PSYCHOLOGY

AS LEVEL - 1
 WHAT IS PSYCHOLOGY

Think about the country where you live. Do you

think it is more individualistic or more l tr u ism
gh ts
a al ri
d u e
collectivists? iv i
ind pende tity
nc
e
ind al iden
s on
pe r
IEFS
BEL
U DES Cultural identity :
ID
ATT MS determines differences between individuals
R
NO ES
U
VAL
 Enculturation
Scenario: A child growing up in a collectivist culture, such as Japan. In this context, the child learns the importance of
group harmony, respect for elders, and community involvement from a young age.
Through family interactions, school teachings, and cultural practices (like participating in festivals and community
events), the child internalizes values such as cooperation, obedience, and the significance of family ties.
As an adult, this individual may prioritize group decisions over personal desires, seeking consensus and valuing
relationships within their community.

Biculturalism
Scenario: An adolescent of Mexican heritage living in the United [Link] individual navigates two cultural
identities: their Mexican heritage and the dominant American culture.
At home, they celebrate traditional Mexican holidays, speak Spanish, and learn about their cultural history. In
school and social settings, they adapt to American customs, speak English, and engage with peers from diverse
backgrounds.
This bicultural individual may feel comfortable switching between cultural norms depending on the context, such as
using Spanish with family and English with friends. They might also develop a unique identity that incorporates
elements from both cultures, enhancing their adaptability and social skills.
 e n ce
n fl u ns Holism:
Individualism vs. Collectivism: ily I tio
Fa m te rac Examining the whole system rather than just
Cultures can be characterized as al In
oc i oo ls its individual components
S Sch ia
emphasizing either individual d
Me The idea that the whole is greater than the
goals and autonomy
sum of its parts
(individualism) or group goals and Considering how all aspects of a system
harmony (collectivism), which influence each other
can influence various tio n
ap ta
Ad tio n
psychological processes: tural rm a ons
i
Cul tity Fo ectat
n p
Ide ural ex
t
Cul Reductionism:
Cross-Cultural Researchs Explaining phenomena by reducing them to
their simplest components
Biculturalism is when a person belongs to two cultures and Assuming cause-and-effect relationships and
mixes them in daily life. They adapt to both their home culture determinism
and the culture they live in.
Enculturation is the process of learning one's culture from family
and society. It happens naturally as people grow up.
In biculturalism, a person learns and follows the rules of both
cultures they are part of.
 WHAT IS PSYCHOLOGY
The term "holism" is derived from the Greek word
"holos," meaning "whole" or "entire."

Psychologist that embrace explanation from each

four approaches

ica l
g
Biolo
itive
What does it mean if you take a holistic approach in
o gn
C
e arnin g psychology?
L a l
ci
So
 Idiographic Approach:
Determinism:
Focus: Studies individuals in detail.
Behavior is controlled by internal or external forces,
Goal: To understand unique aspects of a
meaning individuals have no real choice in their
person.
actions.
Example: Case studies, like Freud’s work
Example: A person's aggressive behavior might be with specific patients, focusing on personal
determined by genetic factors or past experiences experiences.
(biological or environmental determinism).
Nomothetic Approach:
Focus: Studies large groups to find general
laws of behavior.
Goal: To identify universal principles that apply
to everyone.
Free Will: Example: Using experiments or surveys to
Individuals have the power to choose their actions discover patterns, like the Big Five
independently of external influences. personality traits.
Example: A person choosing to behave kindly,
In short:
even when raised in a harsh environment.
Idiographic = Focus on individuals.
Determinism:
Behavior is controlled by internal or external forces,
meaning individuals have no real choice in their
actions.
Example: A person's aggressive behavior might be
determined by genetic factors or past experiences
(biological or environmental determinism).

Free Will:
Individuals have the power to choose their actions
independently of external influences.
Example: A person choosing to behave kindly,
even when raised in a harsh environment.
 WHAT IS PSYCHOLOGY
Psychology is the scientific study of the mind and
behavior.

[Link] Biological Approach

[Link] Cognitive Approach
[Link] Learning Approach
[Link] Social Approach
 THE BIOLOGICAL
APPROACH
This approach emphasizes the influence of biology on behavior. It considers how genetics, brain
structures, neurotransmitters, and hormones impact thoughts, feelings, and actions.

Genetics: How heredity affects behavior.

Neurotransmitters: Chemical messengers in the brain (e.g., serotonin, dopamine).
Brain structures: The role of different parts of the brain (e.g., the amygdala in emotion).
Hormones: Chemical substances that influence behavior (e.g., adrenaline in stress).

Examples:
Studies on how brain damage affects behavior.
Research on the genetic basis of mental disorders like schizophrenia.
 THE COGNITIVE
APPROACH
The cognitive approach investigates internal mental processes, such as thinking, memory,
perception, and problem-solving. It views the mind as an information processor, similar to a
computer.

Schemas: Mental structures that help organize and interpret information.

Information processing: How the brain processes and stores information.
Memory models: Theories of how memory works (e.g., the multi-store model of memory).
Cognitive biases: Systematic errors in thinking (e.g., confirmation bias).

Examples:
The study of memory processes, such as how we encode, store, and retrieve information.
Research on decision-making and problem-solving strategies.
 THE LEARNING
APPROACH
This approach emphasizes the role of learning and experience in shaping behavior. It
primarily looks at how behavior is learned through interaction with the environment.

Classical conditioning: Learning through association (e.g., Pavlov’s dogs).

Operant conditioning: Learning through reinforcement and punishment (e.g., Skinner’s
box).
Social learning theory: Learning by observing others (e.g., Bandura’s Bobo doll
experiment).

Examples:
Experiments on how animals and humans learn behaviors through rewards and
punishments.
The role of observation and imitation in learning new behaviors.
 THE SOCIAL
APPROACH
The social approach examines how social interactions, group dynamics, and societal influences
affect behavior. It considers the impact of social contexts and relationships on individual behavior.

Social influence: How the presence or behavior of others affects an individual’s behavior
(e.g., conformity, obedience).
Group dynamics: How people behave in groups (e.g., groupthink, social loafing).
Social identity theory: The influence of group membership on self-concept and behavior.

Examples:
Studies on conformity and obedience, such as Asch’s conformity experiments or Milgram’s
obedience study.
Research on how social roles and group membership influence behavior.
WHY DO PSYCHOLOGISTS DO
RESEARCH?
The process of research allow scientists such as
psychologists to test ideas to discover whether
there is evidence to support [Link] is how we
decide which drug or therapies work best for
mental illnesses, whether different displays or
music help to sell products and how we should
organise factories to help workers to be efficient
and healthy.
1. Forming a question
2. Performing background research
3. Creating a hypothesis
4. Designing an experiment
5. Collecting data
6. Analyzing the results
7. Drawing conclusions
8. Communicating the results
 AIM AND HYPOTHESES
Aim - What you are setting out to achieve in the experiment
Example: to investigate effects between drinking caffein and
amount of sleep

Hypothesis - a prediction of the expected outcome in the

experiment

Example - 3 types of hypotheses

Non directional
Directional
Null
 DIRECTIONAL - 2 TAILED
States that the independent and dependent variable will have an effect one
another but it does not specify what that effect will be

E.g. Drinking caffein will alter how much sleep you will get in hours.

Not say more or less not give an direction

The expectation should be a certain way
 NON DIRECTIONAL - ONE TAILED
States that the independent variable will effect the dependent
variable and the direction of the effect in the experiment
E.g. Drinking more caffeine will make you sleep less hours in one
night
Two-tailed hypothesis
The expectation should be both ways
 NULL HYPOTHESIS
States that if there is an effect between the dependent and
independent variables, it is down to chance and not an
effect from the experiment

E.g. Drinking caffeine will not inluence how much you

sleep in one [Link] depends on the participant levels of
stress at the time
Step 1: Formulating the Hypothesis
Hypothesis:
Students who sleep for 8 hours before a memory test will perform better than those who sleep for only 4 hours.
Null Hypothesis: There will be no difference in memory test performance between students who sleep for 8
hours and those who sleep for 4 hours.
Step 2: Operationalization
To measure sleep and memory performance, we must define these variables clearly:
Independent Variable (IV): The amount of sleep (4 hours vs. 8 hours).
Dependent Variable (DV): Memory test performance, measured by the number of correct answers on a
standardized memory test.
Step 3: Choosing the Research Design
Variables:
THE BASIC VARIABLES
Variables are the things that researchers measure, manipulate, or control in a study.
There are different types of variables:

Independent Variable (IV):

-This is the variable you change in an experiment. It's what the researcher controls or manipulates to see how it
affects something else.
Example: If you want to see if background music affects studying, the independent variable is whether the students
study with music or in silence.
Dependent Variable (DV):
This is the variable you measure in the experiment. It’s what you observe to see if it changes because of the
independent variable.
Example: In the same study, the dependent variable would be the students' test scores or how well they
perform after studying with music or in silence.

Independent variable = what you change (e.g., music or silence).

Dependent variable = what you measure (e.g., test performance).
Control Variables
Control variables are those that could influence the results, so they are
intentionally kept constant throughout the experiment. They help ensure that
the independent variable is the only factor affecting the dependent variable.

- Example:In the learning experiment, the time of day when the test is
conducted could affect students' performance.
- Control variable: **Time of day** (all students take the test at the same
time).

standardisation of processes
Extraneous Variables
Extraneous variables are variables that aren't the focus of the study but could
still influence the dependent variable if not controlled. They are not
intentionally manipulated, but they can affect the results.

- Example:Some students might be tired, which could affect their performance

regardless of the learning technique.
- Extraneous variable: Students' tiredness (this is not being studied, but it
could impact the test results).
Confounding Variables
Confounding variables are variables that change along with the independent
variable and affect the dependent variable. They can make it difficult to tell
whether changes in the dependent variable are due to the independent
variable or the confounding variable.

Example: While testing learning techniques, students' intelligence levels might

also affect their performance. If more intelligent students naturally do better
with any technique, it's hard to know if the technique or intelligence is the
cause of their success.
- Confounding variable: Intelligence level (it might affect learning
performance, making it hard to determine the true effect of the learning
technique).
Key Differences with Examples:
- Independent Variable: Learning technique (manipulated by the
researcher).
- Dependent Variable:Students' performance (measured
outcome).
- Control Variable:Time of day (kept constant for all participants).
- Extraneous Variable:Students' tiredness (could affect results
but isn’t the main focus).
- Confounding Variable:Intelligence level (it might vary with the
independent variable and affect the dependent variable).
Study: You want to test whether exercise improves mood.
Confounding Variable: People who exercise might also have
better sleep habits. So, if their mood improves, you don’t
know if it’s because of the exercise or the good sleep. Sleep is
a confounding variable because it affects both exercise
(those who sleep well are more likely to exercise) and mood.
Study: You are testing if background music improves study
performance.
Extraneous Variables:
Sleep: If one student got 8 hours of sleep and another only
got 4, their performance might be affected by how tired they
are, not just the music.
Motivation: If one student is more motivated to study than
another, this can affect their performance regardless of the
music.
Study: You are testing if lighting in a classroom affects
student concentration.
Control Variables:
Time of day: You might want to control the time of day
students are tested to ensure that they are all tested at the
same time (e.g., morning or afternoon) because time of day
can influence energy levels and concentration.
Confounding Variable :
Confounding Variable: Sleep.
If students who drink coffee also tend to sleep less, it’s
unclear whether their exam performance is due to the coffee
or the lack of sleep. In this case, sleep affects both the
independent variable (coffee consumption) and the
dependent variable (exam performance).
Explanation: If sleep influences both coffee drinking and
exam performance, it "confounds" the results because you
don’t know if the coffee or the amount of sleep caused the
change in performance.
ensures it doesn’t affect the outcome).
2. Extraneous Variable:
Extraneous Variable: Study habits.
Some students may naturally study more than others, which
can affect their exam performance. This is unrelated to
whether they drank coffee, but it could still affect the
outcome.
Explanation: Study habits aren't directly related to coffee
drinking, but if not controlled, they could still influence exam
results and add noise to the data.
3. Control Variable :
Control Variable: Time of the exam.
You might want to ensure that all students take the exam at
the same time of day. For example, if one group takes it in
the morning and the other in the evening, their natural
energy levels could affect performance.
Explanation: By keeping the time of the exam constant for
everyone, you eliminate the influence of time on
performance and make sure any changes are due to the
coffee, not other factors.
Summary:
Confounding Variable: Sleep (It affects both coffee
consumption and exam performance, confusing the results).
Extraneous Variable: Study habits (It may influence exam
performance but is unrelated to coffee consumption).
Control Variable: Time of the exam (Keeping this constant
 OPERATIONALIZATION
YOU MUST OPERATIONALIZE YOUR VARIABLES

Here are examples of all types of variables to help you

understand their differences more clearly:
Experimental Design

Research design refers to the overall strategy used to

investigate the research question. It includes how
participants are assigned to groups and how the variables
are manipulated and measured.
 INDEPEDENT GROUPS DESIGN

Different people are put in each experimemental condition

 You want to study whether background music helps students focus better while studying. You create two groups:
Group 1 studies with music.
Group 2 studies in silence.
Each group only experiences one condition, and you compare their performance to see if music made a difference.
+ Avoids order effects (such as practice or fatigue) as people participate
in one condition only.
-More people are needed than with the repeated measures design (i.e.,
more time-consuming).
-Differences between participants in the groups may affect results, for
example, variations in age, gender, or social background.

Control: After the participants have been recruited, they should be

randomly assigned to their groups. This should ensure the groups are
similar, on average (reducing participant variables).
 REPEATED MEASURES DESIGN
The participants have to do the experiment twice, each with different conditions

Advantages
Group are made of the same people, so no differences make it easy to control
 Group of Students: The same group of students will participate in both conditions.
Condition 1: Students study with background music.
Condition 2: The same students study in silence.
1. All students first study a set of material with music and complete a test to assess their performance.
2. Later, the same students study a different set of material in silence and complete another test to measure their
performance in the silent condition.
Disadvantages
The fatigue effect occurs when people get tired during a study, causing
their performance to decline over time. For example, if students take
several tests in a row, they might do worse on later tests because they’re
tired.
The practice effect happens when people improve at a task simply
because they’ve practiced it multiple times. For instance, if someone
takes the same test repeatedly, their performance might get better due
to familiarity, not because they’ve become more skilled.
 MATCHED PAIR DESIGN
Different people do different parts of the experiment but they are
similarly matched
Similar common things IQ levels, Gender

Con: If one participant drops out, you lose 2 PPs’ data.

Pro: Reduces participant variables
Con: Very time-consuming trying to find closely matched pairs.
Pro: It avoids order effects, so counterbalancing is not necessary.
Con: Impossible to match people exactly unless they are identical twins!
 MATCHED PAIR DESIGN

Identify Key Characteristics: Decide on characteristics that could influence performance, like academic ability, study habits, or concentration
level. You can test students beforehand or use past grades to match them.
POPULATION

TARGET
POPULATION

SAMPLE
 SELECTING PARTIPANTS
In every experiment, participants must be selected from a
population.
There are 3 types of sampling

[Link] Sampling
[Link] Sampling
[Link] Sampling
 RANDOM SAMPLING
Where every member of population has an equal chance
in being selected.

Not bias
Not everyone in the population could do the experiment
By chance you may get an inadequate group
 OPPURTUNITY SAMPLING
Where participants are selected from target population

There may be bias, racial discrimination

You can get a custom fit sample to work well.
 VOLUNTEER SAMPLING
Volunteer sampling is a useful method for gathering data
in research contexts where specific participant
characteristics are desired.
EXPERIMENTS
 LABORATORY EXPERIMENT
An investigation in a controlled enviroment where there is a direct
manipulation of variables. It measures the dependent variable against
the independent variable.

Advantages:
You can easily control the variables
Controlled conditions makes it easily replicable
Cause and Effect
Disadvantages:
Lacks ecological validity
Demand characteristic ( lab place)
Evaluation Apprehension
 FIELD EXPERIMENT
An investigation in a natural enviroment where an independent
variable is manipulated to see its effect on dependet variable

Advantages:
High ecological validity
Less evaluation apprehension
Less demand characteristics
Disadvantages:
Harder to replicate
May not give informed consent
Hard to control variables
OBSERVATIONS
 NATURALISTIC OBSERVATION
Observing behaviour in a natural setting where the researcher may or may
not inluence behaviour.
It can be:
Disclosed ( Where the researcher reveals him/herself)
Undisclosed ( Where the researcher remains hidden)
Advantages:
High ecological validity
If undisclosed, there are no demand characteristics
Reflect real life situation
Disadvantages
Hard to replicate
If disclosed, there are demand characteristics
Observer bias
 CONTROLLED OBSERVATION
Observing behaviour in a natural enviroment but the researcher can
manipulate aspects of the situation.

Advantages:
High ecological validity
Easier replicate
Easier of researcher to focus on behaviour
Disadvantages
Demand characteristics
Observer bias
SELF REPORTS
 QUESTIONNAIRES
A list of pre-written questions that a participant will answer

Advantages
Fast. Cheap. Easy to replicate. Closed questions can be easily analysed.

Disadvantages
Limited responses
Social Desirability
Low response rate
Open questions hard to analyse
 STRUCTURED INTERVIEWS
A conversation between partipant and researcher where fixed questions
are asked in a particular order.

Advantages
Fast,cheap,easy to replicate, researcher can easily focus on what he/she
wants

Disadvantages
Closed questions give limited responses
There can be social desirability effects
Evaluation apprehension
 UNSTRUCTURED INTERVIEWS
A conversation between researcher an participant with no fixed
questions in np particular order

Advantages
Provides qualitative data
Can develop into clearer answers
Disadvantages
Demand characteristics
Hard to replicate
Hard to compare
Investigator may manipulate answers
 LONGITUDINAL STUDIES
A longitudinal study is a research method that involves repeatedly observing the
same participants over an extended period, often years or decades. This approach
allows researchers to track changes and developments in variables like behavior,
health, or attitudes over time.

Pros:
Provides detailed data over time.
Helps identify causal relationships.
Cons:
Time-consuming and costly.
Risk of participant dropout, leading to incomplete data.
 CORRELATIONAL ANALYSIS
A technique to see if a dependent variable and independent variable
are associated and measures the strength of the relationship

The relationship can be causal/chance/confounding variable

Advantages
Allows us to measure the strength of the correlation
Trends can lead to research to establish a research project
Disadvantages
You cant tell which variable causes which
whether chance or relationship caused the correlation
 RELIABILITY
The degree to which an experiment produces similar scores each time it
is used
Replication is based on how reliable an experiment is
The degree to which humans produce or sees similar behaviour is inter
observer reliablility

same object/person - same measure/ assesment we should get same

results
 RELIABILITY
split half reliability : randomly divide and calculate score
a measure of the internal consistency of surveys, psychological tests,
questionnaires, and other instruments or techniques that assess participant
responses on particular constructs. Split-half reliability is determined by dividing
the total set of items (e.g., questions) relating to a construct of interest into halves
(e.g., odd-numbered and even-numbered questions) and comparing the results
obtained from the two subsets of items thus created. The closer the correlation
between results from the two versions, the greater the internal consistency of the
survey or instrument.

Test- retest reliability: take the test and 6 month or less more take again. each
participants simply re-test again. eliminate bias peki people get better because
they can remember question or they find answers online so how we solve this
problem?
 VALIDITY
The extent to what a test measures compared with what it is expected to
get
There are 2 types of validity:
Internal validity is how accurate the results are
External validity is how accurate the results in the real world would be

IQ testleri really asses intelligent or not

 VALIDITY
construct validity = fundamental, idea that there is a relationship between property
and assesment
face validity = does it appear the measure what is measure, in IQ test you can see
different types of problem solving questions so its good. surface, general apperance
of assesment, appears related.
content validity = compherensive does it cover all the things associated property. all
aspects we should things

criterion-related validity
if there is a relationships w/ other outcomes
concurrent : does is related to other outcomes, does the IQ test can say me anything
about school performance? behaviours yani.
predictive : maybe predict outcomes, okul başarısı ve IQ test gibi future outcomes
Measures of Central Tendency
Mode: The most frequently occurring value in a data set. If a number appears more often than others, it’s the
mode.
Median: The middle value when a data set is ordered from least to greatest. It divides the data into two equal
halves.
Mean: The average of a data set, found by adding all the values together and dividing by the number of values.

Measures of Spread

Range: The difference between the highest and lowest values in a data set. It shows the extent of the spread.
Standard Deviation: A measure that indicates how much the values in a data set vary or deviate from the mean.
A low standard deviation means the data points are close to the mean, while a high standard deviation means
they are spread out.

Data Visualization
Bar Chart: Displays categorical data with rectangular bars. Each bar’s height represents the value of the
category. Useful for comparing different categories.
Histogram: Similar to a bar chart, but used for continuous data divided into intervals (bins). Shows the
frequency of data within each interval.
Scatter Graph: Displays two variables plotted as points on a graph. Useful for identifying relationships or
correlations between the variables.
Step 1: Formulating the Hypothesis
Hypothesis:
Students who sleep for 8 hours before a memory test will perform better than those who sleep for only 4 hours.
Null Hypothesis: There will be no difference in memory test performance between students who sleep for 8
hours and those who sleep for 4 hours.
Step 2: Operationalization
To measure sleep and memory performance, we must define these variables clearly:
Independent Variable (IV): The amount of sleep (4 hours vs. 8 hours).
Dependent Variable (DV): Memory test performance, measured by the number of correct answers on a
standardized memory test.
Step 3: Choosing the Research Design
We will use a Between-Subjects Design, where different participants are assigned to different conditions. This
design will help us compare memory test performance between two separate groups: one group sleeps for 8 hours
and the other for 4 hours.
Independent Measures Design: Participants are divided into two groups, with each group experiencing only one
of the conditions.
Step 4: Sampling
We must select participants who will be representative of the larger population. We’ll use Random Sampling to
ensure that each member of the target population (e.g., university students) has an equal chance of being selected.
Sample Size: Let’s say we decide on a sample size of 60 participants.
Sampling Method: Random sampling to avoid biases and ensure the sample represents the general population
of students.
Step 5: Random Allocation
Once we have our sample, we randomly assign participants to one of the two groups to avoid bias. This ensures that
any differences between the groups are due to the manipulation of the independent variable (sleep) and not due to
pre-existing differences.
Group 1: 30 participants will sleep for 8 hours.
Group 2: 30 participants will sleep for 4 hours.
Step 6: Controlling VariablesTo ensure that the experiment measures the effect of sleep on memory accurately, we
need to control other variables:
Same Memory Test: Both groups will take the same memory test.
Same Environment: All participants will sleep in a controlled environment with similar conditions (e.g., same
room temperature, noise level).
Same Pre-Test Routine: Participants should refrain from consuming caffeine or alcohol and should not engage
in strenuous physical activity before the test.

Step 7: Procedure

Pre-Test: All participants complete a practice memory test to establish a baseline and reduce practice effects.
Sleep Manipulation: Participants are assigned to sleep for either 4 or 8 hours.
Memory Test: The next morning, participants take the standardized memory test.
Data Collection: The number of correct answers is recorded for each participant.
Step 8: Avoiding Bias
Demand Characteristics:
Participants might guess the study’s aim and alter their behavior (e.g., try harder or relax more during the test).
We’ll use single-blind design where participants are not told the specific aim of the study.
Investigator Effects:
Researchers might unconsciously influence participants. We’ll use double-blind design, where neither the
participants nor the researchers interacting with them know who is in which group.
Step 9: Data Analysis
Statistical Tests:
We would use an Independent Samples t-test to compare the mean memory test scores between the two groups (8-
hour sleep vs. 4-hour sleep). This test helps determine if there’s a statistically significant difference between the
groups.
Effect Size:
We would calculate the effect size to measure the strength of the relationship between sleep and memory
performance.
Step 10: Interpreting Results
Results:
Let’s say the 8-hour sleep group performed significantly better on the memory test than the 4-hour sleep group.
This result would support our hypothesis.
Conclusion:
The experiment suggests that getting more sleep (8 hours) improves memory test performance compared to getting
less sleep (4 hours).
Step 11: Ethical Considerations
Ethical Guidelines:
Informed Consent: Participants are informed about the study’s nature, risks, and their right to withdraw at any
time.
Confidentiality: Personal data and results are kept confidential.
Debriefing: After the study, participants are informed about the study’s true purpose and any deception used.
Step 12: Evaluating the Study
Reliability:
Would we get the same results if we repeated the study? We’d assess the test-retest reliability to ensure
consistency.
Validity:
Internal Validity: We ensured a well-controlled experiment, so we can confidently say that differences in
memory performance are due to sleep.
External Validity: We’d consider how well these results generalize to other populations, settings, and times.
Limitations:
We’d reflect on any limitations, such as sample size, potential confounding variables, or how representative the
sample is of the broader population.
Suggestions for Further Research:
Future studies could explore different age groups, the impact of sleep quality, or use a larger sample size to increase
generalizability.
 ETHIC
Protection from harm Privacy

Valid Consent Right to withdraw

Presumptive consent Lack of deception

Debriefing Confidentiality

Informed consent

Deception