,

UNIT 6 TEACHING FOR EFFECTIVE

LEARNING: DEVELOPMENT OF
CONCEPTS OF SKILLS AND
COMPETENCIES

Introduction
Objectives
Teaching: An Analysis
Concept of Teaching Skills
Teaching Skills
6.5.1 Introducing a Lesson
6.5.2 Explaining
6.5.3 Questioning
6.5.4 Increasing Student Participation
6.5.5 Providing Reinforcement
6.5.6 Using Teaching Aids
6.5.7 WritingonBoard
6.5.8 Evaluating
Micro Teaching Approach
Problem Solving
Attribute Listing
Morphological Analysis
Brain Storming
Inquiry Training
6.1 1.1 Inquiry Training Process
6.1 1.2 Phases in Inquiry Training
Synectics
Let Us Sum Up
Unit-end Exercises
Answers to Check Your Progress
Suggested Readings

6.1 INTRODUCTION
You have already studied the meaning of the term teaching and also of related
concepts. In this unit, you will study about teaching skills. In the besming, an
analysis of functions of a teacher is given. After this, the concept of teaching
skills is explained. It is followed by an explanation of some of the important
teaching skills. Finally the microteaching approach is discussed.

6.2 OBJECTIVES
After studying this unit, you should be able to:
make an analy& of teacher functions,
explain the concept of teaching skills,
explain the nature of micro teaching,
describe inquiry training and synetics in teaching.
 Teaching for Effective
6.3 TEACHING: AN ANALYSIS Learning: Development
of Concepts of Skills and
Competencies
Teaching can be analysed in terms of teacher behaviour at least at three levels,
namely, teaching skills, general teaching behaviours and specific teaching
behaviours. At 'the first level, teaching can be analysed into component
teaching skills. Following the analysis at this level, teaching can be defined as
a set of component skills for the realization of a specified set of instructional
objectives. It means teaching itself is a complex skill comprising of a set of

i
teaching skills. These teaching skills can be further analysed into sets of
general teaching behaviours at the second level. Thus, teaching skills can be
defined as a set of interrelated teaching behaviours for the realization of
specific instructional objectives. The set of instructional objectives to be
realized by a particular skill will be limited in number as compared to the
totality of instructional objectives. These teaching behaviours can be further
analysed into specific teaching behaviours at the third level of analysis. These
teaching behaviours of a skill, therefore, can be defined as a set of interrelated
specific teaching behaviours contributing to the realization of some aspects of
the instructional objective to be realized by a particular teaching skill.

6.4 CONCEPT OF TEACHING SKILLS

According to Clarke, "teaching constitutes activities that are designed and

performed to produce change in student behaviour." Komisar has pointed out
that various specific activities included in teachipg are introducing,
demonstrating, citing, reporting, confirming, elaborating etc.,
which may be considered as constituent skills of teaching. In simple words,
teaching constitutes a number of verbal and nonverbal teaching acts like
questioning, accepting student responses, rewarding, ..smiling, movements,
gestures, etc. These acts in particular combinations facilitate the achievement
of objectives in terms of student growth. A set of related teaching acts or
behaviours performed with an intention to facilitate students' learning can be
called a teaching skill.

According to Gage, 'teaching slulls are specific instructional techniques and

procedures that a teacher may use in the classroom'. The Asian Institute for
Teacher Educators has defined teaching skills as 'specifically those activities
of teaching that are especially effective in bringing about desired changes in
students'. Mc Intyre and White have defined the term teaching skills as 'a set
of related teaching behaviours which in specified types of classroom
interaction situations tend to facilitate the achievement of specified types of
educational objectives'.
Teaching Learning
Strategies Check Your Progress 1

Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below.

b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the unit.

1. Explain the three levels at which teaching can be analysed.

2. Define teaching.

I
3. Quote any definition of a teaching skill.

6.5 TEACHING SKILLS

You have already understood the concept of a teaching skill. Let us now try to
know about some important teaching skills in details. These are given below.

6.5.1 Introducing a Lesson

When one introduces a stranger to you, your reactions towards himher or your
responses during the conversation with h i d e r depend upon the introductory
statements that are made about h i d e r .

Similarly, when a teacher introduces a lesson or a unit, he/she gives a brief

introduction about the lesson or the unit, in order to draw the students'
attention to it. Generally, an introduction to a lesson includes what the teacher
does with or without the help of the students upto the stage of stating the aim
of the lesson. Teachers differ from each other in the way they introduce a
lesson. Studies have shown that the students' learning of the new lesson or
unit largely depends on the way the lesson is introduced. A teacher must
possess the necessary skill to introduce a lesson or unit in an effective manner.

The components of the skill of introducing a lesson are:

(a) Desirable behaviours

Using previous knowledge: The previous knowledge refers to

knowledge already possessed by the students. If any new knowledge is
to be added to the previous knowledge, there should be a logical
continuity between them. New knowledge should'also be relevant to
previous knowledge of students. When we present new knowledge to
 the students, we have to bring their previous knowledge to their ~ A c h i for
n ~ Effective
Learning: Development
conscious level. of Concepts of Skills and
Competencies
Using appropriate devices: Here, 'device' refers to the technique that a
teacher uses while introducing a lesson. Such devices can be (a) use of
examples (b) questioning (c) lecturing describing narrating (d) story
telling (e) dramatization (f) audio-visual aids and (g) experimentation.
The appropriateness of the use of each of these devices depends on its
suitability to the maturity level, age level, grade level, interest,
experience of the students and also on the lesson to be taught.

'(b) Undesirable behaviours

Lacking in continuity: Continuity refers to the sequence of ideas or
information being presented. While introducing a lesson, continuity
breaks when the statements made for questions asked by the teacher are
not logically sequenced.

Making irrelevant statements: A statement or a question which a

teacher makes while introducing a lesson, is said to be irrelevant when
it is not related to the aim of the lesson. Such statements or questions
do not contribute to the effectiveness of the skill in terms of '

establishing rapport with the students. Sometimes such statements also

confuse the students.

6.5.2 Explaining

In our day to day life you find persons explaining some idea or phenomenon
, by going deep into the matter with appropriate examples, logically organizing
: the ideas, using certain nonverbal gestures etc. You also find persons who
cannot explain clearly. They jumble up ideas. They not only confuse the
audience but also get confused themselves. This is because they do not present
ideas in a logical sequence.

In classrooms right fiom grade I through higher grades, a teacher explains

ideas and concepts. It is a most commonly used skill and is the essence of
instruction. When a student does not clearly understand the ideas which hisher
teacher tries to convey, helshe generally asks for an explanation.

A teacher is said to be explaining when helshe is describing 'how', 'why' and

sometimes 'what' of a concept, phenomenon, event, action or condition.
Explanation can also be defined as an activity to bring about an understanding
in someone about a concept, principle etc. Explanation involves filling up the
gap in one's understanding of the new phenomenon by relating it to hisher
past experience. Thus, explanation depends on the type of the past experience,
the type of the new phenomenon and the type of relationships between them.

In a classroom, an explanation is a set of interrelated statements made by the

teacher related to a phenomenon or an idea, in order to bring about or increase
understanding of the students about it. While giving explanation, we generally
explain causes of the phenomenon, reasons for the action, various steps
involved in arriving at the particular result, or various events that have
occurred earlier resulting in the event being explained. All such causes,
reasons, steps, events, etc., are called 'antecedents'. Such antecedents result in
Teaching Learning
Strategies the phenomenon, event, result or action. Each of these is known as a
consequent. Thus an explanation involves giving antecedents to a consequent,
which can be diagrammatically presented as follows:

Antecedents Explanation Consequent

(causes, reasons, actions, steps, (Phenomenon, action,

events) result, event, condition)

There are various techniques through which we can explain an idea,

phenomenon etc. They are question-answer technique, use of audio-visual aids
or by making certain related statement concerning what we have to explain.
Sometimes we use all the techniques simultaneously to make explanation more
effective.

To summarise, the desirable teacher behaviours for effective explanation

should include, using only relevant statements, having continuity in statements,
using vocabulary which the students know, being fluent in speech, avoiding
vague words and phrases, using beginning and concluding statements and
testing students' understanding by putting a few questions.

Check Your Progress 2 ,

Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below.

b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the unit.

1. Mention two desirable and undesirable behaviours in

- introducing a lesson.

.........................................................................
.........................................................................

2. Describe the term 'explanation' in teaching.

...........................................................................
.........................................................................

6.5.3 Questioning

Questioning is an important teaching slull that a teacher must learn. A teacher

needs to put meaningful questions to the students during the teaching-learning
process. You may be curious to know more about 'meaningful questions'. Let
us try to know what makes a question meaningful by considering (i) structure,
(ii) process, and (iii) product of questioning.

Structure refers to the grammatical aspect and the content part of the question.
Various criteria for a well structured questjon are (i) grammatical correctness,
(ii) conciseness, (iii) relevance,'and (iv) specificity. .
(i) Grammatical correctness: A question should be grammatically correct. If Teaching for Effective
Learning: Development
it is not correct, it will create confusion in the minds of the students. of Concepts of and
Therefore, a teacher should be careful while framing a question. Competencies

Examples of grammatically incorrect questions are given below:

(a) When did Olympic games started?

(b) Where is Laxmibai born?

The above questions can be asked correctly as follows:

(a) When did Olympic games start?

(b) Where was Laxmibai born?

(ii) Conciseness: A concise question does not have unnecessary or extra words.
A question should be direct and straightforward.

Examples for such questions are given below:

(a) When did India get freedom?

(b) Who is the President of India?

The teacher should not frame the questions in t& manner given below:

(a) Does any one know when did India get freedom?
(b) Who can tell me the name of the President of India?

(iii)Relevance: An irrelevant question is that which is not related to the topic

concerned. A question is also irrelevant when it contains terms which are
not explained earlier.

(iv)Specificity: A specific question calls for a single and specific answer. It

increases the fluency in questioning.

Examples for specific question are given below:

(a) Which is the highest mountain peak in the world?

(b) Who discovered America?

Process: The word 'process' implies the way of asking questions. The
following two issues need to be mentioned:

i) Speed of asking questions: The teacher should ask question neither too
hurriedly nor too slowly. If the questions are asked too rapidly, the students
may find it difficult to comprehend. They will take much time to
understand the question. On the other hand, if the questions are uttered too
slowly, they will decrease the fluency as it is time consuming.

ii) Voice of the teacher: Teacher's voice should be audible and clear to all the
students in the class otherwise they may not follow the question. They may
ask the teacher to repeat the question or may not respond at all.

Product: The term 'product' refers to students' responses. Sometimes even

when nothing is wrong with the structure or the process of questioning
Teaching Learning
Strategies students do not give any response. The reasons for such a situation could
be (i) the students may not be intelligent enough to understand the
questions, (ii) they may not be interested in the lesson, (iii) they may lack
the .previous knowledge, and (iv) there may not be any rapport between the
student and the teacher.

6.5.4 Increasing Student Participation

You must be aware that when a student participates in the learning process,
hisiher learning becomes more effective. A student is said to participate when
helshe takes active part which is observable by responding to what the teacher
asks for, by contributing hisiher own ideas related to the topic being taught by
the teacher or by reacting to others' ideas in the classroom. Student
participation is an observable behaviour of students and includes responding
and initiating. When a student is listening to the teacher he/she is not
participating, because listening behaviour of the student is not observable.

Student participation in the classroom is essential for the following reasons:

i) Students are more attentive towards the lesson when they are participating.
ii) Students' urges of social recognition and social acceptance are satisfied.
iii) There will be better understanding on the part of the students when they
participate.
iv) A teacher can evaluate hisiher teaching, that is, whether it is being effective
in bringing about learning or not.

Skill of increasing student participation involves integrating the various

components of the skill, namely, creating set, questioning, encouraging student
participation and pausing in such combinations and proportions so as to ,
maximize student piu2icipation. These components are explained below:

i) Creating Set: 'Set' in a class room may be defined as mental readiness on

the part of the students before learning any task. If the students have to
participate in the classroom discussion, they should be mentally ready,
emotionally as well as cognitively. This can be done by posing to students
a problem or situation which they discuss with the help of the teacher.

ii) Questioning: A question is a stimulus in the classroom that elicits student

participation in terms of student response. You are aware that a good
question is well structured i.e., precise, direct and grammatically correct. It
is also put with proper tone modulation and made audible to all the
students. To increase student participation the teacher should (a) avoid
repeating questions, (b) avoid answering hisiher own questions, and (c)
avoid asking a number of questions.

iii) Encouraging Student Participation: In order to encourage student

participation, we use two types of behaviours -, verbal and non-verbal.
Sometimes we may use both simultaneously. When the student gives the
correct response we may say 'yes', 'correct', 'very good' and such other
expressions. We may repeat student response to encourage. We may nod,
splile-and sometimes qat the student who has responded. When the student
giv6s a wrong response, we may say 'think again', 'it is good that you have
 attempted' and such other expressions. When the student has not given any Teaching for Effective
response, we may say 'come on', 'try', etc. of Concepts of Skills and
Competencies
iv) Pausing: Pausing can be defined as deliberate silence introduced by the
teacher during classroom interaction so as to increase student participation.
When the teacher pauses, the students are stimulated to participate. Pausing
should be accompanied by nonverbal cues which would elicit more student
participation.

Check Your Progress 3

Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below.

b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the unit.

1. Mention the components of the skill of questioning.

.........................................................................
.........................................................................

2. How can we increase student participation?

..........................................................................
..........................................................................

6.5.5 Providing Reinforcement

You know that all the students need social approval for their behaviour. When
they are answering or responding in the class, they are eager to know whether
their answers or responses are correct or not. When the students come to know
that the answers given by them are correct, they feel happy and get
encouraged. Thus, their participation in the class increases. In such a situation,
we say that the student's behaviour of responding correctly is 'reinforced' or
strengthened. In other words, it may be said that there is positive reinforcement
in the student's behaviour.

i In providing reinforcement important points to be remembered are as follows:

(I) ~ositive'.reinforcement means strengthening of desirable behaviour. It

increases student participation in the class. Positive reinforces are those
1 behaviours of the teacher which encourage students to participate more and
s
more. '

(2) Negative reinforcement means weakening of undesirable behaviour. It

decreases students' participation in the class.

(3) Negative reinforcers are those behaviours of the teacher which discourage
, the students to participate. Skill of reinforcement involves more and more
I
the use of the positive reinforcers and decrease the use of negative
reinforcers so that the students to the maximum.

i
Teaching Learning
Strategies i) In positive verbal reinforcement the teacher gives positive
reinforcement through various verbal (with words) expressions. The
teacher makes encouraging remarks such as 'that', 'good', 'right',
'yes', 'correct', 'excellent', 'well done7,'continue', etc.

ii) Positive nonverbal reinforcement occurs when the teacher wants to

reinforce positively a desired student response. The teacher may use
certain nonverbal (without words) expressions like nodding of head,
smiling, moving towards the responding student, keeping eyes on the
student, writing the response of the student on the blackboard or any
other nonverbal action indicating pleasure at the student's response.

iii) Negative verbal reinforcement interferes with the learning of the

students. It affects learning negatively and decreases the motivation of
the students. We should avoid giving this type of reinforcement. The
teacher should avoid discouraging expressions such as 'you are not
good', 'wrong', 'nonsense7, 'incorrect', 'stop it', 'do something else',
etc. The negative remarks of this type should be avoided if the students
are to participate more in the class.

iv) Negative nonverbal reinforcement is given by using such behaviours as

moving away from the responding student, keeping eyes on the student
with discouraging looks, hard and disapproving stares, not looking at
the responding student, tapping foot impatiently and walking around
etc. The teacher should be conscious of such behaviours and avoid
them as far as possible if the skill of reinforcement is to be used
effectively.

6.5.6 Using Teaching Aids

Sometimes it is difficult to convey the meaning of abstract ideas or concepts to

students. A teacher needs to know how to bring clarity, simplicity and interest
in his /her teaching. The skill of using teaching aids helps in this regard. It
involves the principle of securing and sustaining attention of students and
hence creates interest in the lesson. Teaching should not be tedious and boring
to the students. In the prescribed curriculum there are many abstract ideas,
which a learner has to learn. In order to convey these abstract ideas, concepts
and laws, the teacher needs to arouse interest and curiosity in the students. The
skill of using aids involves describing an idea, concept or principle as by using
various teaching aids.

General advantages of using teaching aids:

By using audio-visual materials, inaccessible processes, materials, events

and objects [Link] be brought to the class.

Use of audio-visual materials results in greater acquisition of knowledge of

facts and ensures longer retention of the information gained.

Use of audio-visual materials in the classroom can provide effective

substitutes for direct contact of students with environment.
 Use of audio-visual materials involves more than one sense and hence it Teaching for Effective
Learning: Development
would be easy .to secure and retain attention of students. of Concepts of Skills and
Competencies
Audio-visual materials could be used to motivate and stimulate interest of
students to gain further knowledge.

Some important types of teaching aids are explained below:

I
i) Objects: Real objects can be used as examples to clarify some concepts and
principles. Usage of parts of flowers and branches of trees in botany

t
lessons; cycle pumps, thermometers in science lessons; beads, match
sticks, etc. in mathematics lessons are the common examples of objects
being used during teaching.

ii) Models: Models are specially prepared to describe, illustrate an idea,

concept or principle. They are replica of reality. A good model should have
all the necessary characteristics of reality. When models are specially
prepared to illustrate a concept and can be detached in its parts for closer
examination, its value in a classroom can be more than the original object
itself. For example, use of a hodel of an eye instead of the real one is more
appropriate.

iii) Pictures: When objects are not available for use in classrooms, pictures
may be used for explaining an idea or concept or principle. Pictures are
handy and sometimes economical too. Pictures themselves can be abstract,
but they can help in illustrating a point with oral explanation.
Teaching Learning
Strategies

iv) Diagrams, maps and sketches: These are useful in teaching history,
geography, science etc. They help in clarifying and bringing out essential
points in a lesson. In science lessons, diagrams and sketches help a lot in
describing an idea or principle. The teacher can draw them on the
blackboard. A teacher who wants to describe parts of the body like eye,
ear, mhcular system etc., can take the help of diagrams k d sketches.

*
v) Practical demonstration: This is'an important device in the teaching of
science and geography. In physics when a teacher explains a principle or
 law, helshe call d:, it with the help of experimentation. In order to describe Teaching for Effective
Learning: Development
the idea that sunlight is essential for plant in food preparation, a teacher of conceDts of Skills and
can conduct the required experiment. Competencies

Thus, there are various types of teaching aids. But none of them can be
effectively used without an oral explanation either by teachers or by
students. It is also essential to see that the teaching aid used is appropriate
to the age level, grade level, maturity level of the students and to the topic
taught.
Check Your Progress 4

Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below.

b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the unit.

1. Differentiate between positive reinforcement and negative

reinforcement.

2. Mention any four advantages of using teaching aids.

I

3. Name some important types of teaching aids.

4. In the teaching of which subject the technique of practical

demonstration is more usehl?

6.5.7 Writing'on the Board

You know that black board or chalk board is the visual aid most widely used
by the teacher for classroom instruction. The components of the skill of using
black board are: (i) legibility of handwriting (ii) neatness in the black board
work and (iii) appropriateness of written work on the black board. Now, let us
discuss about them in detail.

(i) Legibility of handwriting: The handwriting is said to be legible when there

is maximum ease in reading it. This includes the following points:
Teaching Learnlng
Strategies
Every letter should be distinct.
There should be adequate spacingbetween two letters and two words.
Slantness of each letter should be as far as possible vertical.
Size of the letters should be large enough to be read b m the farthest
end of the room.
Size of the capital letters should be just bigger than that of the small
letters.
All capital letters should be of the same size and all small letters also
should be of the same size.
Thickness of the lines should be of same width. 4
Samples of legible writing and not very legible writing are given below:

Not very legible writing Legible writing

+- h h Achievement motive can be

developed not only at early
Oh '*Jkrjq& stage but also at later stages.
Experimenting with people
( from U.S.A., Italy Pgland, and
'India Mc Clolland aqrd his
group found that in all cases
traning programmes were
sucessful in increasing
individual need for
dw*b achievement.

(ii) Neatness in blackboard: To decide about the neatness of blackboard work

the following points are to be considered. You will remember here that the
board can be black, white or green in colour.
Words and sentences should be wtitten in the horizontal lines parallel
to the base of the black board.
There should be adequate spacing between the lines.
'There should be no overwriting that makes black board work untidy.
Relevant matter which is under focus of classroom discussion should
be retained on the black board.
42
 Teaching for Effective
Learning: ~ e v e l 6 m e n t
(iii)Appropriateness of work on the blackboard: The appropriateness of the of Concepts of Skills and
work includes continuity, brevity and simplicity and drawing attention and Competencies
focusing. The following. are the important points to be remembered
regarding appropriateness of the content. i

Write only the salient points one after another as they are being
developed.
The points written on the blackboard should have continuity (one 'point
logically linked with the previous one) in them.
The blackboard summary should be brief and simple so that the
students can recollect the whole lesson at a glance.
Underline only those points to which you want to draw the students'
attention.
Use coloured chalks sparingly to bring about contrast with other matter
presented on the blackboard.
Illustrations and diagrams should be simple, large and clear enough to
convey the ideas presented.

An example of blackboard work is given below.

Human Rights & Indian Constitution

A number of provisions under Fundamental Rights and Directive
Principles of State Policy stated in the Indian Constitution are
directly related to human rights.

The following are some examples:

i) Right to equality
ii) Right to freedom
iii) Right against exploitation
iv) Cultural and educational rights
v) Right to fieedom of religion
vi) Right to constitutional remedies

Some of the Directive Principles of State Policy are:

i) Facilitate organisationeofvillage panchayats

ii) Facilitate participation of workers in the management of
industries
iii) Secure uniform civil code for all citizens
iv) Make provision for free and compulsory education for
children up to the age of 14 years.
Source: Self Learning Material for Teacher Educators (vol. I) NCERT, New Delhi, 1998.
Teaching Learning
Strategies Apart from the various components of good blackboard work, which have been
discussed above, we need to take care ofathe following points for the effective
use of black board:

Check the condition of the blackboard for its useability.

Check the lighting. Light falling on the blackboard should neither be dim
nor too bright.
Check whether the blackboard is clean before and after use or not.
Keep required amounts of chalks - both white and coloured.
Stand on one sidk of the blackboard and do not come in between the
students and the black board.
Use a pointer, if needed, for exp1,aining the various points especially in the
diagrams.
Avoid squeaking noise of the chalk while writing.
Avoid committing mistakes in the content written on the blackboard.

6.5.8 Evaluating

Learning requires continuous evaluation. Evaluation is a technique through

which the teacher becomes aware of the factors that affect hisher instruction.
Evaluation helps to determine the level of success. It identifies defects and
failures. It also reveals the value of methods, procedures, techniques, materials
and equipment being used and where they should be improved and
supplemented. There axists interrelatedness between objectives (end), learning
experiences (means) and evaluation (evidence). Objectives remain central to
both learning experience and evaluation. Evaluation comes in at the planning
stage when objectives are formulated. Learning experiences are also planned
in terms of objectives. At every point of learning, evaluation is an attempt to
discover the extent of effectiveness of a learning situation in bringing about
desired changes in students. Thus, evaluation is concerned with what has been
learnt. A variety of devices and techniques should be used in the evaluation
programme. The evaluation tools include achievement tests, psychological
tests, questionnaires, checklists etc. A variety of techniques like anecdotal
records, interviews, observations etc. are also used. Selection of a tool or
technique of evaluation depends primarily on the nature of the objective to be
evaluated. Each objective implies several behavioural changes. Therefore, no
single technique can effectively evaluate different types of behavioural
changes. Each behavim may need a different kind of technique. Hence, we
may have to use as maIpy different techniques as possible to evaluate change in
behaviour.

Pr'oper records of work done by each student should be maintained. Diaries of

students, anecdotal and cumulative records maintained by teachers are very
good evaluation devices.
 Teaching for Effective

1 Check Your Progress 5

Learning: Development
of Concepts of Skills and
Competencies
Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below.

b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the unit.

1. Mention the components of the skill of using blackboard.

.........................................................................
.........................................................................

2. Mention four points for effective use of blackboard.

.........................................................................
.........................................................................

3. Explain the importance of evaluation?

............................................................&.............
.........................................................................

6.6 MICRO TEACHING APPROACH

Microteaching technique was first adopted at Stanford University, USA, in
1961 by D.W. Allen and his coworkers. Microteaching is a training procedure
aiming at simplifying the complexities of the regular teaching [Link]
know that teaching constitutes a number of verbal a i d nonverbal acts. 'A set
of related behaviours or teaching acts aiming at specific objectives and
performed with an intention to facilitate student's learning can be called a
teaching skill.' All these teaching skills which go to make good teaching can
be defined, observed, measured and controlled by means of practice.
Microteaching concentrates on specific teaching behaviours and provides
opportunity for practising these teaching skills under controlled conditions.
Microteaching is a scaled down teaching procedure. A teacher trainee should
not be exposed to real situation in the beginning itself. Helshe should teach in
a less risky situation where mistakes may be made without damage to students
and to himlher. The complex act of teaching is broken down into simple
components making the task more manageable. Only one particular skill is
attempted and developed during microteaching session. 'How to teach' is
considered more important than 'what to teach'. This technique is useful in
preservice as well as inservice training of teachers.

Microteaching provides teachers with a practice for teaching, in which the

normal complexities are reduced in terms of:

length of the lesson (a single concept is chosen),

r scope of the lesson,
r number of students, usually 4 to 6, preferably peers,
class time, usually 5 to 10 minutes.
Teaching Learning
Strategies
Microteaching involves a programme of the following type:

A particular skill is defined to student teachers in terms of specific teaching

behaviours.
Teacher educator gives a demonstration lesson to student teachers where a
particular skill is employed.
Student teacher prepares a lesson plan based on the predecided model on a
suitable topic relating to the particular skill which helshe proposes to
practice.
Student teacher teaches the lesson to a small group of students in a
simulated condition.
Feedback is provided immediately to the student teacher by audio tape or
video tape recorder.
In the light of feedback and supervisor's comments, student teacher replans
the lesson in order to use the skill more effectively.
The revised less00 is taught to a different but comparable group of
students.
The lesson is again observed or video taped or audio taped and
observations are noted in the proforma. Feedback is again provided to the
student teacher. This step is called the refeedback session.

The plan, teach, feedback, replan and refeedback sessions will constitute a
single microteaching cycle.

x*
Micro-Lesson Plan -

( Re-teach Another Group

I P Teach Micro-Lesspn

Re-plan Discuss Feedback

Fig.6.1: Microteaching Cycle

Supervisors play an ixhportant role in microteaching, particularly in preservice

training programmes. Role of supervisor is one of continuous consultation so
that the trainee can perfect hisher performance in the particular teaching skill.
 Teaching for Effective
Check Your Progress 6 Learning: Development
of Concepts of Skills and
Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below. Competencies

b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the unit.

1. Name the person who propounded microteaching.

2. Explain 'microteaching' technique.

I

3. Mention the stages in microteaching.

6.7 PROBLEM SOLVING

Research on problem solving has had a varied history. Before the 1930's' most
textbooks still treated logic in considerable detail, making it the basis for
intelligent or rational behaviour. This was quite natural since psychology was
an offshoot of the philosophy of mind. Later, text books carried chapters on
thinking, and questions of consciousness, imageless thought, associative 'set'
and concept formation were the subject matter or research in thinking
(Woodworth, 1938).

Perhaps the greatest impetus to research in problem solving came from studies
of animals seeking to investigate into the rationality. History reveals that
philosophers had attributed reason and soul to man alone. Thorndike initiated
an experimental approach to the analysis of problem solving behaviour by
developing the p'roblem box and observing how cats found their way to food.
This led to a whole series of problem box investigations, and Watson described
problem box mastery as the development of motor habits and grouped it with
maze learning. The problem solving became classified with learning. The
method used in the problem solving has been referred to as trial and error
method.

Various types of puzzles have been used to study human problem solving, as a
result, trial and error has become a generally accepted mechanism. Dewey
used the concept to account for human problem solving by describing a
process he called mental trial and error. In this way, the problem solving
capacity of the trial and error process was expanded. At the sqne time, it gave
man a kind of superiority over animals in that he could eliminate incorrect
alternatives without trying them out behaviourally.
Teaching Learning
Strategies It was only after World War I1 when research funds for investigations of
creativity and originality were made available, a new name for a higher type of
problem solving was accepted, the implication being that creativity included
more than learning and intelligence. Although it had long been recognized that
intelligence and problem solving ability had a limited relationship, the recent
research had revived tbe importance of distinguishing between intelligence (the
ability to learn) and creativity. The work of Getzels and Jackson (1962), and
Torrance (1965) reveal this trend, which lays emphasis on unusual innovative
types of personality. This, of course, is required when an individual is faced
with a new situation that poses a problem. A problem becomes difficult when
its solution requires responses that deviate from the common ones or from
previously learned ones. Approached in this way, it follows that the creative
person should be a good problem solver because helshe can solve not only
routine problems but all those that require more than a learning mechanism.

Problem solving methods being used are often classified as 'traditional' and
'new'. Traditional methods are more rational and logical while the new
methods attempt to train the individual through freeing hirn~herfrom hislher
emotional inhibitions. Generally problem solving method involves the
following steps:

Definition of the problem: It involves definition of the initial problem as

well as establishment of the problem.
Searching for methods: It involves searching for different methods,
evaluating them and finally selecting the suitable method.
Preparation of the design: An outline of the design is prepared, test is
conducted and evaluation is done.
Results and solutipns: It involves generalizing the results and arriving at
the best solution.

These steps are shown in Figure 6.2.

Steps of problem solving

Definition'of tlie problem

Searching for different methods &

selection of a suitable method
)reparation of the design

I Implementing the strategy

1 Generalizing the results

There are different techniques of creative problem solving such as, attribute
listing, brain storming, inquiry training and synectics. These techniques
facilitate solutions that are creative, i.e. solutions characterized by freshness, Teaching for Effective
Learning: Development
appropriateness, imagination, new relationship between even common place of Concepts of Skills and
facts or ideas, and significant transformation of the initial definition -of the Competencies
problem.

6.8 ATTRIBUTE LISTING

The technique of attribute listing was developed by Robert Platt Crawford

(1954). This is a useful technique for designing or redesigning a specific
product or activity or service. According to Crawford, "magic inspiration is not
the only, or even major source of creativity". Much creativity arises from
changing the attribute of an object or an activity, or from grafting on to the
object or an activity, an attribute or attribute of some other object and activity.
For example, many years ago traveling bags used to be made of metal to
ensure durability; today durability is ensured by making much lighter plastic
substitutes.

In attribute listing, the attempt first is made to list the basic but modifiable
attributes or properties or specifications of a particular object or activity. Then
an attempt is made to search for alternatives to the present attribute. An
example of 'attribute listing' can be seen in the search for a better method of
cutting cheese. At first, the initial problem is how to develop a better knife; this
problem leads to another problem, i.e., how to arrange attributes of a better
wedge; also the undesirable attributes are listed that are to be eliminated.
Finally, if any other problem arises, its attributes both desirable as well as
undesirable, are listed, and the undesirable are to be eliminated to arrive at the
best possible solution.

Attribute listing is a very powerful technique for improving product design.

The list of the modifiable attributes of a product-be it a commercial product, or
a service, or even some activity, often leads to suggestions for improvement.
So long as one thinks of a comb, without thinking of various properties of a
comb, one is not likely to come up with better ideas about improving its
design, (easy to keep, easy to clean, durable, sharp enough to massage the
scalp but not to hurt it, easy to handle, attracive in appearance, cheap, etc.). A
large number of alternative designs, colours, materials, manufacturing
processes, and so on, may come to mind. Ln this way, generation of more ideas
will lead to improvement of the product design.

In attribute listing, it may very often be useful to list abstract attributes of a

concrete object or activity. This may help in generating more ideas than if the
concrete attributes are listed. For example, if one wants to seek ideas for
redesigning a cup, it may be better to conceive it as a container than as a tea
cup, for thinking of the cup as a container makes possible designs that enable
the use of a cup not only for drinking tea but also a variety of other fluids, and
not only for drinking from but also to eat from, use as a flower vase, cook in,
etc. Similarly, it may be better to consider handling conveniences as an
attribute rather than the cup as having a handle to 'hold it. Next, seeking what
function a current attribute serves, and then looking for alternative ways- of
meeting the function is a way of thinking about the abstract properties or
attributes of an object or activity.
Teaching ÿ earn in^
Strategies Crawford has laid down the following principles of attribute listing:

Creation is not inspiration alone - it is largely adaptation and

experimentation.

Creation is not just mechanically combing different ideas, rather it is useful

modification of an attribute, or assimilation of attributes of other objects.

Creation is not simple stating of ideas; it is continuing array of

modifications suggested by ideas in use which result over time into greatly
changed objects or products like the thousands of modifications
incorporated into the automobile over the years.

It is desirable to, search for concrete alternatives during the process of

modtfiflngthe current attributes of an object. For example, if one is seeking
to change hard railway seats, he/she should think not of just soft seats, but
seats with the softness of a pillow or foam or vinyl.

Creativity can be systematized by looking first for closely related

substitutes of the c u k t attributes and then progressively going in more
and more for far out alternatives.

It is important to note that the attribute listing would g v e better results when
the object or activity one wishes to change is more specific; when the
modifiable attributes are separated fiom the unmodifiable attributes of the
objects in order to concentrate one's attention on the modifiable attributes.
Some important points that need to be considered in attribute listing are
explained briefly as under:

First, .list exhaustively all the obvious attributes of an object or activity

such as, the present size, colour, shape, function, weight, major
components, material etc., for an object;' and present duration, function,
steps, sub-progrmmes, etc., for an activity.

Second, identify some of the attributes that can possibly be changed

without destroying the main function of the object or activity.

Third, the changeable attributes may be stated in more abstract terms.

Thinking what hnctions these attributes perform and how critical these
functions are to be for the main use of the object or activity would not only
help an individual in listing necessary attributes in abstract terms, but also
help in fixing priorities of attributes and in encouraging to look for
alternative ways of satisfying functional requirements.

6.9 ,MORPHOLOGICALANALYSIS

Morphological analysis is a variant of attribute listing. This technique was

developed by Fred Zincky (1 957) in California. It facilitates the imagination by
enabling the individual to focus on one aspect of the object or activity at one
time. It involves combining the modifiable attributes of the major variables of
problem into gnd so 'that all possible combinations can be considered. The first
task relates the identification of the major variables; next, the attributes of the
major variables are listed; and finally, the possible combinations of the
attributes are considered SO as to generate a large number of ideas. Similarly, Teaching for Effective
Learning: Development
also other aspects of the problem are analysed in regard to its attributes and of Concepts of Skills and
possible combinations, which ultimately lead towards the best possible Competencies
solution of the problem in question. For example, the problem may be how to
fabricate a new type of building material. First of all, the identification of
attributes of the material is done, followed by possible techniques of binding
the material; and finally, methods of fabricating are plotted into a grid which
may extend to any number of possible combinations.

In morphological analysis, the basic idea is to identify the critical modifiable

attributes, and listing several alternatives; for each of the attributes enables one
to generate a very large number of alternatives of an object or an activity. As
an example, consider dissemination of daily news. Alternatives for the attribute
of medium of disseminating daily news can be done by newspapers, radio,
television, fax, telephone, or direct briefing. The second attribute can be
frequency-once a day, twice a day, thrice a day and so on. The third attribute
can be of coverage, i.e., local, regional, national, international. The fourth
attribute can be of content, i.e., Economic, Social, Political, Scientific,
Cultural. In this way, one can list these under 'four' headings where in six
'medium alternatives' are listed under one heading; 'three frequency
alternatives' are listed under the second heading, and 'four coverage
alternatives' are listed under the third heading, and the 'five content' are listed
under the fourth heading, thus totaling 6 x 3 x 4 x 5 = 360 alternatives through
which the daily news can be disseminated.

Arnold has pointed out that there is one basic difference between attribute
listing and morphological analysis. Attribute listing works best when the
object, activity, product sought to be modified is very specific such as 'this
chair' rather than 'chair' in general. On the other hand, morphological analysis
can also be applied profitably to modify general objects or activities, such as
air transportation, health care or political machinery etc.

Attribute listing and morphological analysis are not mere techniques, they
embody important values and attitudes favouring to creativity. The chief such
value is one of trylng out a new combination which fosters experimental;
innovative bent of mind and also alerts one to possible new application of
ideas.

6.10 BRAINSTORMING
Brainstorming is a popular method of group thinking. Alex Osborn established
the 'Creative Education Foundation' at the University of Buffalo in 1957; it is
here that he developed the method of brainstorming. This method is widely
used by businessmen, scientists and others to tap the tremendous source of
creative power. It is a technique with which problem is attacked from all
possible angles to generate a large number of ideas in order to arrive at the best
solution.
Brainstorming has been widely used in American Government and Industry;
Osborn, the father of brainstorming, has cited several examples. In one
brainstorming session in a federal government officers' conference, the group
brainstormed on 'what can federal employees do to give visitors to Washington
a truer and better impression of their government? Within 30 minutes, 121
ideas were elicited. In another brainstorming session, some U.S. Treasury
Teaching Learning
Strategies personnel produced 103 ideas in 40 minutes on 'How can we get more federal
employees to sell more U.S. saving bonds?' In yet another brainstorming
session, the group brainstormed on 'How to reduce absenteeism?' They
produced 89 ideas in 30 minutes, and on 'How to free bond-selling employees
from office duties1 they produced 61 ideas in 30 minutes. In a telephone
company, a brainstorming panel brought out over 100 new ways to recruit
employees.
In a brainstorming session, a group of people sits around a table to brainstorm
a specific problem. Each participant presents the ideas, that come to hisher
mind. No member of the group is allowed any criticism on the idea put forward
by another member. The objective underlying this is that of freeing a person
from the usual inhibitions that operate to block hisher creative process.
Principles: The main principles of brainstorming are:
i) Deferring evaluation during the idea production phase, especially
evaluation of a negative, critical kind. This means that the participants must
withhold adverse judgement of ideas put forward by other members of the
group.
ii) Free wheeling of ideas should be encouraged rather welcomed. The
participants must cheerfully accept even wild,.silly and crazy ideas put
forward by other members. The more fantastic the ideas, the better it is. A
fantastic idea can be one that does not seem at all practical but still it
serves the important function of going off the beaten track, i.e., thinking
divergently instead of conventional patterns of thinking. While the idea
itself may not be practical, somehow it may hit upon other ideas that might
not only be novel but also useful.
iii) Quantity begets quality: The more the ideas are generated, the higher will
be the [Link] hitting upon some brilliant ones. Participants must
express ideas that come to their mind readily and spontaneously. The
objective is to generate more and more ideas, i.e., first quantity and then it
would lead to quality.
iv) Hitch-hiking on previously expressed ideas. Participants should aim at
building upon and improving each other's suggestions. Besides
contributing their own ideas, the participants should suggest how ideas of
others can be turned into better ideas or how different ideas can be joined
together into new possible combinations to form new ideas. Moreover, no
participant should feel ashamed of in building on others' ideas or one's
own previous ideas. This simply means one should be open to the
suggestive power of others or one's own earlier ideas.
v) In one session, one aspect of the problem should be brainstormed so that a
large number of ideas are collected.
In view of the usefulness and practicability of brainstorming, educationists,
teaihers, and students can use this technique very successfully to find out the
best solutions to the, problems that are faced by the existing system of
.education. For example, in the classroom it can be used to promote discipline,
teaching-learning process; check delinquency, truancy, dropping out tendency
of students; causes as well as preventive measures can be identified in regard
to student unrest and copying in the examinations. This technique can be of
great help to the teachers in developing problem-solving attitude among
students and also in stimulating their imaginative and creative powers. This is
possible only when teachers or others who wish to use brainstorming are fully Teaching for Effective
Learning: Development
abreast with its inherent potential. of Concepts of Skills and
Competencies
i) Brainstorming is not useful as a technique where the solution of a problem
can be reached by analysis. For instance, if the problem is to find the
square root of 5000, there is no need of brainstorming. It is particularly
useful for problems that can have multiple solutions, of which some may
be better than others, such as, 'how one can make a child more interested in
studies'.
ii) Brainstorming gives fruitful results when the topic selected for
brainstorming is specific. If the topic is vague, the brainstorming will carry
different frames of reference and the ideas generated will have a diffused
applicability. For instance, the topic 'how to get ahead in life' is not clear.
Different people will draw different meanings out of it. No doubt, it may
generate many ideas, but since what 'to get ahead' means to different
people is not clear, the ideas generated are likely to be too disparate. On the
other hand, a topic like 'how to get promoted in a @articularorganisation'
is likely to yield more useful and pertinent solutions.
iii) During the brainstorming session, the leader should encourage the
members to provide concrete suggestions or ideas instead of abstractions.
These abstractions sometimes become not only difficult but also impossible
to turn into practice. Sometimes members also provide such suggestions,
which are mere good intentions, but it is difficult to put them to actual use.
The members should, therefore, be advised and encouraged to concretize
their ideas. The concrete ideas stimulate hitching and action orientation.
They have an energy charge that abstractions lack. It is better that the ideas
expressed should be concise, brief, clear and specific.
iv) In order to select the most useful ideas among the host of generated ideas,
it is necessary to identify a few ideas for more intensive investigation. One
usehl technique can be to have each member of a panel vote on the
potential of each idea for solving the problem in hand or the ideas can be
grouped into classes and then each idea within a group may be voted upon.
Better it would be to formalize the criteria first for assessing the potential
of the ideas generated before the ideas are voted upon.
If the ideas initially generated are large, voting may have to be done more than
once. That is td say, ideas voted the best in the initial round of voting may
again be put to a vote to get a small number of high potential ideas. These
ideas may then be taken up for much more intense scrutiny. In this way, high
potential ideas are selected and put to use.
The research of Sidney Pames (1959) indicates the positive effects of
'brainstorming'. His research also provides evidence that creative productivity
can be developed by deliberate procedures. He studied the development of
creative behaviour by devising several courses for the students of various
streams. While evaluating the problem solving course he demonstrated that
the students who completed the creative problem solving course performed
significantly better on six out of eight tests of creative thinking than did
comparable students who had not taken the course. His second observation
was that increased productivity in creative thinking produced by the creative
problem solving course persists for a period of eight months or more after the
completion of the course. His research also provides evidence that individuals
working along often accumulate more and better ideas than they do when
I Teaching Learning
Strategies working in a group. On the basis of research findings he mentions certain
points that need to be considered in the conduct of brainstorming sessions:
The first of these is the principle of deferred judgement during the idea
production phase.
Avoiding critical analysis of the idea after a quantity of alternatives is
listed.
I

Extended effort in idea production; Extended effort in idea production will

lead to an increasing proportion of good ideas with increased production.
Since brainstormers are able to generate more (quantity) and quality ideas
in the second half than in the first half of the brainstorming session, Parnes
- suggests that the session should be broken into two halves. By doing so,
brainstormers Idarn from the experiences of the first session and also are
stimulated by each other's ideas. Thus, extended effort results in the
production of ndw and better ideas than the earlier ones.
To conclude, brain~tormingfacilitates the development of divergent thinking
abilities in human beings in more than one ways. In a brainstorming session,
people drop their defensiveness, and instead of competing for power and
status, they compete for excellence and creativeness of their ideas. Secondly,
brainstorming reinforces a sense of participation especially if brainstorming is
followed by voting on the best ideas. As is well known, participation increases
commitment to implement the participatively chosen course of action. The host
of ideas it produces is a clear demonstration of the power of the human mind to
overcome obstacles.

Check Your Progress 7

Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below.
b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the unit.
1. Ligt the steps that are generally followed in problem solving
method.
.........................................................................
.........................................................................
2. Differentiate between the techniques of attribute listing and
msrphological analysis.
.........................................................................
.........................................................................
3. Fill in the blanks with suitable words in the follo ing
sebtences.
9
i), Brainstorming method is widely used to tap .the
i
tremendous source ........................
ii) Brainstorming is not a useful technique where solution of
I a problem can be reached by .......................
iii) Brainstorming technique gives useful results when the
topic selected for brainstorming is .................
iv) Brainstorming technique facilitates the development of
.............thinking abilities in human beings.
 Teaching for Effective ,

6.1 1 INQUIRY TRAINING Learning: Development

of Concepts of Skills and
Competencies
Inquiry training model was developed by Richard Suchman (1962) to teach
students a process for investigating and explaining unusual phenomena. The
main objective underlying the model was that the scientific process skills are
developed in the students to enable them to organize data, reason about cause
and effect, and build and test theories. He modelled the model along the lines
of the methods employed by creative researchers especially scientists. He
identified the components of the inquiry process and built them into an
instructional model which he called 'inquiry training'.

Suchman bases his inquiry training approach on four postulates. First, children
are curious and eager to grow by nature. He emphasizes that when children are
faced with a puzzling situation they naturally get motivated to explore the data
surrounding the discrepant event and think of arranging the data in a new way
to find tinswers to the problem. The general goal of inquiry training is to help
students develop the intellectual discipline and skills necessary to raise
questions and search out answers stemming from their curiosity. Secondly, the
process of inquiry can be taught to students. Suchman believe that students can
become increasingly conscious of their process of inquiry, and that they can be
taught scientific procedures directly. He emphasizes that we can not analyse
and improve our thinking unless we are conscious of it. Thirdly, team approach
is more useful than the individual approach to find solution to a problem.
Suchman believes that the view point of a second person enriches our thinking;
and that it is the cooperative inquiry that leads to the development of new
knowledge. Fourthly, all knowledge is tentative. Suchman emphasizes that the
students should be made aware of the fact that all knowledge is tentative.
Scholars constantly generate theories and explanations. After sometime, these
theories are replaced by new ones, which conveys that there are no permanent
answers to problems; new and sophisticated ways are investigated to' reach the
solution of the problem, or new ways are detected to look at the problem itself.

6.11.1 Inquiry Training Process

In 'Inquiry training', the students are presented with a problem situation such
as, an episode, experiment, story, etc., and are asked to inquire into it. In
whatsoever form it is presented, it must essentially cany a discrepancy leading
to a puzzle. Sincetthe ultimate goal is to have students experience the creation
of new knowledge, the confrontation should be based on discoverable ideas.

After the presentation of a puzzling situation, the students are encouraged to

ask questions. These questions have to be worded in the way that they are
answered by a 'yes' or 'no'. The students are not to ask the teacher to explain
the phenomenon to them, however, they can ask questions that are responded
by the teacher only in a 'yes' or 'no'. Whenever a question can not be replied
in a 'yes' or 'no' response, the teacher reminds them of the rules, and waits
until they find a way of rephrasing the question in proper form. Comments
such as, 'can you restate this question so that I can answer it with a 'yes' or a
'no' are common teacher responses when students slip out of the inquiry
mode'.

Thus, at the first stage of the inquiry process, the students are taught to verify
the facts of the situation, i.e., the nature and identity of the objects, the events,
Teaching Learning
Strategies and the conditions surrounding the puzzling event. As the students become
aware of the facts, they form hypotheses, which guide them in their future
inquiry. Using their knowledge about the behaviour of objects, students can
turn their questions to the variables in the situation. This they can do by
conducting verbal or actual experiments to test these causal relationships,
selecting new data, or organizing the'existing data in a new way to see what
will happen if things are done differently. It may not be possible for the
students to frame proper questions to test the causal relationships between
variables unless they have sufficient information about the nature of the
problem situation and its elements, and it is likely that they are to be
overwhelmed by the maply possible causal relationships.

Finally, the students'try to develop hypotheses that will fully explain what
happened. In other words, it means that they reach the final explanation.
However, they need to be cautioned that there can be many possible
explanations, therefore, they should not be satisfied with the first explanation
that appears to fit the fact.

The main emphasis in this approach is on becoming aware of and mastering

the inquiry process and not the content of any particular problem situation.
The teacher also need not be too concerned with subject matter coverage or
'obtaining the right answer' for the reason that it would violate the real spirit of
scientific inquiry, which emphasizes team approach of searching together for
more accurate and powerful explanations for every day phenomena.

6.11.2 Phases in Inquiry Training

There are five phases (steps) in the inqulry process. The first phase is the
student's confrontation with the puzzling situation. The second and third
phases concern with the data gathering mechanisms of verification and
experimentation. In the fourth phase, students organize the data and try to
explain the discrepancy. Finally, in the fifth phase, the students reflect on the
problem solving strategies they use during the inquiry. These phases are
explained in some more details given below:

Phase-I: Encounter with the problem: In this phase, the teacher is required
to present the problem situation or puzzling event and explain the inquiry
procedures to the students. The teacher is required to satisfy himselVherself
that the students have understood the inquiry procedure (pattern of the yes-no
question) and also the objectives fully. Then helshe can present problem
situation to the students, which should essentially carry a discrepancy. The
problem to be posed should be simple such as a puzzle, riddle, or magic trick
that does not require'much background knowledge. However, every puzzling
situation can not be a discrepant event. It is, therefore, important to note that
distinguishing feature of the dicsrepancy events is that it involves illogical
phenomena that conflicts with the notions of reality. A problem may be
puzzling simply because we do not know the answer, but simultaneously we do
not need new concepts to understand it and therefore we do not need to
conduct an inquiry. Thus, the problem to be taken for inquiry should
essentially accompany a discrepancy but care needs to be taken that it matches
with the cognitive level of the students.
 Teaching for Effective
Phase-11: Data gathering verification: In this phase, students gather Learning: Development
information about the problem in hand through observation or experience. of Conce,ts of Skills and
They are required to ask questions about objects, properties, conditions, and Competencies
events in order to verify the information. Objects refer to determining the
nature or identifying of bbjects. Properties refer to veTifying the behaviour of
ol))l:cts and events are related to verifying the occurrence of an action.
Wherever students deviate from verifying all the aspects of the problem, the
teacher reminds them of the rules of the process and makes them aware of the
type of information they are likely to seek and put them to work to change the
questioning pattern.

Phase-111: Data gathering experimentation: In this phase, students introduce

new elements into the situation to see if the event happens differently.
Exploration serves two functions, that is, exploration and direct testing.
Exploration refers to changing things in order to see what will happen though it
is not necessarily guided by a theory or hypothesis, but it may suggest ideas for
a theory. Direct testing refers trylng out a theory or hypothesis. The hypothesis
i determines the direction of data gathering. If the gathered data do not support a
hypothesis, it is rejected and consequently alternate hypothesis is formulated
I and the process is repeated.

Although verification and experimentation are described as separate phases of

the inquiry training approach, yet the students' question usually alternate
between these two phases of data gathering. The teacher does not need to be
very rigid in following these two phases separately instead helshe should
encourage students to generate questions that pertain to data gathering and
consequently lead them to formulate the explanation.

Phase-IV: Formulating an explanation: In this phase, the teacher calls on the

students to formulate an,explanation. It is possible that different students may
I put forward different explanations, however, some students may have
difficulty in making the intellectual leap between the data they have gathered
and a clear explanation. It is also possible that they may give inadequate
1
explanations omitting essential details. It has been experienced that sometimes
I
several theories or explanations are possible based on the same information. In
I
view of this, it is useful to ask all the students to state their explanations so that
the range of differences is revealed. It is believed that the groups together can
shape the explanation that fully responds to the problem situation.
L
Phase-V: Analysis of the inquiry process: In this phase, the students are
I asked to analyse their pattern of inquiry. This would help them in finding out
the questions that were most effective; the lines of questioning that were most
productive and those that were not; or the type of information they needed but
could nc-t obtain. The teacher asks students to recall the question they have
raised and to identify those questions that led them to explanation but not
others. In this way, the teacher goes on repeating the whole process of inquiry
so as to make students aware about the pattern of questions needed to be raised
during the phases of verification and experimentation that have helped them to
reach at final explanation and also making the inquiry process conscious one
so that steps are systematically taken to improve it.

Inquiry training approach promotes active, autonomous learning as the

students themselves formulate question and test ideas. It calls upon students to
take courage to ask questions, and helps them to become more proficient in
Teaching Learning
Strategies verbal expression as well as in listening to others and remembering what has
been said. The chief learning outcomes of this approach are the involvement of
varied processes such as observing, collecting and organizing data, identifying
and controlling variables, framing and testing hypotheses, formulating
explanations and drawing inferences. The magnificent integration of these
several process skills into a single, meaningful unit of experience is the chief
characteristic of this approach.

This all depends when both the students and the teacher try for their balanced
roles. The teacher selects the problem situation in accordance with the
students' cognitive level; acts as a referee throughout the inquiry process;
responds warmly to students' question; brings them back on the right track if
they deviate; facilitate discussion and interaction among students; and finally
helps them to arrive at explanations. The students on the other hand, actively
participate in finding out the discrepancy from the problem; raising pinpointed
questions; process data in a systematic sequence; tolerating ambiguity; and
fohnulating explanatiohs.

6.12 SYNECTICS

The word 'Synectics' has been adapted from the Greek word 'Synecticos'
meaning fitting tog';;ther diverse elements. Synectics is based on the use of
metaphors and analogies within a systematic framework to achieve creative
results. The central idea is that better understanding of a problem is attained
when it is strange or unfamiliar and allows us to think of an analogy or
metaphor that makes it more familiar and hence more amenable to a creative
solution. In synectics, then the problem as one is presented with, it initially has
to be restated and looked at in various ways through the use of metaphors or
analogies. During the course of this process, the individual goes on what
synectics proponents crall an 'excursion' and as a result of such a trip creative
solutions are attained.

Initial work with synectics procedures began about 1944 when William J.J.
Gordon undedook an intensive study of individual and group processes in
creativity. This was followed with a systematic exploratiqn of his ideas in
1948 with a group of artists and then went on forming synectics groups in
several companies. Finally, he and his associates designed this new approach
'synectics' for the development of creativity at Cambridge, Massachusetts in
1 96 1..

Gordon and his assopiates believe that the group process in creativity is
analogous to the individual process; that the creative process can be
understood, described and taught; and that individuals can increase their
creativity if they understand and use the process. He also believes that
creativity in arts is anialogous to creativity in sciences, and that emotional and
intellectual, rational and nonrational components are involved in creativity.

In synectics, nonrational processes are engaged through the purposeful use of

metaphors. Since many researchers have attempted to define the roles of the
preconscious and unconscious mind in the creative process, the credit goes to
synectics proponents who have so systematically tried to engage these sources
of creativeness. What they have sought out to do is to imitate the processes of
incubation in the preconscious mind as incubation is thought to be the phase of
 Teaching for Effective
problem solving in which the preconscious mind is working out the solution to Learning: Development
a complex problem without the conscious and being aware of this. The of Concepts of Sfills md
preconscious mind does not think logically; it thinks analogically, associatively Competencies
and visually. Rational and logical processes are also used in synectics. They
too are valued, encouraged, and enhanced in a group situation that is free,
easy-going and accepting. Moreover, regardless of the emphasis placed on
non-rational factors, the whole synectics process occurs within a framework
that has very practical goals.

Among the various factors that play important roles in synectics are five
psychological states involved in the creative process. The five psychological
states are:

i) Involvement and detachment: This state refers to the relationship

between the individual and the problem on which helshe is working.
Involvement refers to understanding and interacting with the components
of the problem. Detachment refers to detaching from and becoming distant
from the problem. By this we mean that the creative process involves both
the capacity of involvement of the individual with the problem on the one
hand and getting detached from the problem on the other in order to view it
objectively.

ii) Deferment: Experience has shown that quick and immediate solutions to a
problem are likely to be premature and superficial. They should, therefore,
be deferred until best solutions are arrived at. Deferment refers to the
capacity of both the individual and the group to defer these quick solutions
until they have arrived at the best one.

iii) Speculation: Speculation refers to the type of thinking in which individuals

are able to let their minds run fiee so that they can come up with ideas,
hypotheses and solutions.

iv) Autonomy of object: As the creative process proceeds and a solution is

approached, there is a feeling that the solution has an entity and demand
quality of its own. The individual or group must be willing and free enough
to allow this feeling to develop and to follow it.

v) Hedonic response: Synectics involves, among other factors, play with

'apparent irrelevancies', to generate energy for problem solving and to
evoke new views of problems. One of irrelevancies is an emotional factor
referred to as 'hedonic response' which serves as an 'irrelevance filter'.
The feeling involved in the hedonic response is very subtle and is similar to
the inspiration or intuition that is sensed prior to arriving at a solution to a
problem. It is the pleasurable sensation that accompanies the feeling of
being right about a hypothesis or a solution before it has been proven
correct. There are both aesthetic and pleasurable elements in hedonic
response. It is of great importance, if an individual could learn how to
recognize it, then helshe would probably not waste s o much of time and
energy in the creative process; the individual would have that 'feeling'
aesthetic or otherwise that would tell him when to follow up a hypothesis
and when to pursue a tentative idea to solution.
Teaching Learning
Strategies Operational mechanisms

The psychological states are induced by operational mechanisms. The

individual who is working on a problem actually utilizes these operational
mechanisms. If they operate effectively, then the psychological states h c t i o n
very quietly and 'take care of themselves'. One of the functions of these
mechanisms is to make the familiar strange. In doing so, one of the important
psychological functions that is accomplished to increase the distance enables
the individual to avoid becoming stuck with what helshe already knows about
a problem and being limited to it. The four mechanisms are:

i) Personal analogy: Here the individual attempts to imagine himselfherself

to be the object with which helshe is working. Gordon (1971) believes that
the critical elements in personal analogy is empathic identification: that the
person is asked to retain hislher individual human sensibility but is
simultaneously asked to transpose himselfierself into a situation and to
report what helshe feels, sees, hears, thinks, etc. For instance, if the
discussion is about static in the radio, the leader may ask group members to
imagine themselves to be a radio and to tell the group what they see, feel,
think, etc.

There are four levels of involvement in personal analogy. (a) The first
person description of facts: It involves a mere statement or listing of facts.
(b) The first person description of emotions: It represents the lowest order
of identification. These two levels are considered the lowest level
analogies. (c) Empathic identification with a living thing: Since it
represents [Link] and emotional involvement with object, it is
regarded as 'true' personal analogy. (d) Empathic identification with a
nonliving object: This is the most sophisticated type of empathy as it is
much more diffcult to attribute human emotions with nonliving objects.
On the other hand, it may be easy to do so with living objects as in the case
of level.

ii) Direct analogy or example: In this facts, knowledge, or technology from

field are used in another field. Direct analogy involves seeking a direct
comparison of the phenomenon under discussion with some other
phenomenon that is similar enough. For example, if aerodynamics of a
plane is under discussion, the group may think of and explore how birds
manage to fly into a plane's aerodynamics. For many problems, the
synectics people have found analogies from biology particularly useful in
generating fruitful insights, however, whatever other information an
iMividua1 has at hisfher disposal may be helpful to himher in direct
analogy.

The more far fetched the analogy, the greater the probability that the angle
suggested byetheanalogy has not previously been thought of by anybody.
Gordon (1971) says that analogies with small psychological distance from
the problem can be effective for problems being worked on for the first
time; but for problems that have been worked on great deal, analogies that
reflect great psychological distance - those that are rather remote from the
individual's experience - are required.
 Direct analogy is the basic mechanism by which an individual tries to see Teaching for Effective
Learning: Development
problems in new contexts. A direct analogy is clear and straight forward. It of Concepts of and
produces immediate results and its process can be reproduced (Gordon, Competencies
1971).

iii) Symbolic analogy: The symbolic analogy is also called 'book title',
essential paradox, and compressed conflict. This form of analogy makes
use of objective and impersonal images to describe the problem. An
individual effectively uses symbolic analogy in terms of poetic response;
helshe summons up an image which, though technologically inaccurate, is
aesthetically satisfling.

The h c t i o n of 'book title' is to generalize about some specific matter and

to use the generalization to suggest a direct analogy. This helps peole who
stay close to the problem to get away from it. In a 'book title' there is both
essence of and a paradox involved in a particular set of feeling (Prince,
1970).

iv) Fantasy analogy: Fantasy analogy is based on Freud's idea that creative
work represents wish fulfillment. The individual states a problem in terms
of how helshe wishes the world would be. In it, the group members are
urged to imagine a constraint free solution in much the same way as our
wish fulfilling day dreams. Group members are asketl to fantasize some
perfect solution even if it flies in the face of known scientific principles.
Gordon regards fantasy analogy as an excellent bridge between problem
stating and problem solving because it also tends to evoke the use of the
other mechanisms.

Thus, synectics in the course of problem solving situations attempts to

make the familiar strange and to make the strange familiar through the use
of the different types of analogies. These analogies enable the individual to
look at the problems in new ways, and thereby hopefully gain new insights
into the problems.

Synectics also attempts to make conscious what goes on in the unconscious by

means of operational mechanisms. The psychological states are also induced
by these mechanisms. These states create the psychological climate necessary
for creating activity.

Steps in synectics process: The main steps involved in the synectics process
as proposed by Gordon are briefly discussed as under:

(i) Problem as given (PAG): The problem may be posed by an outside source
or by an individual in the group and may be explained to the group by an
expert.

(ii) Short analysis of the PAG: At this stage, the expert starts by explaining
the problem in sufficient detail that the group has a common
understanding. Since the expert is also a participant, helshe does not need
to reveal all the minute details of the problem, which can come out later
during the session. In order to understand the problem, and to unravel the
hidden elements, the group members attempt at making the strange
familiar.
Teaching Learning
Strategies
(iii)Purge - immediate suggestions: At this stage, individuals participating in
the process are likely to think of and present varied suggestions or
solutions. Such suggestions are not likely to be perfect solutions; however,
they should be verbalized. The leader should urge group members to rid
themselves of'the superficial ideas and attempt at turning to more
innovative possibilitiks.

(iv) Problem as understood (PAU): If the problem remains unsolved, the

leader asks the members of the group to state the problem as they
understand it, this is called the 'problem as understood' phase. The group
member may either state the problem as he/she sees it, i.e., a simple
paraphrase of the actual problem, or helshe may state in any other manner
as helshe thinks desirable not worrying whether it is realistic or not. The
leader then asks the group members to put the problem out of their minds
and to concentrate on what he/she asks. Essentially, helshe now starts to
take the group on a mental excursion.

(v) Excursion: It is at this stage that an extended process of the problem

solving starts. According to Prince, this stage is likely taking an artificial
vacation or a holiday from the problem in which the participants are asked
to put the problem out of their minds. He is aware that if they are capable
to do so, they will put it out of their conscious minds but still shall
continue to work on it in their preconscious minds.

It is during this stage of the synectics process that the different operational
mechanisms and the different kinds of analogies are used. Essentially, it is
at this stage that the group tries to make the familiar strange. The leader
questions the members and attempt at evolving responses to his requests
for different kinds of analogies. Next, the leader may ask an evocative
question; such as, hn example from some other field, of an aspect of the
chosen problem as understooci For instance, an evocative question may be
'can you think of a crowded 51tuationfrom biology?' Here the leader is
asking for what is called a direct analogy. A number of responses may be
made to the evocative question 'flies on cow dung' 'virus culture' 'drop of
sperm' etc. could, for example be such responses to the above said
evocative question concerning a crowded situation. At the appropriate
time, the leader may request for a personal analogy. For instance, helshe
may take up 'virus culture' and asks each group member to imagine
himselfierself as Virus in a virus culture. Helshe may ask them to explain
how it feels to be a virus in this culture. Group members may come
forward with different types of responses.

The leader may also ask group members to fantasize (without reservations)
about how one could, as a virus set out to conquer the world. This kind of
analogy is referred to as fantasy analogy. Then, the leader may ask for a
symbolic analogy [book title) - to give book title comprised of two or three
words, poetic or otherwise, that captures the essence of a key work such as
virus culture and contains a paradox. The participants may respond-with
different types of title.
 Teaching for Effective
(vi)Force fit: This involves two stages, i.e., (i) Fantasy force fit, (ii) Practical
Learning:
force fit. According to Gordon an attempt is now made to force a fit of Concepts S ~ l l r
between the analogy and the problem as understood. In forcing a fit a very Com~etencies
obvious attempt is-made to make effective use of the last analbgy to solve
1 the problem. ord don calls this stage fantasy force fit because fantasy
provides the individual with greater lrcense and freedom for response.

I During this stage, if the leader senses that a potentially useful approach to
the original problem is at hand, helshe may ask for a force fit, i.e., helshe
may ask the group members to try to think how the present idea or analogy
could suggest a solution to the original problem. The next step is then to
come up with a practical application of the analogy to the problem, i.e.,
practical force fit.
I (vii)View point: The problem solving process ends either in a view point that
1
k
could be used for solution, or in a new problem as understood, and the
recycling of the process takes place again.

Prince emphasizes that a viewpoint remains a possibility until leads to a

possible solution are developed. He uses the word possibility instead of
viewpoint because every viewpoint is regarded so until it has been
implemented and found workable. It is the implementation stage, which is
too difficult, and a solution that actually works may be several times
removed from anyone's viewpoint. The objectivity of any viewpoint is
judged by the new elements it has and it should be a promising one. Thus,
it is finally the viewpoint which leads to arrive at a solution of the problem
at hand.

Steps

Steps involved in the synectic process are summarized below.

Synectic Process

I v v v v v
Force fit
I
point
suggestions
Teaching Learning
Strategies
Check Your Progress 8

Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below.

b) Compare p u r answers with those given at the end of the unit.

1. Write four objectives of inquiry training process.

.........................................................................
.........................................................................

2. Name five psychological states involved in the creative

process that play important roles in synectics.

.........................................................................
.........................................................................

3. List the main steps involved in the synectics process.

.........................................................................
.........................................................................

6.13 LET US SUM UP

Teaching can be analysed in terms of teacher behaviour at three levels, namely,

component teaching skills, component teaching behaviours and atomistic
teaching behaviours. A teaching skill refers to a set of related teaching acts or
behaviours performed with an intention to facilitate student's learning.
Introduction, explanation, questioning, increasing student participation,
providing reinforcement, use of aids, blackboard work and evaluation are some
of the important teaching skills. Microteaching is a scaled down teaching
situation. It provides teachers with a practice for teaching situation. It provides
teachers with a for teaching in which normal complexities are reduced
in terms of length of the lesson, scope of the lesson, number of students and
class time. Supervisors play an important role in microteaching particularly in
preservice training programmes. Role of supervisor is one of continuous
consultation so that the trainee can perfect hisher performance in the particular
teaching skill.

Problem solving methods being used are often classified as 'traditional' and
'new'. The former (traditional) methods are more rational and logical while the
latter(new) methods attempt to train the individual through freeing h i d e r
from hisher emotional inhibitions. Problem solving methods involve five
steps, namely, definition of the problem, searching for different methods and
selecting the suitable one, preparation of the design and its execution, and
generalizing the results and arriving at the best solution. Some of the
techniques of creative problem solving are attribute listing, brainstorming,
inquiry training and synectics. These techniques facilitate solutions that are
creative.
 Teaching for Effective
Learning: Development
6.14 UNIT-END EXERCISES of Concepts of Skills and
Competencies

1. Analyse the concept of teaching.

2. Explain the concept of teaching skills.

3. Explain the following teaching skills in terms of their components:

(i) Introducing a lesson

(ii) Explaining
(iii) Questioning
(iv) Increasing student participation
(v) Providing reinforcement
(vi) Using teaching aids
(vii) Blackboard writing
(viii) Evaluating

4. Explain the microteaching procedure. Bring out its importance in teacher

training.

6.15 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Answers to Check Your Progress 1

1. Teaching skills, general teaching behaviour, and specific teaching
behaviour.
2. Teaching is defined as a set of component skills for the realization of a
specified set of instructional objectives.
3. A teaching skill is a set of related teaching acts or behaviours performed
with an intention to facilitate student's learning.

Answers to Check Your Progress 2

1. The two components of the skill of introducing are:
(i) Desirable behaviours
(a) Using previous knowledge
(b) Using appropriate devices

(ii) Undesirable behaviours

(a) Lacking in continuity
(b) Making irrelevant statements

2. Explanation is a set of interrelated statements made by the teacher related

to a phenomenon, an idea, etc., in order to bring about or increase
understanding in students about it.
Teaching Learning
Strategies s Check [Link] 3
~ n s w e r to
1. The components of the skill of questioning are:
(i) Structure (ii) Process (iii) Product
2. Student participation can be increased by integrating the various
components, namely, creating set, questioning, encouraging student
participation and pausing in appropriate combinations and proportion.

Answers to Check Yout Progress 4

1. Positive reinforcement means strengthening of desirable behaviour. It
increases students' participation in the class. Negative reinforcement means
weakening of undesirable behaviour. It decreases students' participation in
the Glass.

2. (i) Objects can be brought to the classroom.

(ii) Acquisition of knowledge of facts.
(iii)hvolve more thap one sense.
(iv) Motivate and stimulate interest of students.
3. Some important types of teaching aids are objects, models, pictures,
diagrams, maps, sketches and experimental demonstration.

4. Science, Home Science etc.

Answers to Check Your Progress 5

1. The components of the skill of using black board are:

(i) legibility of hand writing

(ii) neatness in the blackboard work and
(iii)appropriateness of written work on the blackboard

2. For effective use of blackboard the following points may be taken care of:

(i) Check the condition of the blackboard for its useability.

(ii) Light falling on the blackboard should neither be dim nor too bright.
(iii)Keep sufficient amount of chalks.
(iv)Use a pointer.

3. Evaluation provides the measure of success. It identifies defects and

failures. It also reveals the value of methods, procedures, techniques,
materials and equipment being used and where they should be improved-

Answers to Check Your Progress 6

1. D.W. Allen and his coworkers.
2. Microteaching is a scaled down teaching situation. It provides teachers
with a practice for teaching in which normal complexities are reduced in
terms of length of the lesson, scope of the lesson, number of students and
class time.
 Teaching for Effective
3. i) Defining a particular skill.
earni in^:- Development
of Concepts of Skills and
Competencies
ii) Demonstration lesson by a teacher educator employing the particular
skill.
iii) Preparation of a lesson plan on the particular,skill by a student teacher.
iv) Teaching of the lesson by a student teacher to a small group of
students.
v) Feedback to the student teacher.
vi) Replanning the lesson in the light of feedback.
vii) Reteaching the revised lesson to another comparable group of students.
viii)Refeedback session.

Answers to Check Your Progress 7

1. Problem solving methods generally involve the following steps:

(i) Definition of the problem.
(ii) Searching for different methods and selecting the suitable methods.
(iii)Preparation of the design.
(iv)Generalizing results and arriving at the best solution.

2. Attribute listing works best when the object, activity or product sought to
be modified is very specific. Morphological analysis is a variant of
attribute listing and can be applied profitably to modify general objects or
activities.

3. (i) creative power

(ii) analysis
@)specific
(iv)divergent

Answers to Check Your Progress 8

1 . (i) Logical thinking

(ii) Scientific process skills
(iii)Creative inquiry skills
(iv)Independent learning

2. (i) Involvement and detachment

(ii) Deferment
(iii)Speculation
(iv) Autonomy of object
(v) Hedonic response
Teaching Learning
Strategies 3. (i) Problem as given (PAG)
(ii) Short analysis of the PAG
(iii)Purge - immediate suggestions
(iv) Problem as understood (PAU)
(v) Excursion
(vi)Force fit
(vii)View point

6.16 SUGGESTED READINGS

1. Aggarwal, J.C., (1995): Essentials of Educational Technology. Vikash

Publishing House Pvt. Ltd. New Delhi.
2. Jangira, N.K., & Ajit Singh, (1982): Core Teaching Skills. National
Council of Education Research and Training, New Delhi.
3. Passi, B.K., (1976): Becoming Better Teacher. Sahitya Mudranalaya,
Ahemedabad.
4. Sampath, K. & Others, (2000): Technology of Teaching. International
Publishing House, Meerut.