest integer greater than , we have, lim = 0. ■
ε n→∞ n

1
Problem 1.2 Prove that lim p = 0 if p ∈ N.
n→0 n
 1.3 Theorems on Limits 7
2n − 1 2
■ Example 1.5 Use the definition of a limit to prove that lim = . ■
n→∞ 3n + 2 3

Proof. Let ε > 0, we can find N(ε) such that

2n − 1 2 3(2n − 1) − 2(3n + 3) 6n − 3 − 6n − 4 −7 7
− = = = = <ε
3n + 2 3 3(3n + 2) 3(3n + 2) 3(3n + 2) 3(3n + 2)

7
< ε
3(3n + 2)
7 − 6ε
n > .
9ε
7 − 6ε
So taking N to be the smallest integer greater than , we have
9ε
2n − 1 2 2n − 1 2
− < ε , i.e., lim = . ■
3n + 2 3 n→∞ 3n + 2 3

1.3 Theorems on Limits

Theorem 1.3.1 If lim an = A and lim bn = B, then
n→∞ n→∞
1. lim (an + bn ) = lim an + lim bn = A + B.
n→∞ n→∞ n→∞
2. lim (an − bn ) = lim an − lim bn = A − B.
n→∞ n→∞ n→∞
3. lim (an · bn ) = ( lim an )( lim bn ) = AB.
n→∞ n→∞ n→∞
an n→∞ lim an A
4. lim = = if lim bn = B ̸= 0.
n→∞ bn lim bn B n→∞
n→∞
5. The limit of a convergent sequence {un } of real numbers is unique.

■ Example 1.6 The limit of a convergent sequence {un } of real numbers is unique. ■

Proof. We must show that if lim un = l1 and lim un = l2 , then l1 = l2 . By hypothesis, given any
n→∞ n→∞
ε ε
ε > 0, we can find N such that |un − l1 | < when n > N and |un − l2 | < when n > N. Then
2 2
ε ε
|l1 − l2 | = |l1 − un + un − l2 | ≤ |l1 − un | + |un − l2 | < + = ε,
2 2
i.e., |l1 − l2 | is less than any positive ε (however small) and so must be zero, i.e.,
l1 − l2 = 0 =⇒ l1 = l2 . ■

■ Example 1.7 If lim an = A and lim bn = B, prove that lim (an + bn ) = A + B. ■

n→∞ n→∞ n→∞

Proof. We must show that for any ε > 0, we can find N > 0, such that |(an + bn ) − (A + B)| < ε for
all n > N. We have

|(an + bn ) − (A + B)| = |(an − A) + (bn − B)| ≤ |an − A| + |bn − B|.

 8 Chapter 1. SEQUENCES
ε
By hypothesis, given ε > 0 we can find N1 and N2 such that |an − A| < for all n > N1 and
2
ε
|bn − B| < for all n > N2 . Then
2
ε ε
|(an + bn ) − (A + B)| < + = ε
2 2
for all n > N where N = max(N1 , N2 ). Hence lim (an + bn ) = A + B. ■
n→∞

1.4 Sequences Tending to Infinity

n tends to infinity, n → ∞ (n grows or increases beyond any limit ). Infinity is not a number and the
sequences that tend to infinity are not convergent.
We write lim an = ∞, if for each positive number M, we can find a positive number N (depending
n→∞
on M) such that an > M for all n > N.
Similarly, we write lim an = −∞, if for each positive number M, we can find a positive number N
n→∞
such that an < −M for all n > N.
■ Example 1.8 Prove that
1. lim 32n−1 = ∞
n→∞
2. lim (1 − 2n) = −∞.
n→∞
■

Proof.
1. If for each positive number M we can find a positive number  N suchthat an > M for all
2n−1 1 ln M
n > N, then 3 > M when (2n − 1) ln 3 > ln M, i.e., n > + 1 . Taking N to be the
  2 ln 3
1 ln M
smallest greater than + 1 , then lim 32n−1 = ∞.
2 ln 3 n→∞
2. If for each positive number M, we can find a positive number N such that an < −M for all
n > N, i.e., 1 − 2n < −M when 2n − 1 > M or n > 12 (M + 1). Taking N to be the smallest
integer greater than 12 (M + 1), we have lim (1 − 2n) = −∞.
n→∞
■

1.5 Bounded and Monotonic Sequences

A sequence that tends to a limit l is said to be convergent and the sequence converges to l. A sequence
may tend to +∞ or −∞, and is said to be divergent and it diverges to +∞ or −∞.
Definition 1.5.1 If un ≤ M for n = 1, 2, 3, . . . , where M is a constant, we say that the sequence
{un } is bounded above and M is called an upper bound. The smallest upper bound is called the
least upper bound (l.u.b).

Definition 1.5.2 If un ≥ m, the sequence is bounded below and m is called a lower bound. The
largest lower bound is called the greatest lower bound (g.l.b).

Definition 1.5.3 If m ≤ un ≤ M, the sequence is called bounded, indicated by |un | ≤ P.

Every convergent sequence is bounded, but the converse is not necessarily true.
 1.6 Limits of Combination of Sequences 9
Definition 1.5.4 If un+1 ≥ un , the sequence is called monotonic increasing and if un+1 > un it is
called strictly increasing.

Definition 1.5.5 If un+1 ≤ un , the sequence is called monotonic decreasing, while if un+1 < un it
is strictly decreasing.

■ Example 1.9 The sequence 1, 1.1, 1.11, 1.111, . . . is bounded and monotonic increasing. ■

■ Example 1.10 The sequence 1, −1, 1, −1, 1, . . . is bounded but not monotonic increasing or
decreasing. ■

1
Definition 1.5.6 A null sequence is a sequence that converges to 0, e.g., un = , n ≥ 11.
n − 10

If {un } does not tend to a limit or +∞ or −∞, we say that {un } oscillates (or is an oscillating
sequence). It can oscillate finitely (bounded) or infinitely (unbounded).

■ Example 1.11 un = (−1)n , un = (−1)n n. ■

1.6 Limits of Combination of Sequences

5 − 2n2
 
1 3
We want to be able to evaluate limits, for example, of the form lim 2 − + 2 or lim .
n→∞ n n n→∞ 4 + 3n + 2n2
 
1 3 1 1
■ Example 1.12 lim 2 − + 2 = lim 2 − lim + 3 lim 2 = 2 − 0 + 0 = 2. ■
n→∞ n n n→∞ n→∞ n n→∞ n

3n2 − 5n 3 − 5n 3+0 3
■ Example 1.13 lim 2
= lim 2 6
= = . ■
n→∞ 5n + 2n − 6 n→∞ 5 + − 2 5+0+0 5
n n
√ √ 
√ √ √ √ n+1+ n
■ Example 1.14 lim ( n + 1 − n) = lim ( n + 1 − n) · √ √
n→∞ n→∞ n+1+ n
1
= lim √ √ = 0. ■
n→∞ n + 1 + n

1.7 Squeeze Theorem

If lim an = l = lim bn and there exists an N such that an ≤ cn ≤ bn , for all n > N, then lim cn = l.
n→∞ n→∞ n→∞
cos n
■ Example 1.15 Determine lim . ■
n→∞ n
■ Solution 1.7.1 We know that −1 ≤ cos n ≤ 1
1 cos n 1 1 cos n 1 cos n
=⇒ − ≤ ≤ =⇒ − lim ≤ lim ≤ lim =⇒ 0 ≤ lim ≤0
n n n n→∞ n n→∞ n n→∞ n n→∞ n
cos n
=⇒ lim = 0. ■
n→∞ n
 10 Chapter 1. SEQUENCES

1.8 Infinite Series

One important application of infinite sequences is in representing infinite summations. If {an } is an
infinite sequence, then
∞
∑ an = a1 + a2 + a3 + · · ·
n=1

is called an infinite series (or simply a series). The numbers a1 , a2 , a3 , . . . are called the terms of
the series. To find the sum of an infinite series, consider the following sequence of partial sums.
S1 = a1
S2 = a1 + a2
S3 = a1 + a2 + a3
.. . .. ..
. = .. . .
Sn = a1 + a2 + a3 + · · · + an .
If this sequence of partial sums converges, then the series is said to converge and has the sum
indicated in the following definition.

1.9 Convergent and Divergent Series

Definition 1.9.1 For the infinite series ∑ an , the nth partial sum is given by

Sn = a1 + a2 + a3 + · · · + an .

If the sequence of partial sums {Sn } converges to S, then the series ∑ an converges. The limit S
is called the sum of the series. If {Sn } diverges, then the series diverges.
∞
1 1 1 1 1
■ Example 1.16 The series ∑ 2n = 2 + 4 + 8 + 16 + · · · has the following partial sums.
n=1
1
S1 =
2
1 1 3
S2 = + =
2 4 4
1 1 1 7
s3 = + + =
2 4 8 8
.. . .. .. ..
. = .. . . .
1 1 1 1 2n − 1
sn = + + +···+ n = .
2 4 8 2 2n
2n − 1
Because lim = 1, it follows that the series converges and its sum is 1. ■
n→∞ 2n
■ Example 1.17 The nth partial sum of the series

∞        
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
∑ − n+1 = 1− 2 + 2 − 3 + 3 − 4 +···
n=1 n

1
is given by Sn = 1 − . Because the limit of Sn is 1, the series converges and its sum is 1. ■
n+1
 1.10 Geometric Series 11
∞
■ Example 1.18 The series ∑ 1 = 1 + 1 + 1 + · · · diverges, because Sn = n and the sequence of
n=1
partial sums diverges. ■

The series in Example (1.17) is a telescoping series. That is, it is of the form
(b1 − b2 ) + (b2 − b3 ) + (b3 − b4 ) + (b4 − b5 ) + · · ·
note that b2 is canceled by the second term, b3 is canceled by the third term and so on. Because the
nth partial sum of the series is Sn = b1 − bn+1 , it follows that a telescoping series will only converge
if and only if bn approaches a finite number as n → ∞. Moreover, if the series converges, then its
sum is
S = b1 − lim bn+1 .
n→∞
∞
2
■ Example 1.19 Determine the sum of the series ∑ 4n2 − 1 . ■
n=1
■ Solution 1.9.1 Using partial fractions, we can write
2 2 1 1
an = = = − .
4n2 − 1 (2n − 1)(2n + 1) 2n − 1 2n + 1
From the telescoping form, we can see that the nth partial sum is
     
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Sn = − + − +···+ − = 1− .
1 3 3 5 2n − 1 2n + 1 2n + 1
Thus, the series converges and its sum is 1. That is,
∞  
2 1
∑ 2 = n→∞ lim Sn = lim 1 − = 1.
n=1 4n − 1 2n + 1
n→∞

1.10 Geometric Series

A geometric series with ratio r is given by
∞
∑ arn = a + ar + ar2 + · · · + arn + · · · , a ̸= 0.
n=0

Theorem 1.10.1 A geometric series with ratio r diverges if |r| ≥ 1. If 0 < |r| < 1, then the series
∞
a
converges to the sum ∑ arn = 1 − r , 0 < |r| < 1.
n=0

■ Example 1.20 The geometric series

∞ ∞  n    2
3 1 1 1
∑ 2n = ∑ 3 2 = 3(1) + 3 2 + 3 2 + · · ·
n=0 n=0

has a ratio of r = 12 with a = 3. Because 0 < |r| < 1, the series converges and its sum is
a 3
S= = = 6. ■
1 − r 1 − 12
 12 Chapter 1. SEQUENCES

1.10.1 Properties of Infinite Series

If ∑ an = A and ∑ bn = B and c is a real number, then the following series converge to the indicated
sums:
1. ∑ can = cA
2. ∑(an ± bn ) = ∑ an ± ∑ bn = A ± B.

1.11 Test for Convergence or Divergence of Series

In this and the following section, we will study several convergence tests that apply to series with
positive terms.

1.11.1 The Integral Test

∞ Z ∞
If f is positive, continuous, and decreasing for x ≥ 1 and an = f (n), then ∑ an and f (x) dx
n=1 1
either both converge or both diverge.
∞
n
■ Example 1.21 Apply the integral test to the series ∑ n2 + 1 .
n=1
x
Because f (x) = 2 satisfies the conditions for the integral test (check this), we can integrate to
x +1
obtain
Z b
x 1 ∞ 2x 1 2x
Z ∞ Z
2
dx = 2
dx = lim dx
1 x +1 2 1 x +1 2 b→∞ 1 x2 + 1
 b
1
= lim ln(x2 + 1)
2 b→∞ 1
1
= lim [ln(b2 + 1) − ln 2]
2 b→∞
= ∞.

Thus, the series diverges. ■

∞
1
■ Example 1.22 Apply the integral test to the series ∑ n2 + 1 . ■
n=1
1
■ Solution 1.11.1 Because f (x) = 2 satisfies the conditions for the integral test, we can integrate
x +1
to obtain
Z b  b
dx dx
Z ∞
−1
2
= lim = lim tan x
1 x +1 b→∞ 1 x2 + 1 b→∞ 1
= lim (tan−1 b − tan−1 1)
b→∞
π π π
= − = .
2 4 4

Thus, the series converges. ■

 1.12 Comparisons of Series 13

1.11.2 p− Series and Harmonic Series

A series of the form
∞
1 1 1 1
∑ np = 1p + 2p + 3p + · · ·
n=1

is a p−series, where p is a positive constant. For p = 1, the series

∞
1 1 1
∑ n = 1+ 2 + 3 +···
n=1

is the harmonic series.

Theorem 1.11.1 The p−series
∞
1 1 1 1
∑ np = 1p + 2p + 3p + · · ·
n=1

(i) converges if p > 1 and (ii) diverges if 0 < p ≤ 1.

■ Example 1.23 From the Theorem it follows that the harmonic series
∞
1 1 1
∑ n = 1+ 2 + 3 +···
n=1

diverges. ■

1.12 Comparisons of Series

1.12.1 Direct Comparison Test
This is a test for positive-term series. It allows you to compare a series having complicated terms
with a simpler series whose convergence or divergence is known.
Direct Comparison Test
Theorem 1.12.1 Let 0 ≤ an ≤ bn for all n.
∞ ∞
1. If ∑ bn converges, then ∑ an converges.
n=1 n=1
∞ ∞
2. If ∑ an diverges, then ∑ bn diverges.
n=1 n=1

∞
1
■ Example 1.24 Determine the convergence or divergence of ∑ 2 + 3n . ■
n=1
∞
1
■ Solution 1.12.1 This series resembles ∑ 3n (Convergent geometric series). Term-by-term
n=1
comparison yields
1 1
an = n
< n = bn , n ≥ 1.
2+3 3
Thus, by the Direct Comparison Test, the series converges. ■
 14 Chapter 1. SEQUENCES
∞
1
■ Example 1.25 Determine the convergence or divergence of ∑ 2 + √n . ■
n=1
∞
1
■ Solution 1.12.2 The series resembles ∑n 1 (Divergent p−series). Term-by-term comparison
n=1 2

yields
1 1
√ ≤ √ , n≥1
2+ n n
which does not meet the requirements for divergence. Still expecting the series to diverge, we
∞
1
can compare the given series with ∑ (Divergent Harmonic series). In this case, term-by-term
n=1 n
comparison yields
1 1
an = ≤ √ = bn , n ≥ 4
n 2+ n
and, by the Direct Comparison Test, the given series diverges. ■

1.12.2 Limit Comparison Test or Quotient Test

Often a given series closely resembles a p−series or a geometric series, yet we cannot establish the
term-by-term comparison necessary to apply the Direct Comparison Test. We can apply a second
comparison test, called the Limit Comparison Test.
Limit Comparison Test  
an
Suppose that an > 0 and bn > 0 and lim = L where L is finite and positive. Then the two
n→∞ bn
series ∑ an and ∑ bn , either both converge or both diverge. If L = 0 and ∑ bn converges, then ∑ an
converges. If L = ∞ and ∑ bn diverges, then ∑ an diverges.
■ Example 1.26 Show that the following harmonic series diverges.
∞
1
∑ an + b , a > 0, b > 0.
n=1
■

∞ 1
1 n 1
■ Solution 1.12.3 By comparison with ∑ n we have lim an+b = lim = . Because this
n→∞ 1 n→∞ an + b a
n=1 n
limit is grater than 0, we can conclude from the Limit comparison Test that the given series diverges.
■

The limit Comparison Test works well for comparing a messy algebraic series with a p−series. In
choosing an appropriate p−series, we must choose one with an nth term of the same magnitude as
the nth term of the given series.
Given series Comparison series Conclusion
∞ ∞
1 1
∑ 3n2 − 4n + 5 ∑ n2 Both series converge.
n=1 n=1
∞ ∞
1 1
∑ √3n − 2 ∑ √n Both series diverge.
n=1 n=1
∞
n2 − 10 ∞
n2 ∞
1
∑ 5 3 =
∑ n5 ∑ n3 Both series converge.
n=1 4n + n n=1 n=1
 1.13 Alternating Series 15

1.13 Alternating Series

So far, most series we have dealt with have had positive terms. In this section, we will study series
that contain both positive and negative terms. The simplest such series is an alternating series,
whose terms alternate in sign. For example, the geometric series
∞ 
1 n
 ∞
1 1 1 1 1
∑ − 2 = ∑ (−1)n 2n = 1 − 2 + 4 − 8 + 16 − · · ·
n=0 n=0

is an alternating geometric series with r = − 21 . Alternating series occur in two ways, either the odd
terms are negative or the even terms are negative.
Alternating Series Test
∞ ∞
Let an > 0. The alternating series ∑ (−1)n an and ∑ (−1)n+1 an converge, if the following two
n=1 n=1
conditions are met.
1. an+1 ≤ an for all n.
2. lim an = 0.
n→∞
∞
1
■ Example 1.27 Determine the convergence or divergence of ∑ (−1)n+1 n . ■
n=1
1 1 1
■ Solution 1.13.1 Because ≤ for all n and the limit (as n → ∞) of is 0, we can apply the
n+1 n n
Alternating Series Test to conclude that the series converges. (This series is called the alternating
harmonic series) ■

∞
n
■ Example 1.28 Determine the convergence or divergence of ∑ (−2)n−1 . ■
n=1
■ Solution 1.13.2 To apply the Alternating Series Test, note that, for n ≥ 1,
1 n
≤
2 n+1
2n−1 n
≤
2n n+1
(n + 1)2n−1 ≤ n2n
n+1 n
≤ .
2n 2n−1
n+1 n
Hence, an+1 = n ≤ n−1
= an for all n. Furthermore, by L’Hopital’s rule,
2 2
x 1 n
lim = lim = 0 =⇒ lim = 0.
x→∞ 2x−1 x→∞ 2x−1 (ln 2) n→inf 2n−1

Therefore, by the Alternating Series Test, the given series converges. ■

Cases for which the Alternating Series Test Fails

■ Example 1.29 The alternating series

∞
(−1)n+1 (n + 1) 2 3 4 5 6
∑ = − + − + −···
n=1 n 1 2 3 4 5
 16 Chapter 1. SEQUENCES

passes the first condition in the alternating series test because an+1 ≤ an for all n. We cannot apply
the Alternating Series Test, because the series does not pass the second condition.
The alternating series
2 1 2 1 2 1 1 1
− + − + − + − +···
1 1 2 2 3 3 2 4
passes the second condition because an approaches 0 as n → ∞. We cannot apply the Alternating
Series Test, however, because the series does not pass the first condition. ■

1.14 Absolute and Conditional Convergence

Occasionally, a series may have both positive and negative terms and not be an alternating series, for
example, the series
∞
sin n sin 1 sin 2 sin 3
∑ 2
= + + +···
n=1 n 1 4 9

has both positive and negative terms, yet it is not an alternating series. One way to obtain some
information about the convergence of this series is to investigate the convergence of the series
∞
sin n
∑ n2 . By direct comparison, we have | sin n| ≤ 1, for all n, so
n=1

sin n 1
2
≤ 2, n ≥ 1.
n n
∞
sin n
Thus, by the Direct Comparison Test, the series ∑ 2
converges. But the question still is “Does
n=1 n
the original series converge?”

Theorem 1.14.1 — Absolute Convergence. If the series ∑ |an | converges, then the series ∑ an
also converges.

The converse of the Theorem is not true. For example, the alternating harmonic series
∞
(−1)n+1 1 1 1
∑ = 1− + − +···
n=1 n 2 3 4

converges by the Alternating Series Test. Yet the harmonic series diverges. This type of convergence
is called conditional.
Definition of Absolute and Conditional Convergence
1. ∑ an is absolutely convergent if ∑ |an | converges.
2. ∑ an is conditionally convergent if ∑ an converges but ∑ |an | diverges.
3. An absolutely convergent series converges.
■Example 1.30 Determine whether the following series are convergent or divergent. Classify any
convergent series as absolutely or conditionally convergent.
n(n+1)
∞
(−1) 2 1 1 1 1
1. ∑ n
= − − + + −···.
n=1 3 3 9 27 81
 1.15 The Ratio and Root Tests 17

■ Solution 1.14.1 This is not an alternating series. However, because

n(n+1)
∞ ∞
(−1) 2 1
∑ = ∑ 3n
n=1 3n n=1

is a convergent geometric series, so the given series is absolutely convergent, hence convergent.
■
∞
(−1)n 1 1 1 1
2. ∑ ln(n + 1) = − ln 2 + ln 3 − ln 4 + ln 5 − · · · .
n=1
■ Solution 1.14.2 In this case, the alternating series test indicates that the given series con-

verges. However, the series

∞
(−1)n 1 1 1
∑ = + + +···
n=1 ln(n + 1) ln 2 ln 3 ln 4

diverges by direct comparison with terms of the harmonic series. Therefore, the given series is
conditionally convergent. ■

∞
(−1)n 1 1 1 1
3. ∑ √ = −√ + √ − √ + √ −···.
n=1 n 1 2 3 4
■ Solution 1.14.3 The given series converges by the Alternating Series Test. Moreover,
because the p−series
∞
(−1)n 1 1 1 1
∑ √ = √ + √ + √ + √ +···
n=1 n 1 2 3 4

diverges, the given series is conditionally convergent. ■

1.15 The Ratio and Root Tests

1.15.1 The Ratio Test
This is a test for absolute convergence.

Ratio Test
an+1
1. ∑ an converges absolutely if n→∞
lim < 1.
an
an+1 an+1
2. ∑ an diverges if lim > 1 or lim = ∞.
n→∞ an n→∞ an
an+1
3. The Ratio Test is inconclusive if lim = 1.
n→∞ an
Although the Ratio Test is not a cure for all ills related to tests for convergence, it is particularly
useful for series that converge rapidly. Series involving factorials or exponentials are frequently of
this type.
∞
2n
■ Example 1.31 Determine the convergence or divergence of ∑ . ■
n=0 n!
 18 Chapter 1. SEQUENCES
2n
■ Solution 1.15.1 Because an = , we can write the following
n!
 n+1
2n

an+1 2
lim = lim ÷
n→∞ an n→∞ (n + 1)! n!
 n+1 
2 n!
= lim ·
n→∞ (n + 1)! 2n
2
= lim
n→∞ n + 1
= 0.

Therefore, the series converges. ■

■ Example 1.32 Determine whether the following series converge or diverge.

∞
n2 2n+1
1. ∑ 3n
n=0
∞
nn
2. ∑ .
n=1 n!
■

an+1
■ Solution 1.15.2 1. This series converges because the limit of is less than 1.
 n+2   an
3n
 
an+1 2
lim = lim (n + 1)2
n→∞ an n→∞ 3n+1 n2 2n+1
2(n + 1) 2
= lim
n→∞ 3n2
2
= < 1.
3
an+1
2. This series diverges because the limit of is grater than 1.
an 
(n + 1)n+1 n!
 
an+1
lim = lim
n→∞ an n→∞ (n + 1)! nn
(n + 1)n+1 1
  
= lim
n→∞ (n + 1) nn
(n + 1)n 1 n
 
= lim = lim 1 +
n→∞ nn n→∞ n
= e > 1.
■

1.15.2 The Root Test

This test of convergence or divergence of series works especially well for series involving nth powers.

Root Test
Let ∑ an be a series with non-zero terms.
p
1. ∑ an converges absolutely if lim n |an | < 1.
p n→∞ p
2. ∑ an diverges if lim n |an | > 1 or lim n |an | = ∞.
n→∞ n→∞
 1.16 Power Series 19
p
n
3. The Root Test is inconclusive if lim |an | = 1.
n→∞
∞
e2n
■ Example 1.33 Determine the convergence or divergence of ∑ n
. ■
n=1 n
■ Solution 1.15.3 We can apply the Root Test as follows
s
p n e2n
lim n |an | = lim
n→∞ n→∞ nn
2n
en
= lim n
n→∞ n n
e2
= lim
n→∞ n
= 0 < 1.

Because this limit is less than 1, we can conclude that the series converges absolutely. ■

1.16 Power Series

1.16.1 Definition of Power Series
If x is a variable, then the infinite series of the form
∞
∑ an xx = a0 + a1 x + a2 x2 + a3 x3 + · · · + an xn + · · ·
n=0

is called a power series. More generally, a series of the form

∞
∑ an (x − c)n = a0 + a1 (x − c) + a2 (x − c)2 + · · · + an (x − c)n + · · ·
n=0

is called a power series centered at c, where c is a constant.

∞
xn x2 x3
■ Example 1.34 The power series ∑ = 1 + x + + + · · · is centered at 0. ■
n=0 n! 2 3!
∞
■ Example 1.35 The power series ∑ (−1)n (x + 1)n = 1 − (x + 1) + (x + 1)2 − (x + 1)3 + · · · is
n=0
centered at −1. ■
∞
1 1 1
■ Example 1.36 The ∑ n (x − 1)n = (x − 1) + 2 (x − 1)2 + 3 (x − 1)3 + · · · power series is centered
n=1
at 1. ■

1.16.2 Radius and Interval of Convergence

A power series in x can be viewed as a function of x
∞
f (x) = ∑ an (x − c)n
n=0

where the domain of f is the set of all x for which the power series converges.
20 Chapter 1. SEQUENCES

Convergence of a Power Series

For a power series centered at c, precisely one of the following is true.
1. The series converges only at c.
2. There exists a real number R > 0 such that the series converges absolutely for |x − c| < R, and
diverges for |x − c| > R.
3. The series converges absolutely for all x.
The number R is the radius of convergence of the power series. If the series converges only at
c, then the radius of convergence is R = 0, and if the series converges for all x, then the radius of
convergence is R = ∞. The set of all values of x for which the power series converges is the interval
of convergence of the power series.
∞
■ Example 1.37 Determine the radius of convergence of ∑ n!xn . ■
n=0

■ Solution 1.16.1 For x = 0, we obtain

∞
f (0) = ∑ n!0n = 1 + 0 + 0 + · · · = 1.
n=0

For any fixed value of x such that |x| > 0, let un = n!xn . Then

un+1 (n + 1)!xn+1
lim = lim
n→∞ un n→∞ n!xn
= |x| lim (n + 1)
n→∞
= ∞.

Therefore, by the Ratio Test, the series diverges for |x| > 0, and converges only at its center, 0.
Hence, the radius of convergence is R = 0. ■

∞
■ Example 1.38 Determine radius of convergence of ∑ 3(x − 2)n . ■
n=0

■ Solution 1.16.2 For x ̸= 2, let un = 3(x − 2)n . Then

un+1 3(x − 2)n+1

lim = lim
n→∞ un n→∞ 3(x − 2)n
= lim |x − 2|
n→∞
= |x − 2|.

By the Ratio Test, the series converges if |x − 2| < 1 and diverges if |x − 2| > 1. Therefore, the radius
of convergence of the series is R = 1. ■

Determine the Interval of Convergence

∞
xn
■ Example 1.39 Determine the interval of convergence of ∑ . ■
n=1 n
1.16 Power Series 21
xn
■ Solution 1.16.3 Letting un = produces
n
xn+1
un+1
lim = lim n+1n
n→∞ un n→∞ x
n
nx
= lim
n→∞ n+1
= |x|.
Therefore, by the Ratio Test, the radius of convergence is R = 1. Moreover, because the series is
centered at 0, it converges in the interval (−1, 1). This interval, however, is not necessarily the
interval of convergence. To determine this, we must test for convergence at each endpoint. When
x = 1, we obtain the divergent harmonic series
∞
1 1 1
∑ n = 1+ 2 + 3 +···
n=1

When x = −1, we obtain the convergent alternating harmonic series

∞
(−1)n 1 1 1
∑ = −1 + − + − · · ·
n=1 n 2 3 4

Therefore, the interval of convergence for the series is [−1, 1). ■

∞
(−1)n (x + 1)n
■ Example 1.40 Determine the interval of convergence of ∑ . ■
n=0 2n
(−1)n (x + 1)n
■ Solution 1.16.4 Letting un = produces
2n
(−1)n+1 (x+1)n+1
un+1 2n+1
lim = lim (−1)n (x+1)n
n→∞ un n→∞
2n
2n (x + 1)
= lim
n→∞ 2n+1
x+1
= .
2
x+1
By the Ratio test, the series converges if < 1 or |x+1| < 2. Hence, the radius of convergence is
2
R = 2. Because the series is centered at x = −1, it will converge in the interval (−3, 1). Furthermore,
at the endpoints we have
∞
(−1)n (−2)n ∞
2n ∞
∑ = ∑ = ∑ 1 (Diverges when x=-3)
n=0 2n n=0 2
n
n=0

and
∞
(−1)n (2)n ∞
∑ 2n = ∑ (−1)n (Diverges when x=1)
n=0 n=0

both of which diverge. Thus, the interval of convergence is (−3, 1). ■

22 Chapter 1. SEQUENCES
∞
xn
■ Example 1.41 Determine the interval of convergence of ∑ n2 . ■
n=1
xn
■ Solution 1.16.5 Letting un = 2 produces
n
xn+1
un+1 (n+1)2 n2 x
lim = lim xn = lim = |x|.
n→∞ un n→∞
n2
n→∞ (n + 1)2

Thus, the radius of convergence is R = 1. Because the series is centered at x = 0, it converges in the
interval (−1, 1). When x = 1, we obtain the convergent p−series
∞
1 1 1 1
∑ n2 = 1 + 22 + 32 + 42 + · · · (Converges when x=1)
n=1

When x = −1, we obtain the convergent alternating series

∞
(−1)n 1 1 1
∑ 2
= −1 + 2 − 2 + 2 − · · · (Converges when x=-1)
n=1 n 2 3 4
Therefore, the interval of convergence for the given series is [−1, 1]. ■

∞
■ Example 1.42 Determine the interval of convergence of ∑ nxn . ■
n=1
■ Solution 1.16.6 The series is a power series with an = n and c = 0. Let un = nxn , so un+1 =
(n + 1)xn+1 . Then
un+1 (n + 1)|x|n+1 n + 1
= = |x| =⇒ |x| as n → ∞.
un n|x|n n
∞
The limit is less than one whenever |x| < 1. The Ratio Test then shows ∑ un is convergent for
n=1
|x| < 1, and the series diverges for |x| > 1. This means the radius of convergence is R = 1. We know
that the series is convergent for −1 < x < 1. We need to check convergence at the endpoints of this
∞
interval. When x = 1, we have ∑ n. This series does not approach zero as n → ∞, we know this
n=1
series must diverge. Similarly, the series is divergent when x = −1. The interval of convergence is
(−1, 1). ■

∞
(−1)n (x − 2)n
■ Example 1.43 Determine the interval of convergence of ∑ . ■
n=1 n4n
|x − 2|n |x − 2|n+1
■ Solution 1.16.7 Let un = , so un+1 = . Then
n4n (n + 1)4n+1
un+1 |x − 2|n+1 n4n n|x − 2| |x − 2|
= n+1 n
= =⇒ as n → ∞.
un (n + 1)4 |x − 2| (n + 1)4 4
|x − 2| |x − 2|
The Ratio Test gives convergence for < 1 and divergence for > 1. Solving the first
4 4
inequality, we have
|x − 2| < 4 =⇒ −4 < x − 2 < 4 =⇒ −2 < x < 6.
1.16 Power Series 23

When x = −2, the series is

∞
(−1)n (−2 − 2)n ∞
1
∑ n
= ∑ ,
n=1 n4 n=1 n

which is a divergent p−series. When x = 6, we have

∞
(−1)n (6 − 2)n ∞
(−1)n
∑ = ∑ n .
n=1 n4n n=1

The Alternating Series Test shows that the series is convergent. The interval of convergence is
−2 < x ≤ 6. ■
∞
x n
■ Example 1.44 Determine the interval of convergence of the series ∑ . ■
n
n=1 n3
xn
■ Solution 1.16.8 With un = , we find that
n3n
xn+1
un+1 (n + 1)3n+1 n|x| |x|
lim = n = lim = .
n→∞ un x n→∞ 3(n + 1) 3
n3n

|x|
Now < 1 provided |x| < 3, so the Ratio Test implies that the given series converges absolutely if
3
1
|x| < 3 and diverges if |x| > 3. When x = 3, we have the divergent harmonic series ∑ and when
n
(−1)n
x = −3, we have the convergent alternating series ∑ . Thus the interval of convergence of the
n
given power series is [−3, 3). ■

∞
2n xn
■ Example 1.45 Determine the interval of convergence of ∑ . ■
n=0 n!
2n xn
■ Solution 1.16.9 With un = , we find that
n!
2n+1 xn+1
(n + 1)! 2|x|
lim n n = lim =0
n→∞ 2 x n→∞ n + 1
n!
for all x. Hence the Ratio Test implies that the power series converges for all x, and its interval of
convergence is (−∞, ∞). ■