See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: [Link]

net/publication/266910901

A Review: Solar Water Heating Systems

Conference Paper · April 2014

DOI: 10.13140/2.1.1910.5281

CITATIONS READS

11 49,159

All content following this page was uploaded by Keyur Thakkar on 15 October 2014.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

 A Review: Solar Water Heating Systems
Tadvi Sachin Vinubhai,
PG Student, Department of Mechanical Engineering,
Parul Institute of Engineering & Technology, Limda, Vadodara-391760(Gujarat-INDIA)
E-mail ID: [Link]@[Link]

Jain Vishal R,
Assistant professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering,
Parul Institute of Engineering & Technology, Limda, Vadodara-391760(Gujarat-INDIA)
E-mail ID: vishal_shah176@[Link]

Dr. Keyur Thakkar,

Head of Department, Department of Mechanical Engineering,
Babaria Institute of Technology, Vadodara - Mumbai NH # 8, Varnama, Vadodara - 391240(Gujarat-INDIA)
E-mail ID: [Link].t@[Link]

ABSTRACT
In the present review paper, the existing solar water heating systems are studied with their applications. Nowadays, hot water is used
for domestic, commercial and industrial purposes. Various resources i.e. coal, diesel, gas etc, are used to heat water and for steam
production. Solar energy is the chief alternative to replace the conventional energy sources. The solar thermal water heating system
is the technology to harness the plenty amount of free available solar thermal energy. The solar thermal system is designed to meet
the energy demands. The size of the systems depends on availability of solar radiation, temperature requirement of customer,
geographical condition and arrangement of the solar system, etc. Therefore, it is necessary to design the solar water heating system
as per above parameters. The available literature is reviewed to understand the construction, arrangement, applications and sizing
of the solar thermal system.

KEY WORDS: water, for producing the steam for domestic and
Solar energy collector, Active & Passive system, Heat industrial purposes by utilizing the solar energy.
transfer fluid. Modern systems designed for capturing the suns energy
and transferring it to water, either for immediate use or
INTRODUCTION as a storage medium, have been studied and put to use
since the 1970’s, when they were first used for pool
The sun has been a powerful presence and force heating in California. Continued research and
throughout the history of human existence on earth. It innovation has resulted in products feasible in much
has been regarded by many cultures as a god of one colder and less sunny climates today (Bennet T, 2007).
form or another, and understood by most to be the
ultimate source of life on this planet. It has also been HISTORY
intentionally exploited by many clever means over the
centuries, in order to better utilize this life giving The history of using the sun for energy goes way back
energy. As far as renewable energy sources go, the sun to the Ancient Greeks and Romans as their buildings
represents the best and most stable we have. It is were constructed such that the rays of the sun provided
infinite with respect to all practical timescales, light and heat for indoor spaces. The Greek philosopher
immensely powerful, understood and predictable in its Socrates wrote, “In houses that look toward the south,
overall trends and patterns, and for the foreseeable the sun penetrates the entrance in winter.” Romans
future beyond anthropogenic effects. In short, the advanced this art by covering the openings to south
perfect energy source; but it is not without difficulties. facing building with glass, in order to retain the heat of
Solar heater is a device which is used for heating the the winter sun.

NCEVT’14 Sachin Tadvi 1

The history of utilizing solar energy in recent times CURRENT SOLAR ENERGY SYSTEMS
dates from 1861 when Mouchout developed a steam
engine powered entirely by the sun and in 1883 Solar technologies are commonly grouped into three
American inventor Charles Fritts described the first major categories, generally differing in the ways they
solar cells made of selenium wafers. collect, store and use energy.

The Arab oil embargo in 1973 confirmed the degree to Passive solar systems involve direct utilization of the
which the western economy depended upon there, sun’s radiation as light or possibly heat. Examples
being a cheap and reliable flow of oil. In the 1970s it include energy efficient windows, skylights,
was thought that through massive investment in greenhouses, and hybrid lighting fixtures, which use
funding and research, solar photovoltaic costs could fiber optic cable to transmit sunlight into interior
drastically reduced, such that eventually solar cells rooms. Next are solar thermal, which collect and use
could become competitive with fossil fuels. the sun’s energy as heat. They are different from direct
heating in their ability to store thermal energy for later
In the mid 50’s Israeli engineer, Levi Yissar, suggested use. Modern applications include domestic and
the use of solar energy for heating up domestic water industrial water heating, air and space heating, radiant
with Israelis responding by the mass purchasing of slab heating, and even the operation of heat pumps and
solar water heaters. By 1983, 60% of the population sterling engines (Bennet T, 2007).
heated their water from the sun. When the price of oil
dropped in the mid 1980s, the Israeli government The energy and the temperature level required to be
required its inhabitants to heat their water with the sun. supplied to carry out everyday tasks will vary.
Today, more than 90% of Israeli households own solar Generally, a domestic hot water supply at temperatures
water heaters. in the range of 50 to 60 degree Celsius is considered to
be acceptable (SOPAC Technical Report, 1999).
By the 1990s, the reality was that the costs of solar
energy had dropped as predicted and the huge PV FACTORS AFFECTING SOLAR WATER
market growth in Germany and Japan from the 1990s HEATING PERFORMANCE
to the present has boosted the solar industry.
Furthermore, such large PV productions are creating The performance of a solar water heating system
steadily lowering costs. Meanwhile, the heating of depends on the following factors.
water by solar energy is an increasingly cost effective
means of lowering gas and electricity demand (Ken Ambient conditions
Butti, John Perlin, 1980).
The amount of incident radiation determines the
In the 19th century, people used a stove to heat water absorbed solar radiation by the collector while the
by burning pieces of wood or coal. In cities, the ambient temperature determines the thermal losses
wealthier heated their water with gas manufactured from the collector. Cloudy conditions limit the beam
from coal. In many areas, wood, coal or gas could not isolation levels and thus the radiation absorbed by the
be easily obtained and hence such fuels were often collector especially the concentrating collectors (Duffie
expensive. To avoid these problems, a much easier and J.A and Beckman W.A, 1991).
safer way to heat water was created. This was achieved
by placing outside a black painted metal tank full of Collector orientation and tilt
water to absorb solar energy. The disadvantage was
that even on clear hot days it usually took from Geographic orientation and collector tilt can affect the
morning to early afternoon for the water to get hot. As amount of solar radiation the system receives.
the sun went down, the tank rapidly lost its heat
because it had no insulation (Charles Smith, 1995).

The history of Solar Water Collectors in Greece started

when the first collectors were imported from Israel in
the mid 70’s. The Greek Solar Industry Association
was established in 1978 and the promotion of solar
systems started around the same period. The
technology of the Solar Water Heaters was largely
accepted by the market and small units of 2m2 were
installed in order to cover the needs of a household Fig. 1 Solar Collector orientation
(SHC annual report, 2001).

NCEVT’14 Sachin - Keyur 2

Collector orientation is critical in achieving maximum electrically driven pumps to circulate water or another
performance from a solar energy system. In general, heat absorbing fluid, and sometimes use electrically
the optimum orientation for a solar collector in the operated valves for freeze protection. Passive systems
northern hemisphere is true south (azimuth of 180°) as have no electrical pumps. They rely upon convection to
illustrated in Figure 1. However, recent studies have circulate hot water through the collector and storage
shown that, depending on the location and collector tilt, tank (Duffie J.A and Beckman W.A, 1991).
the collector can face up to 90° east or west of true
south without significantly decreasing its performance. Passive systems
The optimum tilt angle for solar collector is an angle
equal to the latitude (Duffie J.A and Beckman W.A, In passive systems, hot water is either stored in the
1991). collector itself or is transferred to a storage tank located
above the collectors by means of a thermosyphon.
Collector array arrangement Passive systems do not employ pumps to circulate
water or collector fluid. Two types of passive systems;
The performance of the collector array depends on how thermosyphon systems and integral collector storage
the collector modules are connected. In parallel systems are briefly described below.
connection, module inlet and outlet ports are fed to the
common respective headers. Assuming identical Thermosyphon systems
modules, fluid inlet temperature is the same to all
modules in the array. A typical thermosyphon system is indicated in Figure.2
As the sun shines on the collector, the water inside the
This is also true to fluid outlet temperature. The collector flow-tubes is heated. As it heats up, this water
performance of the collector array is thus the same as expands slightly and becomes lighter than the cold
the performance of the individual collector. In series water in the solar storage tank mounted above the
connection, the performance of the second and collector. Gravity then pulls heavier, cold water down
subsequent modules will not be the same as the first from the tank and into the collector inlet. The cold
because its inlet temperature is the outlet temperature water pushes the heated water through the collector
of the first (Duffie J.A and Beckman W.A, 1991). outlet and into the top of the tank, thus heating the
water in the tank.
The transport fluid flow rate

Low collector fluid flow rates of about 1 to 4 gallons

per minute increases the thermal performance of the
collector by increasing the degree of storage tank
thermal stratification. In a stratified tank, the
temperature of fluid at the bottom of the storage tank is
lower than at the top. Collector inlet temperature is
reduced because the collector inlet fluid is fed from the
bottom portion of the tank. Lower inlet collector
temperature reduces thermal losses. This results in
increased useful energy gain (Duffie J.A and Beckman
W.A, 1991).

TYPES OF SOLAR WATER HEATER

Solar water heating systems are classified depending

on how the domestic water is heated or how the heat Fig. 2 Thermosyphon system
transfer fluid (water or antifreeze fluid) flows through
the collector. Based on this, there are basically two A thermosyphon system requires neither pump nor
types of solar water heating systems, namely; Direct controller. Cold water from the city water line flows
(open loop) and Indirect (closed loop) water heating directly to the tank on the roof. Solar heated water
systems which can either be passive or active (Roger flows from the rooftop tank to the auxiliary tank
Taylor, 2006). installed at ground level whenever water is used within
the residence. This system features a thermally
Direct systems heat up water as it flows directly in the operated valve that protects the collector from freezing.
collector whiles indirect systems heat up water through It also includes isolation valves, which allow the solar
a heat exchanger employed between the collector and system to be manually drained in case of freezing
the hot water storage tank. Active systems use

NCEVT’14 Sachin - Keyur 3

conditions, or to be bypassed completely (Harrison J, utility supply line (which normally treats domestic
Tiedeman T, 1997). water). Active system whether direct or indirect can be
easily retrofitted to already existing water heaters
Integral collector storage (ICS) systems because the storage tank can be placed at any place
unlike thermosyphon systems which require a storage
In integral collector storage (ICS) or batch systems, tank always above the collector (Harrison J, Tiedeman
water is heated directly by the sun and the storage tank T, 1997).
serves as the solar collector. Batch water heaters are
almost always passive systems in which hot water is SOLAR ENERGY COLLECTORS
delivered from the solar heated tank to a backup tank or
the point of use by the water pressure in the house. Solar energy collectors work in a similar manner to
Most designs use local main water pressure to circulate heat exchangers in that they transform one form of
water in the collector. Water may also flow due to energy, solar radiation to another in the form of hot
buoyancy forces set up due to differential heating on water. The component that allows this exchange of
the collector and valves control the flow direction. energy is a solar collector. The solar collector absorbs
These systems are relatively cheaper than radiation and converts it into heat. This heat is then
thermosyphon systems. The system is simple because transferred to a fluid which is usually water or a glycol
pumps and controllers are not required. On demand, mixture, flowing through the collector. The energy that
cold water from the house flows into the collector and is collected from the process just described is then
hot water from the collector flows to a standard hot transferred from the fluid either directly to where it is
water auxiliary tank within the house. A freeze required or to a solar water heating storage tank from
protection valve installed in the top plumbing near the which it can be used when necessary. There are two
collector opens to allow relatively warm water to flow ways that solar collectors can be mounted; stationary or
through the collector to prevent freezing (Harrison J, tracking. If the collector is to be mounted in a
Tiedeman T, 1997). stationary position calculations are carried out at the
design stage as to the optimum inclination of the panels
Direct active systems for location and usage. The collectors will then remain
fixed to this tilt angle all year round and for the
Direct (Open Loop) Active Systems are similar to lifespan of the system. In a tracking position the
thermosyphon systems in that they are direct systems collector’s inclination will change as the sun’s angle in
that use a solar collector separate from the storage tank. the sky changes hour to hour and day to day in order to
The difference with direct active systems is that they receive the optimum amount of radiation (Kalogirou,
use an electric pump to circulate water from the storage S.A, 2004).
tank to the collector, and back to the storage tank.
These systems always require a check valve to prevent Flat plate collectors
reverse thermosyphoning at night (Harrison J,
Tiedeman T, 1997). Flat plate collectors currently are currently
manufactured in two different forms. Firstly collectors
Indirect active systems using liquid with no glazing are manufactured using a
black absorbent polymer coating without an insulated
Glycol antifreeze systems are active, indirect systems backing. The manufacturing costs of these particular
with a heat exchanger. Freeze resistant propylene collectors is extremely low but with this comes a
glycol is circulated through the solar collector(s) and negative as they also have high heat losses to the
heat exchanger, while household water is circulated environment making them inefficient. Such collectors
from the storage tank through the heat exchanger. The are not suitable when used in low temperature
household water is heated inside the heat exchanger applications such as swimming pools and industrial
and then stored inside the tank until needed. The heating.
antifreeze and water (if an external heat exchanger is
used) are circulated using either AC pumps powered The second form of flat plate collector uses glazing
from the utility grid or DC pumps powered by a solar (Fig. 3) and makes use of an absorber plate that absorbs
electric PV module. the solar radiation and in turn heats the copper tubes
that contain the transfer liquid. The side of the casing
The most common types of solar water heating system and underside of the absorber plate are heavily
in temperature climate regions are indirect active insulated to reduce conduction losses while in
systems mainly to protect the systems against freezing. operation. The liquid tubes are sometimes welded to
Direct active systems are used in tropical climates the absorbing plate, or they can be manufactured as
where freezing is not a problem and domestic water is part of the plate. These tubes are then connected at both
treated, or in cases water is fed directly from water ends by large diameter header tubes. These collectors

NCEVT’14 Sachin - Keyur 4

also utilize a transparent cover to reduce the convection where heat is then transferred to the systems primary
losses from the absorber plate by trapping a layer of circuit and condensed fluid flows back down the heat
stagnant air between the absorber plate and the glass pipe. Choosing the correct collector can depend on the
(Kalogirou, S.A, 2004). temperature of hot water required in the system and the
climate where the system is installed. The suitability of
a collector to a system therefore depends on the rated
efficiency of the panel and suitability to the
application. The vacuum envelopes in evacuated tube
collectors reduce conduction and convection losses,
which enables the collectors to operate at higher
temperatures than flat plate collectors. This advantage
means that these collectors are always used for high
temperature applications. They also have the ability to
absorb both direct and diffuse radiation like flat plate
collectors but at lower incident angles their efficiency
Fig. 3 Flat plate collector is greater. This effect tends to give Evacuated Tube
Collectors an advantage over Flat Plate Collectors in
Evacuated tube collectors day-long performance (Kalogirou, S.A, 2004).

Evacuated tube collectors are in most cases more

efficient than most flat plate collectors, but as a result
of this increased efficiency are also more costly due to
their complex design. Due to the absorber being
mounted in an evacuated and pressure-proof glass tube,
conductive and convective losses are minimized
increasing efficiency. Evacuated tubes work efficiently
at low radiation levels with high absorber temperatures
and can provide higher output temperatures than flat
plate collectors and they can be used in applications
where the demand temperature is 50–95 °C or in colder
climates. There are currently two principal types of
evacuated tube collectors on the current market, direct
flow and heat pipe. The first type is known as a direct
flow evacuated tube and as shown in Fig. 4 below Fig. 5 Heat pipe solar collector
where the heat transfer liquid is pumped in the tubes.
Parabolic concentrating collectors

Parabolic concentrators shown below in Fig. 6 are

rarely used in the European climate but they are very
useful for high temperature applications from 100-
200°C, where the efficiency of the collector
outperforms that of vacuum tube collectors. In very hot
countries where solar cooling systems are used,
temperatures levels of 150°C or higher are easily
achievable.

Fig. 4 Evacuated tube collector

The second type of collector shown in Fig. 5 utilizes

heat pipes inside vacuum sealed glass tubes with a
reflector also used to further increase the ability to
absorb radiation. The collector operates by vapour
rising to the heat exchanger shown on the left of Fig. 5,
Fig.6 Parabolic concentrating collectors

NCEVT’14 Sachin - Keyur 5

 (K. Sivakumar) represent the design of Elliptical heat
Some feasibility studies and concept designs exist pipe flat plat solar collector and tested with a collector
where parabolic concentrators can be used on tilt angle of 11° to the horizontal. Experimental
commercial buildings however to date they have not analysis of the effect of condenser length/evaporator
been used in that scenario. Parabolic collectors rely length (Lc/Le) ratio of the heat pipe, different cooling
heavily on direct irradiance and climates with a high water mass flow rates and different inlet cooling water
direct irradiance proportion and little cloud cover are temperature were analyses. Five numbers of elliptical
best suited for their use. According to Eicker (2003 heat pipes with stainless steel wick has been fabricated
p.48) “The investment costs of parabolic collectors are and used as transport tubes in the collector. Copper
about 300€/m². The solar heat costs can be as low as tube has been used as container material with methanol
0.045 €/kWh on a Turkish site with 1900 kWh/m² as working fluid of the heat pipe. These heat pipes
direct normal irradiance and 0.11 €/kWh on a southern were fixed to the absorber plate of the solar collector
German site with 890 kWh/m²” (Eicker. U, 2003). and the performance of elliptical heat pipe solar
collector has been studied and results were compared.
LITERATURE REVIEW It has been found from the experimental trials that the
elliptical heat pipe solar collector having Lc/Le ratio of
There are two main types of solar water heater systems: 0.1764 achieved higher instantaneous efficiency.
passive and active. Active systems integrate pumps and
rotary elements and are therefore very expensive. (B Sivaraman and N Krishna Mohan, 2005)
Passive systems use natural water circulation, gravity, represents experiments on the effect of L/d ratio of heat
and/or pressurized water systems. Passive solar water pipe on heat pipe solar collector. Two solar collectors
heater systems are much less expensive than their with different L/di have been designed and fabricated.
active counterparts and are easier to maintain and A heat pipe with stainless steel wick replaces the
repair. transport tubes of the solar collector. Copper and
stainless steel were used as container and wick material
(Soteris A. Kalogirou, 2004) presents a survey of the and methanol was used as working fluid of heat pipe.
various types of solar thermal collectors and Heat pipes are designed to have heat transport factor of
applications. All the solar systems which utilize the around 194 W and 260 W of thermal energy.
solar energy and its application depends upon the solar Experiments were conducted during summer season
collector such as flat-plate, compound parabolic, with a collector tilt angle of 13o to the horizontal. The
evacuated tube, parabolic trough, Fresnel lens, collector with L/di ratio of 52.63 was found to be more
parabolic dish and heliostat field collectors which are efficient than the collector with L/di ratio of 58.82. This
used in these system. The solar collectors are used for improved efficiency is due to increase in heat transport
domestic, commercial and industrial purposes. These factor of heat pipe, which increase with decrease in
include solar water heating, which comprise L/di ratio.
thermosyphon, integrated collector storage, direct and
indirect systems and air systems, space heating and (Hussain Al-Madani, 2006) studied a batch solar
cooling, which comprise, space heating and service hot water heater in Bahrain consisting of an evacuated,
water, air and water systems and heat pumps, cylindrical glass tube. Water runs through copper coils,
refrigeration, industrial process heat, which comprise which act as collectors, located within the glass tube.
air and water systems and steam generation systems, Side-by-side testing of prototypes resulted in a
desalination, thermal power systems, which comprise maximum temperature difference between the inlet and
the parabolic trough, power tower and dish systems, outlet of the cylindrical batch system of 27.8°C with a
solar furnaces, and chemistry applications. maximum efficiency of 41.8%. Al-Madani determined
the cost of manufacturing the cylindrical batch system
Table 1. Comparison of the Collectors to be $318, slightly less expensive than typical flat
plate collectors of $358.

(Dharamvir Mangal, Devander Kumar Lamba,

Tarun Gupta, Kiran Jhamb, 2010) presents
acknowledgement to one of the latest solar water heater
which is evacuated solar water heater based on a
thermo siphon principle used for heating water for
domestic purposes in household by utilizing solar
radiations. As the air is evacuated from the solar tube
to form a vacuum, this greatly reduces conductive and
convective heat loss from the interior of tube. As a
result wind and cold temperature have less effect on the

NCEVT’14 Sachin - Keyur 6

efficiency of evacuated solar water heater. Result of higher the temperature needed the more complicated
less heat loss is fast heating of water as compared to and expensive the system will be. Depending on the
flat plate solar water heater/collector. This paper range of temperature use, solar thermal applications are
introduced the benefits of evacuated tube solar water divided into the three broad categories:
heater. In India, it is still new model of solar water 1) Low-temperature applications (below 100°C), such
heater which can be used in our household to face the as solar drying, hot water supplies, cooking.
challenge of climate change, global warming, energy 2) Medium-temperature applications (below 150°C),
crisis etc. When comparing peak efficiency levels it such as refrigeration, industrial process heat, etc.
may seem that there is little difference between flat 3) High-temperature (above 150°C) applications, such
plate and evacuated tubes, in fact flat plate may as electricity generation (Roger Taylor, 2006).
actually be higher, but this is during minimal heat loss
conditions. When averaged over a year evacuated tube CONCLUSIONS
collector have a clear advantage.
Renewable energy research has become increasingly
(K. S. Ong and W. L. Tong, 2011) presents a System important since the signing of the Kyoto Protocol.
performance of solar water heaters depend upon Solar water heating (SWH) is one of the most effective
collector and storage tank design and sizing and technologies to convert solar energy into thermal
weather conditions (solar radiation intensity and energy and is considered to be a developed and
ambient temperature). Short and long term commercialized technology. However, there exist
performance tests were conducted on natural and force opportunities to further improve the system
convection U-tube and heat pipe evacuated tube solar performance to increase its reliability and efficiency. A
water heaters. The test procedures employed enabled concise review primarily on the design features and
comparative performances of solar water heating related technical advancements of the SWH systems in
systems to be made even when they were tested at terms of both energy efficiency and cost effectiveness
different times of the year. The experimental results has been presented. Several solar water heating designs
showed that the natural convection heat pipe system have been introduced in the market and are more
was capable of heating water to 100˚C and performed commonly utilized in the tropical regions of developing
best among the systems tested. countries. Recent developments in heat pipe based
solar collector technology exhibit a promising design to
BENEFITS OF SOLAR WATER HEATER utilize solar energy as a reliable heating source for
water heating applications in solar adverse regions.
The energy saved from using a solar water heating Heat pipe based solar water heating is influenced by
system helps to reduce domestic energy demand from many factors including the nature of the refrigerant,
power utilities. A solar water heater is a long-term due to the environmental concerns.
investment that will save money spent on water heating
after the system has paid for itself. In addition to the REFERENCES
reduced electrical energy and cost savings from water
heating, there are several other benefits derived from Al-Madani, Hussain (2006). “The performance of a
using the sun’s energy to heat water. Most solar water cylindrical solar water heater.” Renewable Energy Vol. 31,
heaters come with an additional water tank, which pp 1751-1763.
feeds the conventional hot water tank. Users benefit Bennet T. (2007). “Solar thermal water heating, a simplified
modeling approach”.
from the larger hot water storage capacity and the
B Sivaraman and N Krishna Mohan (2005). “Experimental
reduced likelihood of running out of hot water. analysis of heat pipe solar collector with different L/di ratio
of heat pipe”, Journal of Scientific & Industrial Research,
Some solar water heaters do not require electricity to Vol. 64, pp 698-701.
operate. For these systems, hot water supply is secure Charles Smith (1995). “History of Solar Energy Revisiting,
from power outages, as long as there is sufficient Past Solar Power Technology Review”.
sunlight to operate the system. Solar water heating Data-Annual Report (2001). “International Energy Agency of
systems can also be used to directly heat swimming Solar Heating and Cooling Programme”.
pool water, with the added benefit of extending the Dharamvir Mangal, Devander Kumar Lamba, Tarun Gupta,
Kiran Jhamb (2010). “Acknowledgement of Evacuated
swimming season for outdoor pool applications (Ret
Tube Solar Water Heater Over Flat Plate Solar Water
screen, 2012). Heater” International Journal of Engineering (IJE), Vol. 4,
pp 279-284.
APPLICATION OF SOLAR ENERGY Duffie J.A and Beckman W.A. (1991). “Solar Engineering of
Thermal Processes”, Second Edition, Wiley-Interscience,
Most of the solar energy applications are concerned New York.
with trapping sunlight as photovoltaic (PV) heat. Eicker, U (2003). “Solar Technologies for Buildings” West
Because of the low energy density of sunlight, the Sussex:Wiley.

NCEVT’14 Sachin - Keyur 7

 Harrison J, Tiedeman T (1997). “Solar Water Heating Ret screen (2012).
Options in Florida”, Florida Solar Energy Centre. Rpt: Roger Taylor (2006). “Solar thermal technology and
FSEC-EN-9-85. applications”, NREL, pp 7.
Ken Butti, John Perlin (1980) “A Golden Thread,” Van SOPAC Technical Report 297 (1999). “Energy Unit, South
Nostrand Reinhold Company. Pacific Applied Geosciences Commission”.
K. Sivakumar, N. Krishna Mohan and B. Sivaraman (2005) Soteris A. Kalogirou (2004). “Solar thermal collectors and
“Performance analysis of elliptical heat pipe solar applications.”, Progress in Energy and Combustion Science
collector” Indian Journal of Science and Technology. 30, pp 231–295.
K. S. Ong, W. L. Tong, Sheriwati, K. Low (2011). “System
Performance of Heat Pipe Solar Water Heaters” 10th IHPS,
Taipei, Taiwan, pp 261-266.

NCEVT’14 Sachin - Keyur 8

View publication stats