[Link].

COM

[Link]

MAINS MASTER NOTES

SUBJECT: GEOGRAPHY (GS 1)

For my daily unique initiatives follow [Link]

For my unique UPSC CSE exam tips & strategies follow Optimize IAS
telegram channel

pg. 1
 [Link]

TABLE OF CONTENTS
GEOMORPHOLOGY ................................................................................................................................................................... 5
CONTINENTAL DRIFT THEORY (CDT): ............................................................................................................................... 5
LITHOSPHERIC PLATES / PLATES BOUNDARIES / PLATE TECTONICS........................................................................ 6
COMPARISON: CONTINENTAL DRIFT & SEE FLOOR SPREADING & PLATE TECTONICS ........................................ 9
FOLD MOUNTAIN OROGENY .............................................................................................................................................. 10
LANDFORMS ON EARTH'S SURFACE CREATED BY INTERNAL AND EXTERNAL FORCES ................................... 11
EARTH’S MAGNETISM AND POLE REVERSAL ................................................................................................................ 13
SHOULD INDIA HAVE TWO TIME ZONES? ....................................................................................................................... 16
VOLCANISM:........................................................................................................................................................................... 17
HINDUKUSH HIMALAYAN REGION & ITS ECONOMIC AND GEOGRAPHICAL IMPORTANCE............................. 19
RIVER MORPHOLOGY .......................................................................................................................................................... 20
DRAINAGE BASIN:................................................................................................................................................................. 21
● ESTUARY VS. DELTA ............................................................................................................................................. 26
INTERLINKING OF RIVERS .................................................................................................................................................. 27
CLIMATOLOGY ......................................................................................................................................................................... 29
INDIAN MONSOON ................................................................................................................................................................ 29
IMPACT OF EL-NINO AND LA-NINA ON INDIAN MONSOON AND ON GLOBAL CLIMATE: ................................... 34
INDIAN OCEAN DIPOLE ....................................................................................................................................................... 38
POLAR VORTEX; SUDDEN STRATOSPHERIC WARMING(SSW) ................................................................................... 45
TEMPERATURE INVERSION AND ASSOCIATED WEATHER: ........................................................................................ 47
DESERTS: ................................................................................................................................................................................. 48
CYCLONES .............................................................................................................................................................................. 51
AMAZON RAINFORESTS: ..................................................................................................................................................... 55
MEDITERRANEAN CLIMATE OR WARM TEMPERATE WESTERN MARGIN CLIMATE OR WARM TEMPERATE
WEST COAST CLIMATE: ....................................................................................................................................................... 57
GLOBAL CLIMATE CHANGE ............................................................................................................................................... 60
CRYOSPHERE AND GLOBAL CLIMATE ............................................................................................................................ 71
HOW THE TILT OF EARTH’S AXIS ON ITS ORBITAL PLANE AROUND THE SUN CAUSE: ...................................... 74
EXPLAIN EQUINOX AND SOLSTICE .................................................................................................................................. 77
OCEANOGRAPHY...................................................................................................................................................................... 79
OCEAN BOTTOM TOPOGRAPHY ........................................................................................................................................ 79
OCEAN CURRENTS ................................................................................................................................................................ 81
IMPORTANCE OF INDIAN OCEAN REGION ...................................................................................................................... 83
NATURAL HAZARDS AND DISASTERS: CAUSES, CONSEQUENCE & MANAGEMENT ........................................... 86
LANDSLIDES ...................................................................................................................................................................... 86
AVALANCHE ...................................................................................................................................................................... 87
EARTHQUAKE & TSUNAMI ............................................................................................................................................ 89
FLOODS ............................................................................................................................................................................... 96
GLACIAL LAKE OUTBURST FLOOD: ............................................................................................................................ 98
URBAN FLOODS/ FLASH FLOODS: .............................................................................................................................. 100
DROUGHTS ....................................................................................................................................................................... 102
FOREST FIRES .................................................................................................................................................................. 105

pg. 2
 [Link]

HEAT WAVES ................................................................................................................................................................... 108

HEAT DOME: .................................................................................................................................................................... 111
URBAN HEAT ISLAND.................................................................................................................................................... 112
DESERTIFICATION & LAND DEGRADATION NEUTRALITY .................................................................................. 114
WATERSHED DEVELOPMENT ...................................................................................................................................... 118
HAZARD VULNERABILITY OF INDIA ......................................................................................................................... 120
CLIMATE HAZARDS AND VULNERABILITY ATLAS OF INDIA: ............................................................................ 121
ENVIRONMENT & BIOGEOGRAPHY ................................................................................................................................. 122
FORESTS ................................................................................................................................................................................ 122
WESTERN GHATS ECOLOGY ............................................................................................................................................ 123
MANGROVES ........................................................................................................................................................................ 128
CORAL BLEACHING & CORAL RESTORATION ............................................................................................................. 130
FLY ASH UTILIZATION ....................................................................................................................................................... 137
SOIL ORGANIC CARBON .................................................................................................................................................... 139
ISLAND DEVELOPMENT .................................................................................................................................................... 143
DECARBONISING TRANSPORT ......................................................................................................................................... 145
ECOSYSTEM RESTORATION ............................................................................................................................................. 148
RESOURCES OF INDIA AND THE WORLD........................................................................................................................ 153
OCEAN RESOURCES ............................................................................................................................................................ 153
OIL & NATURAL GAS .......................................................................................................................................................... 157
SHALE GAS RESERVES, PRODUCTION & POLLUTION ................................................................................................ 159
RARE EARTH MINERALS ................................................................................................................................................... 161
LITHIUM RESERVES ............................................................................................................................................................ 163
RUSSIA’S FAR EAST ............................................................................................................................................................ 165
INDIA’S ARCTIC POTENTIAL ............................................................................................................................................ 167
AFRICA AS NEW GROWTH FRONTIER ............................................................................................................................ 170
INDIAN DEEP SEA FISHERIES- PROSPECTS, ISSUES & CHALLENGES ..................................................................... 173
WATER RESOURCES ........................................................................................................................................................... 175
TRADITIONAL RAINWATER HARVESTING ................................................................................................................... 180
HYDRO POWER POTENTIAL OF NORTH EASTERN REGION ...................................................................................... 181
COAL ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 184
RENEWABLE SOURCES OF ENERGY: .............................................................................................................................. 188
OFFSHORE WIND ENERGY ................................................................................................................................................ 191
ENERGY CRISIS & RESOURCE USE EFFICIENCY .......................................................................................................... 195
CRITICAL METALS AND STRATEGIC METALS: ............................................................................................................ 200
AGRICULTURE ........................................................................................................................................................................ 205
INDIAN AGRICULTURE ...................................................................................................................................................... 205
SLASH & BURN FARMING/ JHUM CULTIVATION ......................................................................................................... 207
DRYLAND AGRICULTURE ................................................................................................................................................. 208
PULSES PRODUCTION IN INDIA ....................................................................................................................................... 212
PLANTATION AGRICULTURE ........................................................................................................................................... 214
TEA PLANTATION:.......................................................................................................................................................... 217

pg. 3
 [Link]

COFFEE PLANTATION:................................................................................................................................................... 219

COTTON ............................................................................................................................................................................ 220
AGROFORESTRY .................................................................................................................................................................. 226
SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE ......................................................................................................................................... 229
ZERO BUDGET NATURAL FARMING: .............................................................................................................................. 232
POPULATION & SETTLEMENT GEOGRAPHY ................................................................................................................ 234
MIGRATION........................................................................................................................................................................... 234
POTENTIAL OF RELIGIOUS TOURISM IN INDIA ........................................................................................................... 238
DEMOGRAPHIC DIVIDEND IN INDIA: ............................................................................................................................. 243
COUNTER URBANISATION-............................................................................................................................................... 245
PREVALENCE OF MENTAL DISORDER IN SOUTH INDIA ............................................................................................ 246
INDUSTRIAL LOCATIONS .................................................................................................................................................... 247
LOCATIONAL FACTORS OF INDUSTRIES IN INDIA & THE WORLD ......................................................................... 247
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN RAW MATERIAL & INDUSTRIES: HOW GLOBALISATION & TECHNOLOGICAL
ADVANCEMENT IS CHANGING THIS RELATIONSHIP: ................................................................................................ 249
FOOD PROCESSING INDUSTRY: ....................................................................................................................................... 249
SUGAR INDUSTRY: .............................................................................................................................................................. 251
COTTON TEXTILES:............................................................................................................................................................. 252
JUTE TEXTILES: ................................................................................................................................................................... 254
PHARMACEUTICAL INDUSTRY: ....................................................................................................................................... 254
IRON AND STEEL INDUSTRY: ........................................................................................................................................... 256
PETROLEUM REFINING: ..................................................................................................................................................... 258
FERTILIZER INDUSTRY-..................................................................................................................................................... 260
FOREST BASED INDUSTRY: TIMBER, PAPER AND PULP INDUSTRY: ...................................................................... 266
ELECTRONIC AND IT INDUSTRY: .................................................................................................................................... 267
INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY AND START UP’S: ........................................................................................................ 268
SOLAR INDUSTRY: .............................................................................................................................................................. 268
FISHING INDUSTRY: ........................................................................................................................................................... 270
FOOTLOOSE INDUSTRIES .................................................................................................................................................. 271
NASHIK AS WINE CAPITAL OF INDIA ............................................................................................................................. 273
MEDIA AND ENTERTAINMENT INDUSTRY ................................................................................................................... 273
INDUSTRIAL CORRIDORS: ................................................................................................................................................. 275
DEDICATED FREIGHT CORRIDORS ................................................................................................................................. 277

pg. 4
 [Link]

GEOMORPHOLOGY

CONTINENTAL DRIFT THEORY (CDT):

● The evidences of Continental Drift Theory were given by Alfred Wegener in the 1920s.

● All the continents formed a single landmass called PANGEA surrounded by a mega ocean
PANTHALASSA.
● In the MESOZOIC era, 200 million years before present, the Pangea began to split and
drift apart.
● Tethys sea divided Pangea into 2 huge landmasses:
○ Laurasia (North)
○ Gondwanaland (South)
● Laurasia and Gondwanaland continued to break into present day continents.
● Continents drift in two directions:
○ Equatorwards- due to gravity, pole fleeing force, buoyancy.
○ Westwards- due to tidal force.
● Evidences given by Wegener:

pg. 5
 [Link]

○ Matching of the continents (Jigsaw fit) - South America and Africa especially the
bulge of Brazil fits into the Gulf of Guinea.
○ Similarity in rocks and marine sediments across the continents.
○ Fossil Distribution- Identical species of plants and animals found on either side
of the oceans.
○ Tillite Deposits- are sedimentary rocks formed out of deposits of glaciers. The
Gondwana system of sediments are found in India, Africa, Falkland Island,
Madagascar, Antarctica and Australia.
○ Rich placer deposits of gold are found on the Ghana coast (West Africa) but the
source (gold-bearing veins) is in Brazil, and it is obvious that the gold deposits of
Ghana are derived from the Brazil plateau when the two continents lay side by
side.
○ Polar Wandering- The position of poles constantly drifted (due to plate tectonics).
● Criticism of Wegener's Theory:
○ Pole Fleeing force, Tidal force too weak to move continents.
○ Wegener failed to explain why the drift began only in Mesozoic era and not before.
○ The theory doesn’t consider oceans.
○ CDT overshadowed by Sea floor spreading and Plate Tectonics Theory.

LITHOSPHERIC PLATES / PLATES BOUNDARIES / PLATE TECTONICS

• Tectonic Plates are massive slabs of solid rocks comprising both continents and oceans. The
movement and interaction of these plates lead to the formation of new land and oceanic
features.
• The lithosphere is believed to have been broken into fragments that are floating on a ductile
layer called asthenosphere (upper part of the mantle).

pg. 6
 [Link]

• The movement of these plates is attributed to the convention currents being generated in the
upper mantle.
• Plates move horizontally over the asthenosphere as rigid units.
• The lithosphere includes the crust and top mantle with its thickness range varying between 5-
100 km in oceanic parts and about 200 km in the continental areas.
• The oceanic plates contain mainly the Simatic crust and are relatively thinner, while the
continental plates contain Sialic material and are relatively thicker.
• Lithospheric plates (tectonic plates) vary from minor plates to major plates, continental
plates (Arabian plate) to oceanic plates (Pacific plate), sometimes a combination of both
continental and oceanic plates (Indo-Australian plate).
• The movement of these crustal plates (due to convection currents in the mantle) causes the
formation of various landforms and is the principal cause of all earth movements.
• The margins of the plates are the sites of considerable geologic activity such as seafloor
spreading, volcanic eruptions, crustal deformation, mountain building, and continental drift.
• Major tectonic plates
o Antarctica and the surrounding oceanic plate – (Surrounded by divergent
boundaries.)
o North American plate – (shifting westwards, velocity 4-5 cm/year. It is half
oceanic—half continental)
o South American plate – (shifting westwards, Half continental — half oceanic. 3-
4 cm/year)
o Pacific plate – (Truly oceanic plate. Shifting NW 2- 3cm/year)
o India-Australia-New Zealand plate
o Africa with the eastern Atlantic floor plate
o Eurasia and the adjacent oceanic plate – (mostly continental, shifting eastwards.
Velocity -2-3cm/year)

• Reasons for Tectonic Plate Movements:

o Mantle Dynamics: The molten magma rises and spreads laterally, the convection cells
move the overlying plates.

pg. 7
 [Link]

o Heat released from radioactive decay in the region and residual heat from the deep
mantle.
● Two basic Processes involved:
○ Ridge push:
■ Along divergent boundary (MOR)
■ Magma pushes fractured plates laterally.
○ Slab Pull:
■ Along subduction zones (Trenches)
■ Gravity pulls down underlying plates.
● Type of Plate boundaries:

○ Divergent boundary:
■ Plates pull away from each other.
■ New crust is generated.
■ Ex. Mid Atlantic Ridge where American plate is separated from Eurasian and
African Plate.
○ Features of Divergent boundaries-
■ Mid-ocean ridges
■ rift valleys
■ fissure volcanoes
○ Convergent boundary:
■ One plate dives under another at the subduction zone.
■ Crust is destroyed.
■ Ocean-Ocean(O-O) collision: denser oceanic plate subducted under lighter
oceanic plate. Chain of volcanic archipelagos formed.
■ Ocean-Continental(O-C) collision: Ocean plate subducted under continental
plate. Trenches formed.
■ Continental-Continental(C-C) collision: Fold Mountains and plateaus are
formed with intense folding and faulting, frequent earthquakes.

pg. 8
 [Link]

○ Transform boundaries:
■ Plates slide horizontally past each other.
■ Crust is neither created nor destroyed.
■ Also called strike-slip boundary.
■ North Anatolian Fault & San Andreas Fault [(Silicon Valley lies dangerously
close to the Faultline) along the western coast of the USA] is the best example
for a transcurrent edge on continents.

Comparison: Continental Drift & See Floor Spreading & Plate Tectonics
Continental Drift Sea Floor Spreading Plate tectonic
Explained Arthur Holmes explained
by Convectional Current Theory
In 1967, McKenzie and
in the [Link] on
Put forward by Alfred Parker suggested the theory of
convection current
Wegener in the 1920s plate tectonics. Morgan later
theory, Harry Hess explained
outlined the theory in 1968
See Floor Spreading in the
1940s
Theory Explains the Movement of
Explains the Movement of Explains the Movement of
Lithospheric plates that include
Continents only Oceanic Plates only
both continents and oceans.
Force for Buoyancy, gravity, pole-
Convection currents in the Convection currents in the
movement fleeing force, tidal
mantle drag crustal plates mantle drag crustal plates
currents, tides,
Evidence Apparent affinity of
physical features, Ocean bottom relief,
Ocean bottom relief,
botanical evidence, fossil Paleomagnetic rocks,
Paleomagnetic rocks,
evidence, Tillite deposits, distribution of earthquakes and
distribution of earthquakes and
placer deposits, rocks of volcanoes, gravitational
volcanoes etc.
same age across different anomalies at trenches, etc.
continents etc.

pg. 9
 [Link]

Drawbacks Too general with silly and

Doesn’t explain the movement
sometimes illogical ———————
of continental plates
evidence.
Acceptance
Discarded Not complete Most widely accepted

Usefulness Helped in the evolution of

convection current theory Helped in the evolution of plate Helped us understand various
and seafloor spreading tectonics theory geographical features.
theory

FOLD MOUNTAIN OROGENY

Formation of Himalayas:
● The great Himalayas have been formed as a result of the collision between the Indian Plate and
the Eurasian Plate, which began more than 50 million years ago.
● Eighty million years ago, India was approximately 6400 km (3968 miles) south of the Eurasian
plate. Separating the two was the Tethys Sea. The Indo-Australian tectonic plate – containing the
continent of Australia, the Indian subcontinent, and surrounding ocean – was pushed northward
by the convection currents generated in the inner mantle. For millions of years, India made its
way across the sea toward the Eurasian plate.
● As India approached Asia, around 40 million years ago, the Tethys Sea began to shrink and its
seabed slowly pushed upwards. The Tethys Sea disappeared completely around 20 million years
ago and sediments rising from its seabed formed a mountain range. When India and Tibet collided,
the relatively light sedimentary and metamorphic rock that makes up the subcontinent of India
pushed against Tibet, forcing it upwards, and created a massive mountain fold. The Himalayas.
● This process hasn’t stopped. The Indo-Australian plate is still moving toward Eurasia, still
pushing Tibet upwards. Himalayas still continue to rise more than 1 cm a year -- a growth rate
of 10 km in a million years. The highest mountains are only getting higher.
● At present, the movement of India continues to put enormous pressure on the Asian continent. The
net effect of plate-tectonics forces acting on this geologically complicated region is to squeeze parts
of Asia eastward toward the Pacific Ocean. One serious consequence of these processes is a deadly
"domino" effect: tremendous stresses build up within the Earth's crust, which are relieved
periodically by earthquakes along the numerous faults that scar the landscape. Some of the world's
most destructive earthquakes in history are related to continuing tectonic processes that began some
50 million years ago when the Indian and Eurasian continents first met.
Evidence for the rising Himalayas-
○ Today’s satellites that use high precision atomic clocks that can measure accurately even a
small rise of one cm. The heights of various places as determined by satellites indicate that
the Himalayas rise by few centimetres every year. The present rate of uplift of the
Himalayas has been calculated at 5 to 10 cm per year.
○ Due to uplifting, lakes in Tibet are desiccated (lose water) keeping the gravel terraces at
much higher levels above the present water level. This could be possible only in the event
of uplift of the region.

pg. 10
 [Link]

○ The frequent tectonic activity (occurrence of earthquakes) in the Himalayan region shows
that the Indian plate is moving further northwards and plunging into the Eurasian plate.
○ This means that the Himalayas are still being raised due to compression and have not yet
attained isostatic equilibrium.
○ The Himalayan rivers are in their youthful stage and have been rejuvenated (make or cause
to appear younger) in recent times. This shows that the Himalayan Landmass is rising,
keeping the rivers in youth stage since a long time.
Why fold mountains at the continental margin?
o Fold Mountains are formed due to convergence between two continental plates
(Himalayas, Alps) or between an oceanic and a continental plate (the Rockies, Andes).
o In Continent-Continent (C-C) convergence, oceanic sediments are squeezed and up
thrust between the plates and these squeezed sediments appear as fold mountains along the
plate margins.
o In Continent-Ocean (C-O) convergence, the continental volcanic arc formed along the
continental plate margin is compressed and is uplifted by the colliding oceanic plate giving
rise to fold mountains along the continental plate margin.
Association between the global distribution of Fold Mountains and the earthquakes and
volcanoes-
a) Earthquakes
o In both C-C convergence and C-O convergence, there is the formation of fold
mountains and frequent occurrence of earthquakes.
o This is because of the sudden release of friction between the subducting plate and up
thrust plate.
o In C-C convergence, the denser plate pushes into the less dense plate creating a fault
zone along the margin.
o Further collision leads to the sudden release of energy along this fault zone generating
disastrous earthquakes (shallow-focus earthquakes).
o In C-O regions the subducting oceanic plate grinds against the surrounding denser
medium producing mostly shallow-focus earthquakes, and deep in the subduction
zone deep-focus earthquakes occur.
o Volcanism is observed only in C-O convergence and is almost absent in C-C
convergence.
b) Volcanism
o This is because of the thick continental crust in C-C convergence which prevents the
outflow of magma. Magma here lies stocked within the crust.
o In C-O convergence, metamorphosed sediments and melting of the subducting plate
form magma which escapes to the surface through the less thick continental crust.
Q. How was Himalaya formed? Why is it still growing taller?

LANDFORMS ON EARTH'S SURFACE CREATED BY INTERNAL AND EXTERNAL FORCES

● Landforms are constantly created, modified and destroyed.
● Processes of landform formation:

pg. 11
 [Link]

○ Endogenic: Originates from inside of earth; mainly land building in nature.

○ Exogenic: Originate outside; mainly land wearing in nature.

ENDOGENIC PROCESS EXOGENIC PROCESS

1. Generation due to: Generation due to stress induced in Earth’s

a. Radioactivity material due to forces that come into
b. Rotational/ Tidal friction existence due to the sun's heat.
c. Primordial heat from earth’s origin Processes:
2. Outcome: a. Weathering: Mechanical
a. Create new landforms. disintegration & chemical
b. Diastrophism & Volcanism decomposition of rocks.
3. Diastrophism: b. Mass movement: Transfer of rock
a. Orogenic: Mountain Building; mass debris down the slope under
Horizontal movement. direct influence of gravity.
b. Epeirogenic: Uplift or warping c. Erosion: weathered rock materials
c. Earthquakes transpired by water, wind etc.
d. Plate Tectonics: Horizontal Plate d. Deposition: Consequence of
movement. erosion, on gentle slopes material
4. Volcanism: Movement of molten magma settles.
from earth’s interiors. Landforms by different agents:
a. Intrusive landforms(Plutonic): e. Running Water:
i. Batholith i. V shaped valley
ii. Laccolith ii. Meanders
iii. Phacolith iii. Floodplains
iv. Lopolith iv. Deltas
v. Dyke v. Oxbow lakes
vi. Sill vi. Alluvial fans and cones
b. Extrusive Landforms (Volcanic f. Glaciers:
rocks): i. U shaped valley
i. MOR ii. Cirque
ii. Shield volcano iii. Hanging Valley
iii. Composite volcano iv. Moraines & eskers
iv. Caldera v. Drumlins
v. Cinder cones vi. Outwash plains
g. Wind:
i. Pediplain
ii. Deflation Hollows
iii. Mushroom tablets
iv. Sand dunes
v. Loess
h. Wave Action:
i. Sea cliffs
ii. Terraces
iii. Caves and stacks
iv. Bars, spit and lagoons

pg. 12
 [Link]

EARTH’S MAGNETISM AND POLE REVERSAL

EARTH’s MAGNETISM
● Earth acts like a spherical magnet surrounded by a magnetic field.
● This magnetic field seems to be generated by a dipole magnet located at the centre of earth.
● Axis of the dipole is at around 11 degree from the axis of rotation.
● This magnetic field saves Earth from solar winds that could strip away the ozone layer of Earth.
Theories of Earth’s magnetism:
● All theories are associated with rotation of earth.
● Most accepted theory is “Dynamo Effect theory” i.e. magnetism associated with the motion
of metallic fluids in the outer core.
● Dynamo theory suggests that convection in the outer core, combined with the Coriolis
effect (caused due to the rotation of the earth), gives rise to self-sustaining (Geo-Dynamo like
an electric generator) Earth’s magnetic field.

Factors behind variation in Earth’s magnetic field (both temporal and spatial variations):
● Sunspot cycle: Once in every 11 years when Earth faces sunspot, a region of strong magnetic field.
● Solar activity: Radiations from the sun ionizes the atmosphere of the Earth. It generates current
when Earth rotates, generating a magnetic field.
● UV rays: Daily and annual variation in UV rays ionize Earth’s atmosphere.
● Magnetic Rocks: Cause spatial variations. Ex. magnetite distribution.
● Volcanism: Ex. large basaltic effusions accompanied by change in magnetic field strength.
Auroras:
• Aurora is the name given to the luminous glow in the upper atmosphere of the Earth which is
produced by charged particles (solar wind) descending from the planet’s magnetosphere.

pg. 13
 [Link]

• Positive ions slowly drift westward, and negative ions drift eastward, giving rise to a ring current.
This current reduces the magnetic field at the Earth’s surface.
• Some of these particles penetrate the ionosphere and collide with the atoms there.
• This results in an excitation of the oxygen and nitrogen molecular electrons. The molecules get
back to their original state by emitting photons of light which are the aurorae.
• The charged particles follow magnetic field lines which are oriented in and out of our planet and
its atmosphere near the magnetic poles. Therefore, aurorae mostly are seen to occur at high
latitudes.

Geomagnetic storms:
• The varying conditions in the magnetosphere, known as space weather, are largely driven by solar
activity.
• If the solar wind is weak, the magnetosphere expands; while if it is strong, it compresses the
magnetosphere and more of it gets in.
• Periods of intense activity, called geomagnetic storms, can occur when a coronal mass ejection
erupts above the Sun and sends a shock wave through the Solar System. It takes just two days to
reach the Earth.
• At the Earth’s surface, a magnetic storm is seen as a rapid drop in the Earth’s magnetic field
strength.
• Ring Current: Ring current is the name given to the large electric current that circles the Earth
above its equator during magnetic storms.
• Effects
o The ionosphere gets heated and distorted, which means that long-range radio
communication that is dependent upon sub-ionospheric reflection can be difficult.
o Ionospheric expansion can increase satellite drag, and it may become difficult to control
their orbits.
o Geomagnetic storms disrupt satellite communication systems like GPS.
o Astronauts and high-altitude pilots would face high radiation levels.
o Electric power grids would see a high increase in voltage that would cause blackouts.
o Geomagnetic storms disrupt satellite communication systems like GPS.

pg. 14
 [Link]

Van Allen radiation belt:

• A Van Allen radiation belt is a zone of energetic charged particles, most of which originate
from the solar wind, that are captured by and held around a planet by that planet’s magnetic
field.
• There are two such concentric tire-shaped regions. The inner belt is 1–2 Earth radii out while
the outer belt is at 4–7 Earth radii.
• By trapping the solar wind, the belts deflect the energetic particles and protect the atmosphere.
• The belts endanger satellites, which must have their sensitive components protected with
adequate shielding if they spend significant time near that zone.
• Spacecraft travelling beyond low Earth orbit enter the zone of radiation of the Van Allen belts.
Beyond the belts, they face additional hazards from cosmic rays and solar particle events.

Pole Reversal: Occasional dramatic events due to above causes when North and south magnetic poles swap
is called Geomagnetic Reversal.
o In Normal Polarity, Earth’s North Magnetic Pole is the South Pole of its Magnetic Field.
o In Reverse Polarity, Earth’s North Magnetic Pole is the North Pole of its Magnetic Field.

pg. 15
 [Link]

The current location of the Magnetic Poles:

• The North and South Magnetic Poles wander (Polar Shift Theory) due to changes in Earth’s
magnetic field.
• The North Magnetic Pole (86֯ N, 172֯ W) lie to the north of Ellesmere Island in northern Canada
and is rapidly drifting towards Siberia.
• The location of the South Magnetic Pole is currently off the coast of Antarctica and even outside
the Antarctic Circle.
• Scientists suggest that the north magnetic pole migrates about 10 kilometres per year.
• Lately, the speed has accelerated to about 40 kilometres per year and could reach Siberia in a
few decades.
• Since the Earth’s magnetic field is not exactly symmetrical, the North and South Magnetic Poles
are not antipodal (a straight line drawn from one to the other does not pass through the centre
of the Earth).
• The Earth’s North and South Magnetic Poles are also known as Magnetic Dip Poles because
of the vertical “dip” of the magnetic field lines at those points.
• That is, if a magnetic compass needle is suspended freely at the magnetic poles then it will
point straight down at the north magnetic pole (south pole of earth’s magnetic field)
and straight up at the south magnetic pole (north pole of earth’s magnetic field).

Should India have two time zones?

INDIA’s TIME ZONES
● Over the years, various citizens and political leaders have debated whether India should have two
separate time zones. The demand is based on the huge difference in daylight times between the
country’s longitudinal extremes, and the costs associated with following the same time zone.
● India extends from 68°7’E to 97°25’E, with the spread of 29° representing almost two hours from
the geographic perspective.
● Indian Standard Time, maintained by CSIR-NPL, is based on a line of longitude that runs through
Mirzapur in UP. At 82°33’E, the line is 82.5° east of Greenwich, or 5.5 hours (5 hours 30
minutes) ahead of UCT(Universal Coordinated Time).
● CSIR-NPL recommended 2 time zones IST-I (UTC + 5.30 h) and IST-II (UTC + 6.30 h) at 89°52’E.
Why two time zones needed:
● North Eastern state: loss of daylight hours by offices, educational institutions etc.
● Higher consumption of electricity due to early sunset.

pg. 16
 [Link]

Advantages:
● Synchronization of office hours and biological activity with sunrise/ sunset.
● Effective use of daylight hours- Reduce electricity consumption.
● Enhance people’s productivity- circadian rhythm.
● More use of sunlight- more agricultural production.
● Environmental and ecological benefits- ex. Reduce light pollution.
Problems associated with 2 time zones:
● Chaos at the border due to confusion and resettling of clocks at crossing.
● Absence of automated management of railways can lead to accidents.
● Adjusting with multiple time zones is difficult. Administrative integration will become difficult.
● Lack of coordination in essential services ex. Banking.
● Political alienation of the north east.
● Security concerns.
Available Alternatives:
• NIAS (National Institute for Advanced Science) cited that Permanent shift of IST to one hour
will be better than two time zones or DST i.e. 6:30+ UTC to 90 degree east.
• Daylight Saving Time can also be used from April to September.

VOLCANISM:
Vulcanicity/ Volcanism: It is the process through which gases and molten rocks are either extruded on the
Earth’s surface or intruded into the Earth’s crust. Volcanoes are formed as a part of vulcanicity. On Earth,
volcanoes are most often found where tectonic plates are diverging or converging and most are found
underwater.
Causes of volcanic activities:

pg. 17
 [Link]

● Increased quantity of magma in the mantle.

● Presence of fissures and cracks allowing magma to erupt.
● Increase in the temperature of magma.
Types of volcanoes:
Based on mode of eruption Based on period of eruption Based on the structure

1. Central Eruption: 1. Active Volcano: 1. Cinder cones:

Explosive and very Constantly eject lava, circular or oval cones, made up
destructive. ashes, fragments. Most of small fragments of lava,
Ex. Hawaii, Stromboli, active volcanoes are found result from eruptions of mostly
Vulean(Italy), Pelee along divergent and small pieces of scoria and
volcano (Caribbean convergent plate pyroclastics that build up
Sea). boundaries. Ex. Mt. Etna around the vent.
2. Fissure Eruption: & Mt. Stromboli. 2. Composite volcano: steep-
a. Linear volcanic 2. Dormant Volcano: No sided volcanoes composed of
vent (long indications for future many layers of volcanic rocks,
fracture/fault). eruptions but suddenly made from high-viscosity lava,
b. Slow upwelling of erupt very violently. Mt. ash and rock debris, these types
magma. Vesuvius (78 AD, then of volcanoes are tall conical
c. Ultramafic- most 1631). mountains.
fluid magma. 3. Extinct Volcano: No 3. Shield volcano: shaped like a
d. Lava spread over indication of future bowl or shield in the middle
the ground surface. eruption. Crater filled with with long gentle slopes made
e. Ex. Deccan lava water and a lake formed. by basaltic lava flows, formed
Plateau. Ex. Hawaiian- Emperor by the eruption of low-viscosity
Seamount chain in north lava, generally do not explode
pacific. catastrophically.
4. Lava Domes: formed when
erupting lava is too thick to
flow and makes a steep-sided
mound as the lava piles up near
the volcanic vent, built by slow
eruptions of highly viscous
lava.

World Distribution of Volcanoes:

● There are about 500 active volcanoes in the world.
● The Circum Pacific Region has the greatest concentration of volcanoes, that's why it is called
Pacific Ring of Fire. It extends along Andes Mountain of S. America to Alaska and from the
Aleutian Mountains to Japan, Philippines, Indonesia to New Zealand.
● The Mid Continental Belt occupies second position with regard to the number of volcanoes. It
runs from Alps in Europe to Asia minor and crossing through Himalayan region joins the circum
Pacific Belt.
● The African Rift Valley Region ranks third. Most of the volcanoes are extinct here. Mt. Cameroon
is the only active volcano which is situated in central west Africa.
● Intraplate volcanoes

pg. 18
 [Link]

o The intraplate volcanic activities occur within the tectonic plates and they are not
related to the divergence or convergence of these plates. The regions that host active
volcanoes within the surface of the tectonic plates are commonly known as “hotspots.”
o The intraplate volcanoes are mainly formed when the mantle plumes find their way to
the Earth’s surface and spread over in the shape of a mushroom. These plume heads
generally have a diameter of about 500-1000 kms.
o The Hawaiian and Emperor Seamount chains are ideal examples of intraplate
volcanoes.

Q. What is a volcano? Discuss its type with examples. Also discuss distribution of volcanoes
throughout the world.

HINDUKUSH HIMALAYAN REGION & ITS ECONOMIC AND GEOGRAPHICAL

IMPORTANCE
Hindukush Himalayan region comprises around 3500 sq. kms over 8 countries i.e. India, Pakistan, Nepal,
China, Bangladesh, Bhutan, Myanmar.
● It is also referred to as the Third Pole due to extensive permanent snow cover.
● Himalayas act as a natural barrier for most of the South Asian countries as the climatic conditions
and topography of the buffer countries (India, China: Tibet, Pakistan, Nepal, and Bhutan) are
dependent on it. Geologically, Himalayas were formed by the collision of Indo-Australian tectonic
plates. The region gives a strategic value to the Indian Sub-continent which has always been taken
into account as a geopolitical pivot of India along with the Indian Ocean.
Geographical and economic importance:
● It is the source of ten large Asian river systems – the Amu Darya, Indus, Ganges, Brahmaputra,
Irrawaddy, Salween (Nu), Mekong, Yangtse, Yellow River, and Tarim (Dayan).
● Provide Critical Ecosystem Services and serves as the basis of livelihood for millions of people.

pg. 19
 [Link]

● Act as heat source in summer and heat sink in winter.

● Tibetian Plateau influences Indian Monsoon.
● Hydropower potential in Himalayan Rivers.
● Provides Habitat to diverse groups of flora and fauna. Ex. Tigers, elephants, rhododendrons.
● It holds some of the world’s largest mountain peaks. Ex. Everest, K2, Makalu.
Concerns and challenges:
● Geologically fragile.
● Young and rising mountains are vulnerable to erosion and landslides.
● Climate related disasters, Infrastructure development, Land use change, Urbanisation etc.
● Geopolitical challenges such as border disputes with China, Pakistan, and Nepal.
● The Hindukush Assessment Report by ICIMOD (International Centre for Integrated Mountain
Development) says that warming will be at least 0.3 degree higher in the HKH region even if global
warming is limited to 1.5 degree celsius.
Changes in Geomorphological Features:
● Glacier melting: since 1970’s around 15% ice in HKH has disappeared.
● More than 35 % of the glaciers in the region could retreat by 2100, even if the global temperature
rise is capped at 1.5º C.
● Glacier Fragmentation: Splitting of big glaciers into small ones.
● Glacier Mass Discharge: Mass loss at predominant rate for two decades.
● Retreating glaciers causing increased runoff and increased river streamflow.
Consequences of melting glaciers:
● Glacial Lakes outburst floods causing huge casualties and loss of infrastructure.
● Isostatic Rebound/ Glacial Isostasy.
● 30% of springs in the Indian Himalayas dried up: NITI Aayog Report.
● It influences Indian Monsoon System; Intense precipitation leading to flood, landslides etc.
● Habitat loss may increase to 80-87% by 2100 i.e. severe biodiversity loss.
● A global temperature increase of 1.5ºC could mean at least a 1.8ºC temperature rise in the Hindu
Kush Himalayas.
● Sea Level Rise.
Q. Discuss the strategic significance of Siachen Glacier for India. Do you support its demilitarization?
Q. Why is Ladakh strategically important for India?

RIVER MORPHOLOGY
A river or a stream is a body of water flowing in a channel.
● Climate, slope gradient, underlying rock structure influence the evolution of river channels and
riverine landforms.
● Running water acts as an agent of denudation and forms both erosional and depositional features.

Erosional landforms Depositional landforms

1. Valleys-gorges ; Canyons: 1. Alluvial fans: Sediments due to low

a. Gorges are deep U shaped valleys gradients dumped and spread cone shaped
with straight sides with equal deposits. Distributaries of rivers are
width at top and bottom. formed here.

pg. 20
 [Link]

b. Canyon: A variant of gorge with 2. Delta: Similar to alluvial fans but at

steep steps like side slopes which different locations. These are formed at the
are wide at top and narrow at mouth of the rivers forming the final
bottom. location of depositional activity of the
2. Potholes and plunge pools: river.
a. Potholes: Circular depressions 3. Flood Plains and natural levees:
over rocky bed of hill streams. a. Riverbed forms an active
b. Plunge pools: large deep potholes floodplain. Floodplains above the
at foot of a waterfall. bank of the river are inactive.
3. Incised and entrenched meanders: Very b. Levees are low, linear, parallel
deep and wide meanders cut in hard rocks ridges of coarse deposits along
due to active lateral erosion. river banks.
4. River terraces: Surface marking old 4. Braided Channels: Selective deposition
valleys or floodplains. These may be of coarser material forming central bars. It
paired or unpaired terraces. diverts the flow of river towards banks due
to increased lateral erosion. Ex. Majuli
Riverine Island.
Q. Discuss various types of landforms formed by rivers as agents of erosion.

DRAINAGE BASIN:

• Other terms that are used to describe drainage basins are catchment, catchment area,
catchment basin, drainage area, river basin, and water basin.
• The drainage basin includes both the streams and rivers and the land surface.
• The drainage basin acts as a funnel by collecting all the water within the area covered by the
basin and channelling it to a single point.
• In closed (endorheic) drainage basins the water converges to a single point inside the basin,
known as a sink, which may be a permanent lake (e.g. Lake Aral, also known Aral Sea, Dead
Sea), dry lake (some desert lakes like Lake Chad, Africa), or a point where surface water is lost
underground (sinkholes in Karst landforms).

pg. 21
 [Link]

Meanders:
● Meanders are loop-like channels that develop over flood and delta plains during the mature phase
of erosion.
● Meanders are not actually landforms but a river channel pattern.
● The meanders may be wavy, horse-shoe type or oxbow type.
● Why are meanders formed?
○ Lateral erosion by river due to very low slope/gradient.
○ Coriolis force acting on water deflecting it.
○ Water exerting pressure on unconsolidated alluvial deposits causes abrasion, plucking and
attrition.
○ Meanders form active deposition on convex banks(Slip off banks) and undercutting on
concave banks(cut-off banks).

Oxbow Lake:
• Sometimes, because of intensive erosion action, the outer curve of a meander gets accentuated to
such an extent that the inner ends of the loop come close enough to get disconnected from the main
channel and exist as independent water bodies called as oxbow lakes.
• These water bodies are converted into swamps in due course of time.

• In the Indo-Gangetic plains, southwards shifting of Ganga has left many oxbow lakes to the north
of the present course of the Ganga.

pg. 22
 [Link]

Q. How are meanders formed? Give the difference between meanders and braided channels.

Braided Channels:
● A braided channel is one that is divided into smaller channels by temporary islands called eyots.
Braided channels tend to form in rivers that have a significant amount of sedimentary load, a steep
profile and where discharge regularly fluctuates.
● Why do Braided Channels occur?
○ Braided channels occur in rivers with high slope when, threshold level of sediment load or
slope is reached, any slope over this threshold creates a braided stream. Braiding is caused
by fluctuations in discharge levels, low river velocity and also by the stream or river losing.
Braided streams occur in areas where the transported load contains a high amount of coarse
material such as sands and stones.
● How are braided channels formed?
○ When the rain is heavy the streams start moving at a higher velocity.
○ The high velocity carries large amounts of sand and small stones.
○ The sediment starts to block the stream of water, causing lower velocity.
○ Until enough sediment settles on the bed forming “sandbanks” or “shoals” that block the
stream.
○ The stream is split into many streams causing the braided channel shape.

River Delta:
● Delta is a depositional feature of a river formed at the mouth of the river. These are wetlands that
form as rivers empty their water and sediment into another body of water, such as an ocean, lake,
or another river.
● It is a characteristic feature of a river in its senile stage (old).
● How is a delta formed?
○ A river moves more slowly as it nears its mouth, or end. This causes sediment, solid
material carried downstream by currents, to fall to the river bottom.
○ The slowing velocity of the river and the build-up of sediment allows the river to break
from its single channel as it nears its mouth. The river forms a Deltaic lobe.
○ The finest material is deposited beyond the river's mouth. This material is called alluvium
or silt.

pg. 23
 [Link]

○ As silt builds up, new land is formed. This is the Delta. A Delta extends a river's mouth
into the body of water into which it is emptying.
● Factors Affecting Delta Formation:
○ Climatic conditions
○ Geologic setting
○ Sediment sources in the drainage basin
○ Tectonic stability
○ River slope and flooding characteristics
○ Intensities of depositional and erosional processes
○ Tidal range and offshore energy conditions.
● Types of Deltas: On the basis of the shape, following are various types of Deltas:
○ Arcuate Delta: It is a fan-shaped Delta. A bowed or curved Delta with the convex margin
facing the body of water. Relatively coarse sediments are formed in this type of Delta. The
river activity is balanced with the wind.
Example, the River Nile Delta in Egypt and the Ganges Delta in India. The Ganges–
Brahmaputra Delta, which spans most of Bangladesh and West Bengal, India empties into
the Bay of Bengal, is the world's largest delta.
○ Bird’s foot Delta: Named because it forms like a bird foot’s claw. This shape is created
when the waves are weak and the river flow is stronger. They are formed due to deposition
of finer materials by river water.
Deposited alluvial material divides the river into smaller distributaries. Thus, this Delta
rarely occurs along ocean coasts because the waves are often stronger than the river current.
Such Delta is also called finger Delta.
Example, Mississippi river Delta, the USA.
○ Cuspate Deltas: It is formed where sediments are deposited onto a straight shoreline with
strong waves. The waves push the sediments to spread outwardly creating the tooth-like
shape. Example, the Tiber River of Italy.
○ Estuarine Delta: It is formed at the mouth of submerged rivers depositing down the sides
of the estuary. Example, the Seine River of France, the Deltas of Narmada and Tapi
(formerly Tapti) rivers of India.
○ Lacustrine Delta: It is formed when a river flows into a lake. Example, Lough Leanne
river Delta, Ireland. The Selenga River delta in Russia is the largest delta emptying into a
body of fresh water (Lake Baikal).
○ Truncated Delta: Sea waves and ocean currents modify and even destroy Deltas deposited
by the river through their erosional work. Thus, eroded and dissected Deltas are called
truncated Deltas.
○ Abandoned Delta: When the river shifts its mouth, the Delta already made is left
abandoned. Such a Delta is called an abandoned Delta. Example, Yellow river Delta, China
and the Western part of Ganga Delta made by Hoogly river, India.

pg. 24
 [Link]

● Importance of Deltas:
○ Human civilization: Major ancient civilizations grew along Deltas such as those of the
Nile and the Tigris-Euphrates rivers.
○ Agricultural activities: Delta land is important in agricultural use. These regions are one
of the most agriculturally diverse and productive areas in the world. Example: Cauvery
Delta in India and Sacramento-San Joaquin Delta in California.
○ Economic activities: Deltas is a source of sand and gravel, used in highway, building and
infrastructure construction. Some of the world's largest regional economies are located on
Deltas such as Yangtze River Delta in China.
○ Biodiversity hotspot: The river Deltas host some of the most biodiverse systems on the
planet. Example: Sundarbans forests, one of the richest biodiversity hotspots in India.
○ Act as a buffer region: The Deltas region provides a buffer for cyclones, as open land
often stands to weaken the impact of storms as they travel toward larger, more populated
areas. The Mississippi River Delta, for example, buffers the impact of potentially strong
hurricanes in the Gulf of Mexico.
● Threats to Delta
○ Dam construction: Extensive River management through the use of dams threatens
Deltas. It reduces the flow of sediment and, thus, the growth of land. The Nile Delta is also
shrinking as a result of the Aswan Dam and other river management techniques.
○ Seawater intrusion: In the Krishna Delta widespread seawater intrusion is transforming
the fresh groundwater to brackish/saline water. The health of the ecosystem and the
wellbeing of the millions of people inhabiting these Deltas are at risk.
○ Pollution: Inadequately treated sewage and fertilizer and other nutrient runoff from
agricultural and urban areas are the causes of eutrophication in the Delta region. Example:
Gulf of Mexico.
○ Climate change: Besides subsidence and sea level rise, more extreme weather events on
Deltas are resulting in more severe floods, longer duration droughts and higher

pg. 25
 [Link]

temperatures. Climate change seems to be causing higher peak flows and lower low flows
in the Rhine-Meuse and Danube Deltas. The extreme variability of the climate is impacting
its hydrology as is the increasing average and extreme temperatures.
○ Satellite Analysis by the ISRO revealed that in the last ten years, 3.7% of the mangroves
and other forests in sunder bans have disappeared along with 9990 hectares of
landmass due to erosion. It is happening due to the rise in sea level due to erosion.
Ghoramara Island has shrunk by almost half in the past few decades.
● Estuary vs. Delta
o The estuary is an area where saltwater of sea mixes with fresh water of rivers. It is
formed by a tidal bore.
o Delta is a low triangular area of alluvial deposits where a river divides before entering a
larger body of water.

Basis For Estuary Delta

Comparison
Meaning • Estuary refers to the water • Delta connotes a landform that is
body, along the coast, that formed by river-borne sediments
are formed when fresh water deposited at the river mouth when
of river meets salt water of it joins the sea.
ocean.

Rivers • Narmada and Tapi form • Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna,

estuary. Cauvery, Ganga and
Brahmaputra form delta.

Shape • Funnel • Triangular

Tide • High tides • Low tides

Region • Region near estuary is not • Deltas are fertile lands.

fertile.

Suitable for • Fishing activity • Agriculture activities

Lagoon-
● A lagoon refers to a shallow body of water that is alienated by a reef or barrier from the larger
body of water, and they are common coastal landforms in different regions around the world.
● There are two types of lagoons
○ Atoll lagoons
○ coastal lagoons.
● An atoll lagoon is normally a circular coral reef or a string of coral islands which surround a
lagoon.
● Atoll lagoons are always much deeper than coastal lagoons and occasionally could have depths of
about 65 feet deep.

Q. What are deltas? Discuss threats to deltas? In this context, discuss why Sundarbans are sinking?

pg. 26
 [Link]

INTERLINKING OF RIVERS
History of interlinking of rivers in India
• In 1919, Arthur Cotton, the British chief engineer proposed a plan to interlink major rivers in
India to fasten the transport of goods and to address the water shortage issues.
Post-independence, in 1970, Dr. K.L. Rao the former irrigation minister and dam designer
proposed the “National Water Grid” for mitigating the severe water shortages in the South
and regular flooding in the North.
• In 1980, India’s Ministry of Water Resources came out with a report entitled “National
Perspectives for Water Resources Development”. This report split the water development
project into two parts – the Himalayan and Peninsular components.
• In 1982, The National Water Development Agency was established by former Prime Minister
Indira Gandhi.
• In 2014, the Ken-Betwa River Linking Project got cabinet approval.

River Interlinking Project:

• The program for interlinking of major rivers comprises 30 links to share available waters equitably
between different basins and states. The National Perspective Plan for Inter-Linking of rivers has
two components:
o Himalayan Component: 14 Links
o Peninsular Component: 16 links
• The project is being managed by India's National Water Development Agency (NWDA), under
its Ministry of Water Resources.
• The linking of Godavari and Krishna was completed in 2015 under the Pattiseema lift irrigation
project (PLIP).

pg. 27
 [Link]

Arguments In Favour: Arguments against:

1. The country receives most of its annual 1. High project funding cost. The current
rainfall during the four monsoon months of cost of the project is Rs 11 lakh crore,
June to September. If interlinking of rivers twice the estimate of 2002 which the
is implemented then uneven water flow in
government is putting forward.
different river basins will get balanced.
2. To meet the requirement of about 450 2. Lack of consensus on implementation of
million tonnes of foodgrains per annum to project among the co-basin states as
feed the population of over 1.5 billion in water is a state subject.
2050, the country needs to expand its 3. International Issues involved such as
irrigation potential to 160 million concerns of neighbouring countries. E.g
hectares for all crops by 2050. The Himalayan component calls for
3. . NRLP will transfer excess water from
building dams in Bhutan.
flood-ravaged states to water-scarce
regions. By this, it will provide irrigation 4. It is estimated that the project will involve
to about 35 million hectares in water- construction of big dams which will
scarce western and peninsular regions. affect local ecology. For instance, in the
4. Using connected rivers as navigation is a Ken-Betwa project, the core area of the
cleaner, low carbon footprint form of Panna national park will be submerged.
transport infrastructure. 5. The river interlinking will involve
5. NRLP is also expected to generate
additional hydropower of about 34 GW. pumping the water from Himalayan
6. Past successful examples in India include rivers to the peninsular India which will
Beas-Sutlej link and Periyar-Vaigai link. involve increase of height of water by 1000
7. Will prevent flow of fresh river water m. This will involve huge cost for
into sea. For example, the Godavari- pumping.
Krishna project will lift Godavari waters

pg. 28
 [Link]

that now flow into the sea, and divert it 6. Lesser flow of fresh water to Bay of Bengal
towards Krishna River. can have regressive impact on monsoons.
7. Increased saline groundwater intrusion,
and putting at the risk the delicate
wetland and estuarine ecology which is
not only aquatic habitats and fisheries.
8. The water surplus in most river basins of
India is during the same period of
monsoons. After the monsoon, even the so-
called water surplus states such as Punjab,
UP, Uttarakhand face water deficits.
Hence, during this period there will be no
surplus left to transfer to peninsular states.

Par-Tapi-Narmada River linking project

• This project was sanctioned in 2010 under the agreement signed between the Central
government, Gujarat, and Maharashtra.
• The project proposes to transfer water from the water surplus regions of Western Ghats to the
water deficit regions of Saurashtra and Kutch (Gujarat).
• The project includes seven reservoirs proposed in north Maharashtra and south Gujarat which
are Jheri, Mohankavchali, Paikhed, Chasmandva, Chikkar, Dabdar, and Kelwan.
Way Forward:
It has been argued that there is no concept of deficit and surplus. A river has a natural course and for years
it has been following that. The river will carry as much as it can. First we should exhaust all options and
potentials before concluding that river-linking is the best alternative. Exhaust options such as watershed
development, rainwater harvesting, groundwater recharge, optimising existing infrastructure and cropping
methods. Also, before implementing the proposal on a large scale, a sound scientific and technical
assessment needs to be undertaken to make it techno-economically feasible.

CLIMATOLOGY

INDIAN MONSOON
1.1. MONSOON:
● Monsoons are seasonal winds (Rhythmic wind movements or Periodic Winds) which reverse their
direction with the change of season. In the Indian monsoon winds flow from sea to land during the
summer and from land to sea during winter.
● Although the monsoon is a global phenomenon influenced by a variety of factors not yet completely
understood, the real monsoon rain covers mainly the South Asian region, represented by India,
Myanmar, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, Bhutan and parts of Southeast Asia.
● Phenomenon of Indian monsoon: The mechanism of the Indian monsoon can be understood in
two phases namely, the onset of the South-West Monsoon and retreating monsoon season.

pg. 29
 [Link]

The onset of the South-West Monsoon: Retreating monsoon season.

1. During the months of October -November,

1. Differential Heating: The differential the south-west monsoon winds become
heating and cooling of land and water weaker and start to retreat from the skies of
create a low pressure on the landmass of North India. This phase of the monsoon is
India and high pressure on the Indian ocean known as the retreating monsoon.
2. The retreating monsoon is marked by
area.
clear skies and rise in temperature.
2. Shifting of ITCZ: This leads to the
3. The land is still moist. Owing to the
shifting of the position of the Inter-
conditions of high temperature and
Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) in
humidity, the weather becomes rather
summer, over the Ganga plain. The ITCZ
oppressive. This is commonly known as
in this position is often called the Monsoon
the ‘October heat’.
Trough.
4. In the second half of October, the mercury
3. Bending of Winds: The southeast trade
begins to fall rapidly, particularly in
winds of the southern hemisphere cross the
northern India.
equator and start blowing in the southwest
5. The weather in the retreating monsoon is
to the northeast direction under the
dry in north India but it is associated with
influence of Coriolis force. As these winds
rain in the eastern part of the
blow over the warm Indian ocean, they
Peninsula(AP & TN). Here, October and
collect moisture.
November are the rainiest months of the
4. Withdrawal of Westerly Jet Stream: The
year.
shift in the position of the ITCZ is also
6. The widespread rain in this season is
related to the phenomenon of the
associated with the passage of cyclonic
withdrawal of the westerly jet stream from depressions which originate over the
its position over the north Indian plain, Andaman Sea and manage to cross the
south of the Himalayas. eastern coast of the southern Peninsula.
5. Onset of Easterly Jet Stream: The These tropical cyclones are very
easterly Jet Stream (Somali Jet) sets in destructive.
7. A bulk of the rainfall of the Coromandel
along 15°N latitude only after the western
jet stream has withdrawn itself from the Coast is derived from these depressions
and cyclones.
region. This easterly jet stream is held
8. Unlike the rest of the country, which
responsible for the burst of the monsoon in
India. receives rain in the southwest monsoon
6. Dividing Monsoon into Branches: The season between June and September, the
northeast monsoon is crucial for
monsoon approaches the Indian landmass
farming and water security in the south.
in two branches:
a. The Arabian Sea branch 9. The retreating monsoon brings rainfall in
b. The Bay of Bengal branch: The an uneven amount to different places
across India.
Arakan Hills along the coast of
Myanmar deflect it towards the a. Areas of Heavy rainfall
Indian subcontinent. i. The western part of
Western Ghats (200-
400cm)

pg. 30
 [Link]

7. Rainfall received from the southwest ii. North-eastern India

monsoons is seasonal in character, which (Assam, Arunachal
occurs between June and September. Pradesh, Sikkim, etc)
b. Areas of low rainfall
i. Karnataka
ii. Gujarat
iii. Maharashtra

● Another phenomenon associated with the monsoon is its tendency to have ‘breaks’ in rainfall. The
monsoon rains take place only for a few days at a time. They are interspersed with rainless intervals.
These breaks in monsoon are related to the movement of the monsoon trough.

Impact of Monsoons on Indian Economy:

● Positive
○ About 64% of people in India depend on agriculture for their livelihood and agriculture
itself is based on monsoon.
○ If monsoon fails, agriculture is adversely affected particularly in those regions where
means of irrigation are not developed.
○ Regional variations in monsoon climate help in growing various types of crops.
○ Monsoon rain helps recharge dams and reservoirs, which is further used for the
generation of hydro-electric power.
○ Winter rainfall by western disturbances in north India is highly beneficial for Rabi crops.
● Negative
○ Variability of rainfall brings droughts or floods every year in some parts of the country.
○ Sudden monsoon burst creates a problem of soil erosion over large areas in India.
○ In hilly areas sudden rainfall brings landslides which damages natural and physical
infrastructure subsequently disrupting human life economically as well as socially.

Monsoon and India’s cropping pattern:

● The Indian cropping season is classified into two main seasons-(i) Kharif and (ii) Rabi based on
the monsoon.
● The kharif cropping season is from July –October during the south-west monsoon and the Rabi
cropping season is from October-March (winter).
● Rainfed agriculture still accounts for over 92.8 million hectares or 65 percent of the cropped area.
● A large diversity of cropping systems exists under rainfed and dryland areas with an overriding
practice of intercropping. Those areas of India where monsoon activities are less, the cropping
patterns are less diversified.
● For instance, in the rainfall scarce areas of Rajasthan (India), the farmers grow bajra (bulrush
millet), while in the Brahmaputra valley of Assam, which is rain abundant area, rice is the dominant
crop while other crops coexist.

pg. 31
 [Link]

● Likewise, cotton is grown in Maharashtra and Gujarat which gets less rain, while the moisture rich
soils of western Uttar Pradesh, Haryana and Punjab are ideally suited for wheat, rice and sugarcane
crops because they get proper monsoon..
● If in a certain year, the monsoon is delayed, then the cropping pattern changes in favour of
short-duration crops like pulses.
● Incessant rains in some parts of the country, and deficit rains in other areas, results in inconsistent
agriculture spread and crop damage in certain locations.

Monsoon Prediction in India:

● British physicist Gilbert Walker, who headed the IMD, designed a statistical weather model –
an empirical way of predicting the weather – based on the relationship between two weather
phenomena.
● In 2014, the IMD started to use numerical models, developed by the US National Centres for
Environmental Prediction to supplement statistical models for long-range forecasting as well.
● The IMD collects weather data like temperature, humidity, wind and precipitation through
679 automatic weather stations, 550 surface observatories, 43 radiosonde or weather balloons, 24
radars and three satellites.
● Currently, highly advanced dynamical models need supercomputers. Prediction models will not
run until proper data about current weather conditions is available.

Factors Responsible for Inaccurate Monsoon Forecast:

● The lack of data due to insufficient monitoring stations.
● Automatic weather stations are of substandard quality.
● There are major data gaps, like those involving dust, aerosols, soil moisture and maritime
conditions are not monitored.
● The models that we have brought from the west have been developed by western scientists to
forecast in their region, little progress has been made in the fine-tuning of weather models to suit
Indian conditions.
● Indian Monsoon System is a complex phenomenon which is still not completely understood.

Recent Indian Initiatives:

It is crucial for farmers (sowing, harvesting, etc.) and policymakers (payment of compensation, minimum
support price, etc.) to know when and for how long the monsoon will remain active over India. For that,
better predictions and timely advisories are needed. To achieve this following initiatives have been taken:
1. Monsoon Mission of India: Ministry of Earth Sciences, launched in 2012, has utilized new
approaches (high resolution, super parameterizations, data assimilation etc.) so that forecast skill
gets quantitatively improved further for forecasting services of India Meteorological Department
(IMD).
Objectives
○ To improve Seasonal and Intra-seasonal Monsoon Forecast
○ To improve Medium Range Forecast.
2. IMD in collaboration with Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) provides district-level
agro-meteorological advisories to farmers through 130 agro-met field units in vernacular

pg. 32
 [Link]

languages.
These advisories are used for critical farm operations such as:
○ Management of sowing (delayed onset of rains);
○ Changing crop variety (delay in rainfall);
○ Spraying Pesticides for disease control (occurrence of rainfall);
○ Managing Irrigation (Heavy rainfall Forecast).
3. India Meteorological Department (IMD) provides meteorological support to the Central Water
Commission (CWC) for issuing flood warnings.
4. Indo-US expedition: In 2018, The Indian Ocean Research Vessel, 'Sagar Nidhi', set out from
Chennai, as part of an Indo-US expedition seeking to find answers to the vagaries of the Bay of
Bengal-fed southwest monsoon by collecting various data to improve prediction models.
5. The National Supercomputing Mission will fill the necessary gaps in the computing superpower
required to predict timely and accurate monsoon forecasts.

Global Warming and Monsoon:

● A drastic change in the monsoon rainfall intensity, duration, frequency and spatial distribution can
be attributed to climate change.
● More data and reanalysis is needed to get a clear picture on the complete separation of the global
warming impact from natural climate variability (such as El Niño).
● In normal circumstances, when the tropical eastern South Pacific Ocean experiences high pressure,
the tropical eastern Indian Ocean experiences low pressure. Such changes in the pressure conditions
over the southern oceans also affect the monsoon.
● But in certain years, there is a reversal in the pressure conditions. In this case, the eastern Pacific
Ocean has lower pressure compared to the eastern Indian Ocean. This periodic change in pressure
conditions is known as the Southern Oscillation or SO.

Does the monsoon have a bearing on India’s water crisis?

● Yes and no. India’s water crisis, according to experts, is due to over-extraction of groundwater
resources and not enough storage of rain water and surface water.
● The Central Water Commission, in its recommendation of how reservoirs should store and release
water assumes that reservoirs will be empty on June 1 and gradually refill over the course of the
monsoon, and be available for the non-monsoon months.
● Given that June contributes only 17cm or about 20% of the monsoon rainfall and is known to
progress in spurts, farmers have already delayed sowing and are relying on crop varieties that grow
relatively quickly.
● Moreover, several farmers plant intensely water-guzzling crops that aren’t suited to their climate
or prevalent water table. While a July rainfall can temporarily alleviate parched ground, it can’t
solve the graver crisis of depleting groundwater and insufficiently charged aquifers.

Shifting rainfall patterns are causing water distress:

● Climate Trends used secondary data to analyse the impact of climate change in shifting rainfall
patterns in India, the repeated droughts and water shortages. Monsoon rain in the country has been
below average in five of the last six years to 2018 and pre-monsoon season--from March to May--
has seen 11% less rainfall in 2018 than the average, for the third consecutive year, the study found.

pg. 33
 [Link]

● These shifts are part of long-term changes in where and when rain falls in India, driven by climate
change. Some states have seen big changes in annual rainfall. For example, year-round rainfall in
Chhattisgarh has fallen nearly 10%, while it has increased in coastal Karnataka, Punjab and
Haryana, according to the fact-sheet.
● States such as Kerala and Madhya Pradesh received less rainfall during the 2017 monsoon. The
poor monsoons of 2014 and 2015 resulted in severe drought and water shortages in much of the
country, including parts of Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Maharashtra and Telangana, the fact-sheet
said.
● Several states face shortages: Levels in major reservoirs across the country were, as we said, 10%
below the normal at this time of the year.
● In some parts of rural Chhattisgarh, wells have dried-up and people are walking many kilometers
daily to fetch water.
● In Tamil Nadu, major reservoirs are 67% below normal levels--every major reservoir has below-
average levels for this time of year. In 2016-17, the state suffered its worst drought in over a
century.
● Changes in monsoon patterns would make droughts and floods more common in many parts of
India. Droughts are particularly likely to become more frequent in north-western India, Jharkhand,
Odisha and Chhattisgarh, according to a 2013 World Bank study.
● The Ganges, Brahmaputra and Meghna river basin, which serves over 650 million people, is also
likely to experience both droughts and floods more often if temperatures continue to rise.

How the monsoon’s delayed withdrawal from India may cause havoc in Australia:
● The delay in India has had a cascading impact on the summer monsoon for Australia.
● A classic example of ‘blessings’ from an extended weather event in one country turning into a
‘curse’ for another.
● The late Indian southwest monsoon withdrawal is linked to the positive phase of the Indian
Ocean Dipole, characterised by cooler than average sea-surface temperatures in the eastern
Indian Ocean and warmer than average sea-surface temperatures in the west. The negative
phase has the opposite pattern. The resulting change in the gradient of sea-surface temperature
across the ocean basin affects the weather of the surrounding continents.
● The seasonal reliability of the monsoons has been changing in the past few years. What used to be
a steady combination of rains and brightness is giving way to long periods of inadequate rainfall
followed by intense rain; in short – drought and floods.
Way Forward
● Although there are wide variations in weather patterns across India, the monsoon brings some
unifying influences on India. The Indian landscape, its flora and fauna, etc. are highly influenced
by the monsoon. The entire agricultural calendar in India is governed by the monsoon. Due to these
reasons, the monsoon is often a great unifying factor in India.
Q. Describe the phenomenon of Indian Monsoon? How is Indian monsoon predicted. Explain the
impact of Indian monsoon on Indian economy and agriculture system.

IMPACT OF EL-NINO AND LA-NINA ON INDIAN MONSOON AND ON GLOBAL CLIMATE:

Introduction-

pg. 34
 [Link]

• El Nino and La Nina are complex weather patterns resulting from variations in ocean
temperatures in the Equatorial Pacific Region. They are opposite phases of what is known as
the El Nino-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) cycle.
o The ENSO cycle describes the fluctuations in temperature between the ocean and
atmosphere in the east-central Equatorial Pacific.
o El Nino and La Nina episodes typically last nine to 12 months, but some prolonged events
may last for years.

El Nino-
• El Nino was first recognized by Peruvian fishermen off the coast of Peru as the appearance of
unusually warm water.
o The Spanish immigrants called it El Nino, meaning “the little boy” in Spanish.
• El Nino soon came to describe irregular and intense climate changes rather than just the warming
of coastal surface waters.
• The El Nino event is not a regular cycle, they are not predictable and occur irregularly at two- to
seven-year intervals.
o The climatologists determined that El Nino occurs simultaneously with the Southern
Oscillation.
▪ The Southern Oscillation is a change in air pressure over the tropical Pacific
Ocean.
• When coastal waters become warmer in the eastern tropical Pacific (El Nino), the atmospheric
pressure above the ocean decreases.
o Climatologists define these linked phenomena as El Nino-Southern Oscillation (ENSO).

La Nina-
• La Nina means The Little Girl in Spanish. It is also sometimes called El Viejo, anti-El Nino, or
simply "a cold event."
• La Nina events represent periods of below-average sea surface temperatures across the east-
central Equatorial Pacific.
o It is indicated by sea-surface temperature decreased by more than 0.9℉ for at least five
successive three-month seasons.
• La Nina event is observed when the water temperature in the Eastern Pacific gets comparatively
colder than normal, as a consequence of which, there is a strong high pressure over the eastern
equatorial Pacific.

pg. 35
 [Link]

The Conditions of La Nina-

• La Nina is caused by a build-up of cooler-than-normal waters in the tropical Pacific, the area
of the Pacific Ocean between the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn.
• La Nina events are also associated with rainier-than-normal conditions over south-eastern
Africa and northern Brazil.
o However, strong La Nina events are associated with catastrophic floods in northern
Australia.
• La Nina is also characterized by higher-than-normal pressure over the central and eastern Pacific.
o This results in decreased cloud production and rainfall in that region.
• Drier-than-normal conditions are observed along the west coast of tropical South America, the
Gulf Coast of the United States, and the pampas region of southern South America.

Impact of El-Nino on global climate-

• Impact on Ocean: El Nino also impacts ocean temperatures, the speed and strength of ocean
currents, the health of coastal fisheries, and local weather from Australia to South America
and beyond.
• Increased Rainfall: Convection above warmer surface waters brings increased precipitation.
o Rainfall increases drastically in South America, contributing to coastal flooding and
erosion.
• Positive impact: It can sometimes have a positive impact too, for example, El Nino reduces the
instances of hurricanes in the Atlantic.
• In South America: As El Nino brings rain to South America, it brings droughts to Indonesia and
Australia.
o These droughts threaten the region’s water supplies, as reservoirs dry and rivers carry less
water. Agriculture, which depends on water for irrigation, is also threatened.
• In Western Pacific: These winds push warm surface water towards the western Pacific, where it
borders Asia and Australia.
o Due to the warm trade winds, the sea surface is normally about 0.5 meter higher and 4-
5° F warmer in Indonesia than Ecuador.

pg. 36
 [Link]

o The westward movement of warmer waters causes cooler waters to rise up towards the
surface on the coasts of Ecuador, Peru, and Chile. This process is known as upwelling.
▪ Upwelling elevates cold, nutrient-rich water to the euphotic zone, the upper layer
of the ocean.
Impact of La Nina on global climate-
• Europe: In Europe, El Nino reduces the number of autumnal hurricanes.
o La Nina tends to lead to milder winters in Northern Europe (especially UK) and colder
winters in southern/western Europe leading to snow in the Mediterranean region.
• North America: It is continental North America where most of these conditions are felt. The
wider effects include:
o Stronger winds along the equatorial region, especially in the Pacific.
o Favourable conditions for hurricanes in the Caribbean and central Atlantic area.
o Greater instances of tornados in various states of the US.
o South America: La Nina causes drought in the South American countries of Peru and
Ecuador.
▪ It usually has a positive impact on the fishing industry of western South
America.
• Western Pacific: In the western Pacific, La Nina increases the potential for landfall in those
areas most vulnerable to their effects, and especially into continental Asia and China.
o It also leads to heavy floods in Australia.
o There are increased temperatures in Western Pacific, Indian Ocean and off the
Somalian coast.
La Nina in 2010
• The 2010 La Nina event correlates with one of the worst floods in the history of Queensland,
Australia.
• More than 10,000 people were forced to evacuate, and damage from the disaster was estimated
at more than $2 billion.

ENSO and India monsoon-

pg. 37
 [Link]

• El Nino: Strong El Nino events contribute to weaker monsoons and even droughts in India and
Southeast Asia.
• La Nina: The cold air occupies a larger part of India than the El Nino cold air.
• In the ‘La Nina year’, rainfall associated with the summer monsoon in Southeast Asia tends to
be greater than normal, especially in northwest India and Bangladesh.
o This generally benefits the Indian economy, which depends on the monsoon for agriculture
and industry.
• It usually brings in colder than normal winters in India.
• La Nina influences the Indian subcontinent by piping in cold air from Siberia and South
China, which interacts with the tropical heating to produce a north-south low-pressure system.
• The cold air of La Nina associated with this north-south trough tends to extend much further south
into India.
o This is remarkably different from the more northwest-southeast blast of cold air
associated with El Nino.
o The pressure pattern going north-south means lesser impact of western disturbances.
o The cold temperature can go down as far as Tamil Nadu, but may not affect the North East
that much.

INDIAN OCEAN DIPOLE

What is IOD?
Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD) is an atmosphere-ocean coupled phenomenon in the tropical Indian Ocean
characterised by a difference in sea-surface temperatures. The Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD) is the Indian
Ocean counterpart of the Pacific El Niño and La Niña.

2B.2. Characteristics of IOD:

● IOD is the difference between the temperature of eastern (Bay of Bengal) and the western
Indian Ocean (Arabian Sea).
● This temperature difference results in a pressure difference which results in flowing winds between
eastern and western parts of Indian Ocean.
● IOD develops in the equatorial region of Indian Ocean from April to May peaking in October.
● A ‘positive IOD’ — or simply ‘IOD’ — is associated with cooler than normal sea-surface
temperatures in the eastern equatorial Indian Ocean and warmer than normal sea-surface
temperatures in the western tropical Indian Ocean.
● The opposite phenomenon is called a ‘negative IOD’, and is characterised by warmer than normal
SSTs in the eastern equatorial Indian Ocean and cooler than normal SSTs in the western tropical
Indian Ocean

How does it impact the southwest monsoon?

● A positive IOD year sees more than normal rainfall over central India.
● The indicated connection is between below-normal SST in the eastern Indian Ocean and above-
normal rain over central India, and vice versa.
● A negative IOD, on the other hands, complements El NiNo leading to severe drought.
● At the same time, Positive IOD results in more cyclones than usual in Arabian Sea.
● Negative IOD results in stronger than usual cyclogenesis (Formation of Tropical Cyclones) in Bay
of Bengal. Cyclogenesis in Arabian Sea is suppressed during this time.

pg. 38
 [Link]

The positive IOD has resulted in floods in eastern Africa and bushfires in Australia:
● Heavy downpours have devastated parts of East Africa over the last two months, with the Horn of
Africa seeing up to 300% above average rainfall between October and mid-November 2020.
● Djibouti, Ethiopia, Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania, Somalia and South Sudan have been particularly
badly affected, with flash floods and landslides hitting communities across the region.
● Meanwhile in Australia, record-breaking spring temperatures have helped spark and fan a series of
bushfires across the country.
● About 100 bushfires are raging in the Australian state of New South Wales (NSW), with the most
severe forming into a "mega blaze" north of Sydney.

The effects of the dipole could get worse because of climate change:
● In a 2014 study published in Nature, scientists in Australia, India, China and Japan modelled the
effects of CO2 on extreme Indian Ocean dipoles, such as those in 1961, 1994 and 1997.
● Assuming emissions continue to go up, they projected that the frequency of extreme positive dipole
events would increase this century from one every 17.3 years to one every 6.3 years.
● The countries in the west of the Indian Ocean, so on the African coast, are going to see much, much
more flooding and heavy rainfall relating to these events.
● On the other hand, in the east of the Indian Ocean, islands on the west side of Indonesia are going
to see a greater chance of drought and reduced rainfall.

The El Niño Modoki

● El Niño Modoki is a coupled ocean-atmosphere phenomenon in the tropical Pacific.
● It is different from another coupled phenomenon in the tropical Pacific namely, El Niño.
● Conventional El Niño is characterized by strong anomalous warming in the eastern equatorial
Pacific.
● Whereas, El Niño Modoki is associated with strong anomalous warming in the central tropical
Pacific and cooling in the eastern and western tropical Pacific.

pg. 39
 [Link]

● El Niño Modoki Impacts

o The El Niño Modoki phenomenon is characterized by the anomalously warm central
equatorial Pacific flanked by anomalously cool regions in both west and east.
o Such zonal gradients result in anomalous two-cell Walker Circulation over the
tropical Pacific, with a wet region in the central Pacific.

Madden-Julian Oscillation (MJO)

• Madden–Julian oscillation (MJO) is the largest element of the intra-seasonal variability in
the tropical atmosphere.
• Madden-Julian Oscillation (MJO) is an oceanic-atmospheric phenomenon which affects
weather activities across the globe. It brings major fluctuation in tropical weather on weekly to
monthly timescales.
• The MJO can be characterized as an eastward moving ‘pulse’ of cloud and rainfall near the
equator that typically recurs every 30 to 60 days.
• It’s a traversing phenomenon and is most prominent over the Indian and Pacific Oceans.

Phases of Madden-Julian Oscillation

• The MJO consists of two parts or phases. Strong MJO activity often dissects the planet into
halves. One half within the enhanced convective phase and the other half in the suppressed
convective phase.
o Enhanced rainfall (or convective) phase: winds at the surface converge, and
the air is pushed up throughout the atmosphere. At the top of the atmosphere,
the winds reverse (i.e., diverge). Such rising air motion in the atmosphere tends to
increase condensation and rainfall.
o Suppressed rainfall phase: winds converge at the top of the atmosphere, forcing
air to sink and, later, to diverge at the surface. As air sinks from high altitudes, it
warms and dries, which suppresses rainfall.
• It is this entire dipole structure, that moves west to east with time in the Tropics, causing more
cloudiness, rainfall, and even storminess in the enhanced convective phase, and more sunshine
and dryness in the suppressed convective phase.

pg. 40
 [Link]

How Does MJO Affect Indian Monsoon?

• The Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD), El Nino, and MJO are all oceanic and atmospheric phenomena,
which affect weather on a large scale.
• IOD only pertains to the Indian Ocean, but the other two affect weather on a global scale-up to
the mid-latitudes.
• IOD and El Nino remain over their respective positions, while MJO is a traversing
phenomenon.
• The journey of MJO goes through eight phases.
o When it is over the Indian Ocean during the Monsoon season, it brings good rainfall
over the Indian subcontinent.
o On the other hand, when it witnesses a longer cycle and stays over the Pacific
Ocean, MJO brings bad news for the Indian Monsoon.
• It is linked with enhanced and suppressed rainfall activity in the tropics and is very important
for the Indian monsoonal rainfall.
• Periodicity of MJO:
o If it is nearly 30 days then it brings good rainfall during the Monsoon season.
o If it is above 40 days then MJO doesn’t give good showers and could even lead to a
dry Monsoon.
o Shorter the cycle of MJO, better the Indian Monsoon. Simply because it then visits
the Indian Ocean more often during the four-month-long period.
• The presence of MJO over the Pacific Ocean along with an El Nino is detrimental for
Monsoon rains.

Q. What do you understand by Indian Ocean dipole? How does it affect the Indian monsoon and
global weather pattern? How Is it related to forest fires in Australia?

WESTERN DISTURBANCES

pg. 41
 [Link]

A western disturbance is an extratropical storm originating in the Mediterranean region that brings
sudden winter rain to the northern parts of the Indian subcontinent. It is a non-monsoonal precipitation
pattern driven by the westerlies.
● Extratropical storms are a global phenomena with moisture usually carried in the upper atmosphere,
unlike their tropical counterparts where the moisture is carried in the lower atmosphere. In the case
of the Indian subcontinent, moisture is sometimes shed as rain when the storm system encounters
the Himalayas. Western disturbances are more frequent and strong in the winter season.
● Western disturbances are important for the development of the Rabi crop, which includes the
locally important staple wheat.

Formation:
● Western disturbances originate in the Mediterranean region. A high-pressure area over Ukraine and
neighbourhood consolidates, causing the intrusion of cold air from polar regions towards an area
of relatively warmer air with high moisture. This generates favorable conditions for cyclogenesis
in the upper atmosphere, which promotes the formation of an eastward-moving extratropical
depression. The disturbance moves towards the Indian subcontinent until blocked by the
Himalayas. The western disturbances are embedded in the mid-latitude subtropical westerly jet
stream.

Significance and impact

● Western disturbances, specifically the ones in winter, bring moderate to heavy rain in low-lying
areas and heavy snow to mountainous areas of the Indian Subcontinent.
● They are the cause of most winter and post-monsoon season rainfall across northwest India.

pg. 42
 [Link]

● Precipitation during the winter season has great importance in agriculture, particularly for the rabi
crops. Wheat among them is one of the most important crops, which helps to meet India's food
security.
● Western disturbances are usually associated with cloudy sky, higher night temperatures and unusual
rain. Excessive precipitation due to western disturbances can cause crop damage, landslides, floods
and avalanches.
● Over the Indo-Gangetic plains, they occasionally bring cold wave conditions and dense fog.
● These conditions remain stable until disturbed by another western disturbance. When western
disturbances move across northwest India before the onset of monsoon, a temporary advancement
of monsoon current appears over the region.

Impact on Indian Economy:

● The rain and snow produced by the Western Disturbances when they encounter Himalayas are very
significant for the Indian economy in two very important ways-
○ It is highly beneficial for rabi crops over northern India and the fruits and orchids over
the Himalayan regions.
○ The precipitation in the form of snowfall in the lower Himalayas sustains the flow of water
in the Himalayan rivers during the summer months and makes them perennial thus
providing water for drinking, irrigation and other uses during summer.
● They cause snowfall and hailstorm in upper reaches of Himalaya in Jammu and Kashmir,
Uttarakhand and Himachal Pradesh.
● The third pole's climate is being preserved due to these western disturbances. This has an indirect
positive effect on tourism.

Western Disturbances & Monsoon:

● Western disturbances start declining in numbers after winter. During the summer months of April
and May, they move across north India.
● The southwest monsoon current generally progresses from east to west in the northern Himalayan
region, unlike western disturbances which follow a west to east trend in north India with consequent
rise in pressure carrying cold pool of air. This helps in the activation of monsoon in certain parts of
northwest India. It also causes pre-monsoon rainfall especially in northern India.
● The interaction of the monsoon trough with western disturbances may occasionally cause dense
clouding and heavy precipitation. The 2013 Uttarakhand floods, which killed more than 5000
people in a span of 3 days, is said to be a result of one such interaction.

Cloudburst:
• The cloudburst is a localised weather phenomena representing highly concentrated rainfall over a
small area lasting for few hours. This leads to flash floods/ landslides, house collapse, dislocation
of traffic and human casualties on large scale.
• Meteorologists say the rain from a cloudburst is usually of the shower type with a fall rate equal to
or greater than 100 mm (4.94 inches) per hour.
How does it form?

pg. 43
 [Link]

• Generally cloudbursts are associated with thunderstorms. The air currents rushing upwards in a
rainstorm hold up a large amount of water.
• If these currents suddenly cease, the entire amount of water descends on to a small area with
catastrophic force all of a sudden and causes mass destruction.
• This is due to a rapid condensation of the clouds. They occur most often in desert and mountainous
regions, and in interior regions of continental landmasses.
Prone areas

• They occur most often in desert and mountainous regions, and in interior regions of continental
landmasses.
• The topographical conditions like steep hills favour the formation of these clouds in the
mountainous regions. And also the devastations, as water flowing down the steep slopes bring
debris, boulders and uprooted trees with great velocity damaging any structure that comes in their
way.
• The Chhotanagpur plateau spread across north Odisha, West Bengal and Jharkhand is the world’s
most vulnerable spot for formation of severest thunderstorms.
• Cloudburst can occur not only in the monsoon seasons but also during March to May which is
known for severe convective weather activities.
Prediction

• The large scale features, which are conducive for occurrence of severe thunderstorms associated
with cloudburst, are predictable two to three days in advance.
• However, the specific location and time of cloud burst can be predicted in NOWCAST mode only,
i.e. a few hours in advance, when the genesis of thunderstorm has already commenced.
• To detect these sudden developments, a Doppler Weather Radar (DWR), a powerful tool for time
and location specific prediction of cloudburst, can be deployed a few hours in advance. Coupled
with satellite imagery this can prove to be useful inputs for extrapolation of cloudbursts anywhere
in India.

pg. 44
 [Link]

• The stalled system prevented weather systems from being drawn across Russia and the obstacle
acted as a barrier trapping hot air to the south and cold air to the north.
• The consequence of this static mass of hot air was the heatwave that devastated Russia.
• With the jet stream stalled the Sub-Tropical Jet was unable to transit across the Himalayas as it
would do ordinarily, the monsoon cell to the south, fed by warmer waters in the Indian Ocean, had
nowhere to go and as a consequence, it deposited vast amounts of rain over Pakistan, Himachal
Pradesh and Jammu and Kashmir and this led to extensive flooding.

Q. What do you understand by western Disturbances? Discuss its impact on the economy, Indian
agriculture, tourism and society.

POLAR VORTEX; SUDDEN STRATOSPHERIC WARMING(SSW)

Context:
● The polar vortex is experiencing an unusually long disturbance in 2021 because of a “sudden
stratospheric warming.”
Polar Vortex:
● Vortex means something which moves in a circular motion.
● Polar Vortex is a circular movement of air and wind occurring on both the earth’s pole, i.e. the
North Pole and the South Pole. It always exists near the poles.
● It is a large area of low pressure and cold air surrounding the poles.
● Boundary of the polar vortex is the boundary between cold polar air and warmer sub tropical air,
defined by polar front jet stream moving West to East.
● A Polar Vortex starts from the upper part of Troposphere and extends into the Stratosphere,
and sometimes it continues up to the Mesosphere.
● The northern hemisphere polar vortex is stronger because the winds in the southern hemisphere
are less effective due to the fact that the southern hemisphere has less land.

pg. 45
 [Link]

Weakening of polar vortex:

● The Arctic is warming much faster due to global warming. Due to this, the polar Vortex weakens
and starts to lose its near circular shape. Recently, the United States is grappling with extreme cold
with temperature reaching to -30°C in cities like Chicago and Dakota.
● This is caused by a blast of Arctic air, which is a result of a “polar vortex” event.
a. The “breaking off” of a part of vortex as polar jet stream weakens is termed as ‘Polar
Vortex Event’.
b. This polar vortex event affects temperatures in tropical areas as south as Florida (explaining
why sub zero temperatures are observed in some tropical areas).
● Weak polar vortex conditions are happening more frequently now due to:
a. GHG emissions: Amplify arctic warming which leads to melting of snow and lower albedo
and increased absorption of sun’s heat.
b. Rapid arctic warming is diminishing the North-South temperature difference reducing
pressure difference between Arctic and mid latitudes, weakening the jet stream winds.

Sudden Stratospheric Warming (SSW):

● A “sudden stratospheric warming” event took place in early January 2021, according to weather
forecasting models.

What is sudden stratospheric warming (SSW)?

● SSW is a rapid warming (up to about 50 -°C in just a couple of days), between 10 km and 50
km above the earth’s surface.
● Usually a few weeks later, knock-on effects on the jet stream can be seen, which in turn affects
weather lower down (in the troposphere).
● However, the stratospheric sudden warming doesn’t happen every year, and it doesn’t always
affect weather when it does.
● It was first discovered in 1952.
● Sudden stratospheric warming events are a natural atmospheric fluctuation, not caused by
climate change.

How does SSW occur?

● Every year in winter, strong westerly winds called the stratospheric polar vortex circulates around
cold air high over the Arctic in the stratosphere.
● In some years, the winds in the polar vortex temporarily weaken, or even reverse to flow from east
to west.
● The cold air then descends very rapidly in the polar vortex and this causes the temperature in the
stratosphere to rise very rapidly, as much as 50-°C over only a few days; hence the term sudden
stratospheric warming.
● As the cold air from high up in the stratosphere disperses, it can affect the shape of the jet stream
as the cold air sinks from the stratosphere into the troposphere.
● It is this change in the jet stream that causes our weather to change.

pg. 46
 [Link]

TEMPERATURE INVERSION AND ASSOCIATED WEATHER:

Temperature inversion:
● Temperature inversion, also called thermal inversion is a reversal of the normal behaviour of
decrease of temperature with increasing height in the troposphere.

Ideal Conditions for Temperature Inversion:

1. Long Winter nights: Loss of heat from the ground should be greater than incoming
radiation.
2. Clear Skies: For instructible escape of radiation.
3. Calm Stable Air: No vertical mixing at lower levels.
4. Slow Movement of air: No transfer or mixing of heat.
5. Snow covered ground surface: Maximum albedo/reflection of insolation.

Types of temperature inversion:

There are four kinds of inversions: ground, turbulence, subsidence, and frontal.
1. A ground inversion (Surface temperature inversion) develops when air is cooled by contact with
a colder surface until it becomes cooler than the overlying atmosphere.
2. A subsidence inversion (Upper surface temperature inversion) develops when a widespread layer
of air descends, gets compressed and heated by the resulting increase in atmospheric pressure, and,
as a result, the lapse rate of temperature is reduced.

pg. 47
 [Link]

3. A turbulence inversion (Intermontane valley or air drainage type temperature inversion) often
forms when quiescent air overlies turbulent air. Vertical mixing carries heat downward and cools
the upper part of the layer. Cold air slopes down the valley with upper layers relatively warmer.
4. A frontal inversion occurs when a cold air mass undercuts a warm air mass and lifts it aloft; the
front between the two air masses then has warm air above and cold air below.

Effects on Weather:
● Inversions play an important role in determining cloud forms, precipitation, and visibility.
● An inversion acts as a cap on the upward movement of air from the layers below. As a result,
convection produced by the heating of air from below is limited to levels below the inversion.
● Diffusion of dust, smoke, and other air pollutants is likewise limited. In regions where a
pronounced low-level inversion is present, convective clouds cannot grow high enough to produce
showers and, at the same time, visibility may be greatly reduced below the inversion.
● Inversions also affect diurnal variations in air temperature. The principal heating of air during
the day is produced by its contact with a land surface that has been heated by the Sun’s radiation.
Heat from the ground is communicated to the air by conduction and convection. Since an inversion
will usually control the upper level to which heat is carried by convection, only a shallow layer of
air will be heated if the inversion is low and large, and the rise in temperature will be great.
● It can cause temperature stability which stops upward/downward movement of air causing no
rain and dry conditions.

DESERTS:

• Deserts are regions where evaporation exceeds precipitation.

• There are mainly two types – hot like the hot deserts of the Saharan type and temperate as are
the mid-latitude deserts like the Gobi.

Hot Desert Climate-

• The aridity of the hot deserts is mainly due to the effects of off-shore Trade Winds, hence they
are also called Trade Wind Deserts.
• The major hot deserts of the world are located on the western coasts of continents between
latitudes 15° and 30°N. and S (Question asked in Previous Mains Exam).
• They include the biggest Sahara Desert (3.5 million square miles), Great Australian Desert,
Arabian Desert, Iranian Desert, Thar Desert, Kalahari and Namib Deserts.
• In North America, the desert extends from Mexico into U.S.A. and is called by different names at
different places, e.g. the Mohave, Sonoran, Californian and Mexican Deserts.
• In South America, the Atacama or Peruvian Desert (rain shadow effect and off-shore trade
winds) is the driest of all deserts with less than 2 cm of rainfall annually.

Mid-Latitude Desert Climate-

• The temperate deserts are rainless because of either continentality or rain-shadow effect. [Gobi
Desert is formed due to continentality and Patagonian Desert due to rain-shadow effect]

pg. 48
 [Link]

• Amongst the mid-latitude deserts, many are found on plateau and are at a considerable distance
from the sea. These are Ladakh, The Kyzyl Kum, Turkestan, Taklimakan and Gobi deserts of
Central Asia, drier portions of the Great Basin Desert of the western United
States and Patagonian Deserts of Argentina etc.
• The Patagonian Desert is more due to its rain-shadow position on the leeward side of the lofty
Andes than to continentality.

Desert Climate-
Rainfall (Both Hot and Cold deserts)-
• Deserts, whether hot or mid-latitude have an annual precipitation of less than 25 cm.
• Atacama (driest place on earth) has practically no rain at all.
• Rain normally occurs as violent thunderstorms of the convectional type.
• It ‘bursts’ suddenly and pours continuously for a few hours over small areas.
• The thunderstorm is so violent, and comes so suddenly that it has disastrous consequences on desert
landforms [flash floods].

Major hot deserts in northern hemisphere are located between 20-30 degree north and on the western
side of the continents. Why?
• The hot deserts lie along the Horse Latitudes or the Sub-Tropical High-Pressure Belts where
the air is descending, a condition least favorable for precipitation of any kind to take place.
• The rain-bearing Trade Winds blow off-shore and the Westerlies that are on-shore blow outside
the desert limits.
• Whatever winds reach the deserts blow from cooler to warmer regions, and their relative
humidity is lowered, making condensation almost impossible.
• There is scarcely any cloud in the continuous blue sky. The relative humidity is extremely low,
decreasing from 60 per cent in coastal districts to less than 30 per cent in the desert interiors. Under
such conditions, every bit of moisture is evaporated and the deserts are thus regions of permanent
drought. Precipitation is both scarce and most unreliable.
• On the western coasts, the presence of cold currents gives rise to mists and fogs by chilling the on-
coming air. This air is later warmed by contact with the hot land, and little rain falls. The desiccating
effect of the cold Peruvian Current along the Chilean coast is so pronounced that the mean
annual rainfall for the Atacama Desert is not more than 1.3 cm.

pg. 49
 [Link]

Temperature of Hot deserts-

• There is no cold season in the hot deserts and the average summer temperature is high around
30°C.
• The highest temperature recorded is 57.77° C in 1922 at A1 Azizia, Libya.
• The reasons for the high temperatures are obvious—a clear, cloudless sky, intense insolation, dry
air and a rapid rate of evaporation.
• Coastal deserts by virtue of their maritime influence and the cooling effect of the cold currents have
much lower temperatures.
• The desert interiors, however, experience much higher summer temperatures and the winter months
are rather cold.
• The diurnal range of temperature in the deserts is very great. Intense insolation by day in a region
of dry air and no clouds causes the temperature to rise with the sun.
• But as soon as the sun sets, the land loses heat very quickly by radiation and the mercury levels
drop.
• High diurnal temperature range is a typical feature of hot deserts. Average diurnal range varies
from 14 to 25° Celsius.
• Frosts may occur at night in winter.

Climatic Conditions in the Mid-Latitude deserts-

• These inland basins lie hundreds of miles from the sea, and are sheltered by the high mountains all
around them. As a result, they are cut off from the rain-bearing winds.
• Occasionally depressions may penetrate the Asiatic continental mass and bring light rainfall in
winter. Due to their coldness and elevation, snow falls in winter.
• The annual range of temperature is much greater than that of the hot
deserts. Continentality accounts for these extremes in temperature.
• Winters are often severe, freezing lakes and rivers, and strong cold winds blow all the time. When
the ice thaws in early summer, floods occur in many place

pg. 50
 [Link]

Desert Vegetation-
• The predominant vegetation of both hot and mid-latitude deserts is xerophytic or drought-resistant.
• This includes the cacti, thorny bushes, long-rooted wiry grasses and scattered dwarf acacias.
• Trees are rare except where there is abundant ground water to support clusters of date palms.
• Along the western coastal deserts washed by cold currents as in the Atacama Desert, support a thin
cover of vegetation.
• Intense evaporation increases the salinity of the soil so that the dissolved salts tend to accumulate
on the surface forming hard pans [Bajada, Palaya].
• Absence of moisture retards the rate of decomposition and desert soils are very deficient in humus.
• Most desert shrubs have long roots and are well spaced out to gather moisture, and search for
ground water. Plants have few or no leaves and the foliage is either waxy, leathery, hairy or
needle-shaped to reduce the loss of water through transpiration.
• The seeds of many species of grasses and herbs have thick, tough skins to protect them while they
lie dormant.

Life in the Deserts-

• Despite its inhospitality, the desert has always been peopled by different groups of inhabitants.

Tribe Desert Occupation

Bedouin Arabs Arabia nomadic herdsmen
Tuaregs Sahara nomadic herdsmen
Gobi Mongols Gobi nomadic herdsmen
Bushmen Kalahari primitive hunters and collectors.
Bindibu Australia primitive hunters and collectors.

CYCLONES
WHAT ARE CYCLONES?
● Cyclone, any large system of winds that circulates about a centre of low atmospheric pressure
in a counter clockwise direction north of the Equator and in a clockwise direction to the south.
● The swirling air rises and cools, creating clouds and precipitation.
● There are two types of cyclones: middle latitude (mid-latitude) cyclones and tropical cyclones.
Mid-latitude cyclones are the main cause of winter storms in the middle latitudes. Tropical cyclones
are also known as hurricanes.
● An anticyclone is the opposite of a cyclone. An anticyclone’s winds rotate clockwise in the
Northern Hemisphere around a center of high pressure. Air comes in from above and sinks to the
ground. High pressure centers generally have fair weather.
● Major differences between tropical and temperate cyclones:

TROPICAL CYCLONE TEMPERATE CYCLONE

pg. 51
 [Link]

ORIGIN Thermal origin- Tropical cyclones Frontal origin (frontogenesis)-

typically form over large bodies of They are formed due to interaction of
relatively warm water. warm and cold air masses.

LATITUDE Confined to 10 – 30 degree N and S of Confined to 35 – 65 degree N and S

the equator. of the equator. They are more
pronounced in the Northern
hemisphere due to greater
temperature contrast owing to large
expanse of landmass.

FORMATION They form only on seas with Temperate cyclones can be formed
temperatures more than 26-27 degree C. on both land and sea
They dissipate on reaching the land.

SEASON Tropical cyclones are seasonal in Temperate cyclones are irregular in

nature, it mostly occurs in late summers nature but they occur more in winters
(Aug – Oct) and few in summers

WIND VELOCITY Wind velocity of tropical cyclones is Wind velocity in temperate cyclones
AND much greater (100 – 250 kmph) (200– is comparatively low. Typical range:
DESTRUCTION 1200 kmph in upper troposphere) 30 – 150 kmph.

Greater destruction due to winds, Less destruction due to winds but

storm surges and torrential rains. more destruction due to flooding.

SHAPE Tropical cyclones are elliptical in The shape of temperate cyclones is

shape. ‘inverted V’.

LIFETIME Tropical cyclones don’t last for more Temperate cyclones may last for 2 to
than a week. 3 weeks.

PATH They generally move from east to west. They move from west to east.

INFLUENCE ON Tropical cyclones affect both the coasts Temperate cyclones bring rains to
INDIA of India but the east coast is a hot spot. north-west India. The associated
instability is called ‘Western
Disturbances’.

pg. 52
 [Link]

Diagram

How are cyclones classified?

Cyclones are classified on the basis of the wind speed.
● The lowest official classification used in the North Indian Ocean is a Depression, which has 3-
minute sustained wind speeds of between 31–49 km/h.
● Deep Depression: If the depression intensifies further then it will become a Deep Depression,
which has speeds of between 50–61 km/h.
● Cyclonic storm: If the Deep Depression develops gale force wind speeds of between 62–88 km/h,
it is called a Cyclonic storm and the IMD assigns a name to it.
● Severe Cyclonic Storm: Severe Cyclonic Storms have storm force wind speeds of between 89–
117 km/h
● Very Severe Cyclonic Storm: Very Severe Cyclonic Storms have hurricane-force winds of 118–
166 km/h.
● Extremely Severe Cyclonic Storm: Extremely Severe Cyclonic Storms have hurricane-force
winds of 166–221 km/h.
● Super Cyclonic Storm: The highest classification used in the North Indian Ocean is a Super
Cyclonic Storm, which have hurricane-force winds of above 222 km/h.

Why are cyclones more common in the Bay of Bengal than in Arabian Sea?
● Both the Bay of Bengal and Arabian Sea experience cyclonic events, due to their proximity to the
Indian Ocean, where cyclones are a common phenomenon. However, when the two are compared,
the Bay of Bengal sees approximately five times as many cyclones as its Western counterpart. In
addition, cyclones in the Bay are stronger and deadlier.
● The reasons for Bay of Bengal to be cyclone prone:
● Water Temperature
Though both are located in the same latitude band and receive the same amount of solar
radiation from the Sun, the Bay of Bengal is much warmer than the Arabian Sea. It is
observed that the temperature in Bay of Bengal is more suitable for initiating cyclonic

pg. 53
 [Link]

activity. This may be due to various features such as underwater volcanic activities, that
maintains a constant and desirable water temperature of about 24-27 degree Celsius.
● Geographical features
The geographical features in the Bay of Bengal region are apt for creating a desired effect
of low pressure and high temperature. The water region is surrounded by land in most of
the directions thereby ensuring that heat from the land is continuously transferred to the
water. This phenomenon is not observed in Arabian Sea region.
● Occurrence of ITCZ
The Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone is formed over the Bay of Bengal region during
the withdrawal of monsoon from Indian subcontinent. The ITCZ becomes a perfect spot
for converging winds and thus creates a cyclonic region.
● Link with Pacific Ocean
Bay of Bengal is linked with the Pacific Ocean through a passageway that facilitates
movement of wind systems. The western Pacific Ocean is a hot bed for cyclonic activities
and some systems are so powerful that it can move into Bay of Bengal region and
subsequently gain power to become cyclones.
● In addition, the Bay receives higher rainfall and constant inflow of fresh water from
the Ganga and Brahmaputra rivers. This means that the Bay’s surface water keeps
getting refreshed, making it impossible for the warm water to mix with the cooler water
below, making it ideal for a depression. On the other hand, the Arabian Sea receives
stronger winds that help dissipate the heat, and the lack of constant fresh water supply helps
the warm water mix with the cool water, reducing the temperature.

RISING INCIDENCES OF CYCLONES IN THE ARABIAN SEA:

● The Arabian Sea previously experienced fewer severe cyclones than the Bay of Bengal off India's
eastern coast.
● But rising water temperatures because of global warming is changing this trend.
● This is the first time since the start of satellite records in 1980 in India that there have been four
consecutive years of pre-monsoon cyclones in the Arabian Sea.
● According to the India Meteorological Department, the frequency and intensity of cyclonic
activity in the Arabian Sea was the highest it had been in over a century, in 2019.
● One of the reasons that we are seeing more and more storms and cyclones in the tropical regions,
especially regions like Arabian Sea and all, is because of ocean warming, rapid ocean warming.
The Arabian Sea is one of the fastest warming basins across the global oceans.
● Rising sea surface temperatures (SST) in the Arabian Sea are contributing to the formation
of an increased number of cyclones.
● SST in the Arabian Sea rose by a staggering 0.36 degrees Celsius, compared with the baselines
temperatures between 1981 and 2010.

pg. 54
 [Link]

Q. What are cyclones? How are cyclones classified?

Q. Why are cyclones more common in the Bay of Bengal than in Arabian Sea?

AMAZON RAINFORESTS:
Why is the Amazon Rainforest so important?
● South America’s Amazon contains nearly a third of all the tropical rainforests left on Earth. Despite
covering only around 1% of the planet’s surface, the Amazon is home to 10% of all the wildlife
species.

The importance of the Amazon rainforest for local and global climate:
● Tropical forests and woodlands (e.g., savannas) exchange vast amounts of water and energy with
the atmosphere and are thought to be important in controlling local and regional climates.
● Water released by plants into the atmosphere through evapotranspiration (evaporation and plant
transpiration) and to the ocean by the rivers, influences world climate and the circulation of ocean
currents. This works as a feedback mechanism, as the process also sustains the global climate.
● If we lose the Amazon, we lose a crucial part of the world's life support system: The Amazon
produces up to 20% of the oxygen in Earth's atmosphere, cycles water that regulates our
weather.
● Amazon plays a major role in many of the processes that make our planet habitable: water cycles,
weather patterns, and the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide. The rainforest is also home
to more than 30 million people and over 10% of the world's biodiversity.
● The more than 2.5 million square miles of Amazon rainforest are also one of our greatest buffers
against the climate crisis, since the trees absorb carbon dioxide, thereby keeping it out of the
atmosphere.

pg. 55
 [Link]

● But deforestation threatens all of that. Humans have cut down nearly 20% of the Amazon in the
last 50 years, according to the World Wildlife Fund (WWF). If another 20% of the Amazon
disappears, that could trigger a "dieback" scenario in which the forest would dry out and become
a savannah. That process would release billions of tons of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere and
raise global temperatures.

why it is vital to protect the Amazon from further deforestation:

● Rainforests are the lungs of the planet: Plants absorb carbon dioxide from the air and replace it
with oxygen. Rainforests like the Amazon act as carbon sinks that offset the carbon dioxide that is
released into the atmosphere.
● Forests have huge significance for global heating: Trees not only absorb carbon dioxide from
the atmosphere, but vast stores of carbon are locked in the trees and soil. A study by Global Forest
Watch found that if tropical tree cover loss continues at this current rate it will be nearly impossible
to keep warming below 2-degrees, let alone the goal of 1.5-degrees.
● The Amazon is home to one million people: The Amazon is also home to many of the indigenous
peoples of South American. This includes people that have never had contact with the outside world
– and their home is on fire.
● The Amazon is the most biodiverse forest on the planet: The Amazon is the world’s largest
tropical forest, spanning nine countries in South America.
● Deforestation is disrupting Earth’s water cycle: New research is proving trees play a crucial role
in regulating the global water cycle. Trees suck up moisture from the soil and release water vapour
in the atmosphere through their leaves. Deforestation in tropical forests in the African Congo basin,
southeast Asia and particularly the Amazon could lead to droughts on the other side of the world.
● Rainforest plants are used for life-saving medicine: More than 60% of anti-cancer drugs
originate from natural sources including rainforest plants, according to research by the International
Journal of Oncology.

Q. Why is the Amazon rainforest so critical for the entire world's climate? Suggest measures to
protect them.

pg. 56
 [Link]

MEDITERRANEAN CLIMATE OR WARM TEMPERATE WESTERN MARGIN CLIMATE OR

WARM TEMPERATE WEST COAST CLIMATE:
Distribution-
• Entirely confined to the western portion of continental masses, between 30° and 45° north and
south of the equator.
• The basic cause of this type of climate is the shifting of the wind belts.
• Mediterranean Sea has the greatest extent of this type of ‘winter rain climate’, and gives rise to the
name Mediterranean Climate.
• The best developed form of this climatic type is found in central Chile.
• Other Mediterranean regions include
1) California (around San Francisco),
2) the south-western tip of Africa (around Cape Town),
3) southern Australia, and south-west Australia (Swanland).

Mediterranean Climate-
• Clear skies and high temperatures; hot, dry summers and cool, wet winters.
o Mean annual precipitation ranges from 35 – 90 cm.
o Temperature of warmest month greater than or equal to 10⁰ C.
o Temperature of coldest month is less than 18⁰ C but greater than –3⁰ C
o Climate is not extreme because of cooling from water bodies.
• A dry, warm summer with off-shore trades
o In summer when the sun is overhead at the Tropic of Cancer, the belt of influence of
the Westerlies is shifted a little pole wards. Rain bearing winds are therefore not likely
to reach the Mediterranean lands.
o The prevailing Trade Winds [tropical easterlies] are off-shore and there is practically
no rain.
o Strong winds from inland desert regions pose the risk of wildfires.
• Rainfall in winter with on-shore Westerlies
o The Mediterranean lands receive most of their precipitation in winter when the Westerlies
shift equator wards.

pg. 57
 [Link]

o In the northern hemisphere, the prevailing on-shore Westerlies bring much cyclonic rain
from the Atlantic (Typical to Mediterranean Climate).
o The rain comes in heavy showers and only on a few days with bright sunny periods
between them. This is another characteristic feature of the Mediterranean winter rain.
o Though the downpours are infrequent they are often very torrential and in mountainous
districts, destructive floods occur.

Local winds of the Mediterranean Climate-

• Many local winds, some hot, others cold are common around the Mediterranean Sea.
• Sirocco
o This is a hot, dry dusty wind which originates in the Sahara Desert.
o It is most frequent in spring and normally lasts for only a few days.
o The Sirocco blows outwards in a southerly direction (south to north) from the desert
interiors into the cooler Mediterranean Sea.
o After crossing the Mediterranean Sea, the Sirocco is slightly cooled by the absorption of
the water vapour.
o Its scorching heat withers [To dry up or shrivel from loss of moisture] vegetation and
crops.
o This may be ‘blood rain’ because the wind is carrying the red dust of the Sahara Desert.
• Mistral
o Mistral is a cold wind from the north, rushing down the Rhone valley in violent gusts
between 40 and 80 miles per hour.
o The velocity of the Mistral is intensified by the funneling effect in the valley between
the Alps and the Central Massif [Plateau in France].
o A similar type of cold north-easterly wind experienced along the Adriatic coast is called
the Bora.
o Tramontane and Gregale are similar cold winds of the Mediterranean Sea.

Natural Vegetation in the Mediterranean Climate-

• Trees with small broad leaves are widely spaced and never very tall.
• The absence of shade is a distinct feature of Mediterranean lands.
• Plants are in a continuous struggle against heat, dry air, excessive evaporation and prolonged
droughts. They are, in short xerophytic [drought tolerant], a word used to describe the drought-
resistant plants in an environment deficient in moisture.

pg. 58
 [Link]

• Mediterranean evergreen forests

o These are open woodlands with evergreen oaks.
o They are found only in the climatically most favoured regions.
o The trees are normally low, even stunted, with massive trunks, small leathery leaves and a
wide-spreading root system in search of water.
o The cork oaks are specially valued for their thick barks, used for making wine-bottle
corks and for export around the world.
o In Australia, the eucalyptus forests replace the evergreen oak.
o The giant redwood is typical of the Californian trees.
• Evergreen coniferous trees
o These include the various kinds of pines, firs, cedars and cypresses which have evergreen,
needle-shaped leaves and tall, straight trunks.
• Mediterranean bushes and shrubs
o This is perhaps the most predominant type of Mediterranean vegetation.
• Grass
o Conditions in the Mediterranean do not suit grass, because most of the rain comes in the
cool season when growth is slow.
o Even if grasses do survive, they are so wiry [lean, tough] and bunchy that they are not
suitable for animal farming.
o Cattle rearing is thus unimportant in the Mediterranean.

Agriculture in the Mediterranean Climate

• Orchard farming
o The Mediterranean lands are also known as the world’s orchard lands.
o A wide range of citrus fruits such as oranges, lemons, limes, citrons and grapefruit are
grown.
o The fruit trees have long roots to draw water from considerable depths during the long
summer drought.
o The thick, leathery skin of the citrus fruits prevents excessive transpiration.
o The long, sunny summer enables the fruits to be ripened and harvested.
o The Mediterranean lands account for 70 per cent of the world’s exports of citrus fruits.
o The olive tree is probably the most typical of all Mediterranean cultivated vegetation.
o Olive oil extracted is a valuable source of cooking oil in a region deficient in animal fat.
o Besides olives, many nut trees like chestnuts, walnuts, hazelnuts and almonds are grown
and the nuts picked as fruits or for the chocolate industry.
Crop cultivation and sheep rearing
o Wheat is the leading food crop. Barley is the next most popular cereal.
o The mountain pastures, with their cooler climate, support a few sheep, goats and sometimes
cattle.
o Transhumance is widely practiced (moving up and down the hills in search of pastures
according to seasons).
Wine production
o Viticulture is by tradition a Mediterranean occupation.

pg. 59
 [Link]

o Regions bordering the Mediterranean Sea account for three-quarters of the world’s
production of wine.
o Some 85 per cent of grapes produced, go into wine.
o The long, sunny summer allows the grapes to ripen.

Economy-
Net exporter of citric fruits and net importer of dairy products.
o Clear skies in summer and good landscapes encourage tourism [Lot of Indian Songs are
shot here].
o European Mediterranean has many ancient cities and are famous for their health and
pleasure resorts, frequented by millions all-round the year.

GLOBAL CLIMATE CHANGE

Climate change:

● Climate change is a long-term change in the average weather patterns that have come to define
Earth's local, regional and global climates.
● While “climate change” and “global warming” are often used interchangeably, global warming—
the recent rise in the global average temperature near the earth’s surface—is just one aspect of
climate change.

EVIDENCES OF CLIMATE CHANGE:

● Earth's climate has changed throughout history. Just in the last 650,000 years there have been
seven cycles of glacial advance and retreat, with the abrupt end of the last ice age about 11,700
years ago marking the beginning of the modern climate era.
● Global Temperature Rise: The planet's average surface temperature has risen about 2.12 degrees
Fahrenheit (1.18 degrees Celsius) since the late 19th century, a change driven largely by increased
carbon dioxide emissions into the atmosphere and other human activities. The years 2016 and 2020
are tied for the warmest year on record.
● Warming Ocean: The ocean has absorbed much of this increased heat, with the top 100 meters of
ocean showing warming of more than 0.6 degrees Fahrenheit since 1969. Earth stores 90% of the
extra energy in the ocean.
● Shrinking Ice Sheets: The Greenland and Antarctic ice sheets have decreased in mass while
Antarctica lost about 148 billion tons of ice per year.
● Glacial Retreat: Glaciers are retreating almost everywhere around the world — including in the
Alps, Himalayas, Andes, Rockies, Alaska, and Africa.
● Decreased Snow Cover: Satellite observations reveal that the amount of spring snow cover in the
Northern Hemisphere has decreased over the past five decades and the snow is melting earlier.
● Sea Level Rise: Global sea level rose about 8 inches in the last century. The rate in the last two
decades is nearly double that of the last century.
● Declining Arctic Sea Ice: Both the extent and thickness of Arctic sea ice has declined rapidly over
the last several decades

pg. 60
 [Link]

●Extreme Events: The number of record high temperature events has been increasing, while the
number of record low temperature events has been decreasing, since 1950.
● Ocean Acidification: Since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution, the acidity of surface ocean
waters has increased by about 30%. This increase is the result of humans emitting more carbon
dioxide into the atmosphere and hence more being absorbed into the ocean.
THE CAUSES OF CLIMATE CHANGE:

A) Natural Factors:
There are numerous natural factors that cause the Earth’s climate to change. They affect the climate
over a period of thousands to millions of years.
• Continental Drift: The movement of continents had an impact on climate change due to the
change on the landmass’s physical features and position and the change in water bodies’
position like the change in the follow of ocean currents and winds. The drifting of the landmass
is continued today. The Himalayan range is rising approximately 1 millimetre every year as the
Indian landmass is moving towards the Asian landmass.
• Variation of the Earth’s orbit: The Earth’s orbit has an impact on the sunlight’s seasonal
distribution that is reaching the Earth’s surface.
o A slight change in the Earth’s orbit can lead to variation in distribution across the world.
There are very few changes to the average sunshine.
o However, it causes a high impact on the geographical and seasonal distribution.
o There are three types of orbital variations – variations in Earth’s eccentricity, variations
in the tilt angle of the Earth’s axis of rotation and precession of Earth’s axis.
o These together can cause Milankovitch cycles, which have a huge impact on climate
and are well-known for their connection to the glacial and interglacial periods.
o The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change finding showed that the Milankovitch
cycles had influenced the behaviour of ice formation.
• Plate tectonics: Due to the change in the temperature in the core of the Earth, the mantle plumes
and convection currents forced the Earth’s Plates to adjust leading to the rearrangement of the
Earth Plate. This can influence the global and local patterns of climate and atmosphere. The
recent example of the tectonic control on ocean circulation is the formation of the Isthmus of
Panama about 5 million years ago, leading to the prevention of direct mixing of the Atlantic
and Pacific oceans.
• Volcanic Activity: When a volcano erupts, it emits gases and dust particles, causing a partial
block of the Sunrays. This can lead to the cooling of the weather. Though the volcanic activities
last only for a few days, the gases and ashes released by it can last for a long period, leading to
it influencing climate patterns.
• Ocean Currents: The temperature differences of the water influence the climate of the region.
B) Anthropogenic Factors:
Scientists, since the beginning of the 20th century, have studied the impact of climate change caused by
human activities. Global warming, the long-term rise in the average temperature of the Earth’s climate
system, is a major aspect of climate change. It is mainly a human-caused increase in global surface
temperature. The anthropogenic factors causing climate change are as follows:

pg. 61
 [Link]

• Greenhouse Gases: The greenhouse gases absorb heat radiation from the sun. Following the
initiation of the Industrial Revolution, the emission of greenhouse gases into the atmosphere
has increased exponentially. This has led to more absorption and retaining the heat in the
atmosphere. This resulted in an increase in Global Temperature. The greenhouse gases mostly
do not absorb the solar radiation but absorb most of the infrared emitted by the Earth’s surface.
o The main greenhouse gases include
▪ water vapour (the majority of the GHG in the atmosphere but the impact is
less)
▪ Carbon dioxide released due to natural and anthropogenic factors spends more
time in the atmosphere, leading to an increase in its impact. There has been a
30% increase in the concentration of CO2 since the start of the industrial
revolution. Apart from the industrial revolution, deforestation also contributes
to the increase in the CO
▪ Chlorofluorocarbons, used for industrial purposes, especially in refrigerants
and air conditioning, is a man-made compound regulated under the Montreal
Protocol due to their adverse effects on the Ozone layers.
▪ Methane is released due to decomposition of organic matter. It is stronger than
CO2 because of its capacity to absorb more heat.
▪ Nitrous oxide is produced by the agricultural sector, especially in the
production and use of organic fertilizers and while burning fossil fuels.
• Change in the land use pattern: Half of the land-use change is said to have happened during
the industrial era. Most of the forests were replaced by agricultural cropping and grazing of
lands.
o The increased albedo (reflectivity of an object in space) in the snow-covered high
altitude regions due to deforestation led to the cooling of the planet’s surface.
o The lower the albedo, the more of the Sun’s radiation gets absorbed by the planet and
the temperatures will rise.
o If the albedo is higher and the Earth is more reflective, the more of the radiation is
returned to space, leading to the cooling of the planet.
o The tropical deforestation changes the evapotranspiration rates (the amount of water
vapour put in the atmosphere through evaporation and transpiration from trees), causes
desertification and affects soil moisture characteristics.
o From the satellite imagery, it is seen that the clearing of forest cover for agriculture and
irrigated farming in arid and semi-arid lands can increase solar energy absorption and
the amount of moisture evaporated into the atmosphere.
• Atmospheric aerosols: Can scatter and absorb the solar and infrared radiation, change
microphysical and chemical properties of the clouds, Solar radiation, when scattered, cools the
planet. On the other hand, when the aerosols absorb solar radiation, it causes an increase in the
temperature of the air instead of allowing the sunlight to be absorbed by the Earth’s surface.
Aerosols can directly affect climate change by absorbing or reflecting solar radiation. They can
also produce indirect effects by modifying the cloud’s formation and properties. They can even
be transported thousands of kilometres away from its source through wind and upper-level
circulation in the atmosphere.

pg. 62
 [Link]

EFFECTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE:

● Temperatures Will Continue to Rise: Change Will Continue Through This Century and Beyond
because human-induced warming is superimposed on a naturally varying climate, the temperature
rise has not been, and will not be, uniform or smooth across the country or over time.
● Frost-free Season (and Growing Season) will Lengthen: The length of the frost-free season (and
the corresponding growing season) has been increasing nationally since the 1980s affecting
ecosystems and agriculture.
● Changes in Precipitation Pattern: Average precipitation has increased since 1900, but some areas
have had increases greater than the national average, and some areas have had decreases.
● More Droughts and Heat Wave: Droughts in the Southwest and heat waves (periods of
abnormally hot weather lasting days to weeks) everywhere are projected to become more intense,
and cold waves less intense everywhere. Summer temperatures are projected to continue rising, and
a reduction of soil moisture, which exacerbates heat waves.
● Hurricanes and cyclones Will Become Stronger and More Intense: The intensity, frequency
and duration of cyclones have all increased since the early 1980s.
● Sea Level Will Rise 1-8 feet by 2100: Global sea level has risen by about 8 inches since reliable
record keeping began in 1880. It is projected to rise another 1 to 8 feet by 2100. This is the result
of added water from melting land ice and the expansion of seawater as it warms.
Arctic Likely to Become Ice-Free: The Arctic Ocean is expected to become essentially ice free in
summer before mid-century.

WHAT ROLE DOES CLIMATE CHANGE PLAY IN FOREST FIRES?

● Forest fires have been increasing dramatically, as global warming is leading to longer, harsher
droughts and more extreme weather events.
● The smoke and carbon released into the atmosphere from these fires also acts to accelerate
further warming and temperature rise.
● Fires are just one piece of a multi-part climate feedback system — all of which are worsening,
fueling more rapid climate change.
● Increased global emissions lead to higher temperatures, which then create drier, more fire-prone
conditions. With more fires comes more emissions, perpetuating the entire cycle.

pg. 63
 [Link]

Q. Is climate change responsible for increasing forest fires around the world/ Bush fires in Australia?

IMPACT OF CLIMATE CHANGE ON RAINFALL PATTERNS IN INDIA:

● The Ministry of Earth Sciences (MoES), Government of India has recently published a Climate
Change report entitled "Assessment of Climate Change over the Indian Region" regarding the
impact of human-induced global climate change on the regional climate and monsoon of the Indian
subcontinent, adjoining Indian Ocean and the Himalayas.
● Based on the available climate records, the report documents that the surface air temperature over
India has risen by about 0.7 °C during 1901–2018 which is accompanied with an increase in
atmospheric moisture content. The sea surface temperatures in the tropical Indian Ocean have also
increased by about 1 °C during 1951–2015.
● This has led to a rise in frequency of localized heavy rainfall events, drought and flood occurrences,
and increase in the intensity of tropical cyclones etc. in the last few decades.
○ Five states viz., Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal, Meghalaya and Nagaland have
shown significant decreasing trends in southwest monsoon rainfall during the recent 30
years period(1989-2018).
○ The annual rainfall over these five states along with the states of Arunachal Pradesh and
Himachal Pradesh also show significant decreasing trends.
○ Other states do not show any significant changes in southwest monsoon rainfall during the
same period.
○ Considering district-wise rainfall, there are many districts in the country, which show
significant changes in southwest monsoon and annual rainfall during the recent 30 years
period(1989-2018).

pg. 64
 [Link]

○ With regard to the frequency of heavy rainfall days, significant increasing trend is observed
over Saurashtra & Kutch, South-eastern parts of Rajasthan, Northern parts of Tamil Nadu,
Northern parts of Andhra Pradesh and adjoining areas of Southwest Odisha, many parts of
Chhattisgarh, Southwest Madhya Pradesh, West Bengal, Manipur & Mizoram, Konkan &
Goa andUttarakhand.

Q. Discuss the impact of climate change on rainfall patterns in Indian and the world.

CLIMATE CHANGE & EXTREME CLIMATE EVENTS:

● 70% of the extreme weather events are more likely caused by human-caused climate change.
Heavily dominated by extreme heat (33%), rainfall or flooding (20%) and drought (17%). Together
they make up more than two-thirds of 70%.
● Heatwaves: climate change has made heat wave events more likely or more severe.
● Heavy rain and flooding: known as “thermodynamic” effects. Higher temperatures mean
warmer seas, higher sea levels and more moisture evaporating into the atmosphere. Human factors,
such as land use and drainage, also play a part in whether heavy rain leads to flooding.
● Drought: India is seeing more extreme weather, with the past decade being warmest and the driest
ever which includes very rare instances of successive droughts in 2014 15 but this period also seen
several instances of short bursts of torrential rain which flooded Mumbai in 2005, Uttarakhand in
2013, Kashmir in 2014, Kerala in 2018.
● Landslide: A landslide is defined as the movement of a mass of rock, debris, or earth down a slope.
Out of total 3,782 landslides between 2015 and 2022 in India the highest 2239 were reported in
Kerala, followed by West Bengal (376), Tamilnadu (196), Karnataka (194) and Jammu and
Kashmir (184).
● Climate extremes, such as droughts, floods and extreme temperatures, can lead to crop losses and
threaten the livelihoods of agricultural producers and the food security of communities worldwide.
Depending on the crop and ecosystem, weeds, pests, and fungi can also thrive under warmer
temperatures, wetter climates, and increased CO2 levels, and climate change will likely increase
weeds and pests.
Climate change can cause new patterns of pests and diseases to emerge, affecting plants, animals
and humans, and posing new risks for food security, food safety and human health.

Q. What are extreme climate events? Do you think Climate Change is responsible for increasing
incidents of extreme climate events in India?

Assessment of Climate Change over the Indian Region:

● The Ministry of Earth Sciences’ (MoES) recently released a report titled ‘Assessment of Climate
Change over the Indian Region’. The report highlights the observed and projected changes in
various climatic dimensions over the Indian region, their impacts and various policy actions to deal
with the regional climate change.
● Following are the observed and projected changes in various climatic dimensions over the Indian
region:
1. Average temperature has risen by around 0.7°C during 1901–2018.

pg. 65
 [Link]

2. Summer monsoon rainfall has declined by 6%, over India between 1951-2015 especially in the
densely populated Indo-Gangetic plains and the Western Ghats.
3. The frequency of localized heavy rain occurrences as well as dry spells has significantly
increased.
4. The area affected by drought has also increased by 1.3% per decade during 1951–2016.
5. Flooding events have increased since 1950, in part due to enhanced occurrence of localized, short-
duration intense rainfall events.
6. Sea-level rise in the North Indian Ocean: It occurred at a rate of 1.06–1.75 mm per year during
1874–2004 and has accelerated to 3.3 mm per year between 1993 and 2017, which is comparable
to the current rate of global mean sea- level rise.
7. The frequency of very severe cyclonic storms (VSCSs) during the post-monsoon season has
increased significantly.
8. The Hindukush Himalayas (HKH) (also known as the ‘Third Pole’) experienced a declining
trend in snowfall and also retreat of glaciers in recent decades. However, parts of the high-
elevation Karakoram Himalayas have, in contrast, experienced increased wintertime precipitation
in association with enhanced amplitude variations of synoptic western disturbances.
9. Food Security: Rising temperatures, heat extremes, floods, droughts and rainfall variability can
disrupt rainfed agricultural food production and adversely impact crop yield.
10. Water Security: Declining trend in snowfall and retreat of glaciers in HKH region may impact the
water supply in the major rivers and streams including the Indus, Ganges, and Brahmaputra.
11. Energy demand: Rising temperatures are likely to increase energy demand for space cooling,
further adding to global warming by increasing GHG emissions.
12. Human Health: Higher temperatures, extreme weather events, and higher climate variability could
elevate risk of heat strokes, cardiovascular and neurological diseases, stress-related disorders and
spread of vector-borne diseases such as malaria and dengue fever.
13. Biodiversity: Species specially adapted to narrow environmental conditions are likely to be
affected the most.
14. Economy: According to the International Labour Organization, the loss in productivity by 2030
because of heat stress could be the equivalent of India losing 34 million full-time jobs. According
to Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change, Desertification, land degradation and
drought cost India about 2.5% of gross domestic product in 2014-15.
15. Social issues: Large scale migration induced due to climatic disasters such as droughts, cyclones
and [Link] crop failures add to the burden of already distressed farmers who then resort
to suicides.

Policy recommendations by the report:

1. Make vulnerability assessment central to long-term planning for developing adaptation and
mitigation strategies.
2. Inclusion of detailed, regional-scale climate change risk assessments would help develop region
and sector-specific mitigation and adaptation measures to reduce vulnerability to climate change.
3. Afforestation efforts: It helps to mitigate climate change through carbon sequestration, enhance
resilience to flash floods and landslides by improving soil retention, improve resilience to droughts
by increasing percolation of surface water into the soil, improve resilience of coastal infrastructure
and habitation by reducing coastline erosion due to storm surges and sea-level rise, reduce

pg. 66
 [Link]

vulnerability to extreme heat by reducing ambient temperatures, and support native wildlife and
biodiversity.
4. Equity and social justice for building climate resilience since the most vulnerable people such
as the poor, the disabled, outdoor labourers and farmers will bear the brunt of climate change
impacts.

8.9. IPCC Reports on Climate Change:

● In 2013 the IPCC in its Fifth Assessment Report has identified that climate change is real and
human activities are the main cause.
○ It highlighted that from 1880 to 2012, the average global temperature increased by 0.85°C.
○ From 1901 to 2010, the global average sea level rose by 19 cm as oceans expanded due to
warming and ice melted.
● In 2018, the IPCC issued a special report on the impacts of global warming of 1.5°C, finding
that limiting global warming to 1.5°C would require rapid, far-reaching and unprecedented changes
in all aspects of society.
○ It predicts that increases in global mean temperature of less than 1.8 to 5.4 degrees
Fahrenheit (1 to 3 degrees Celsius) above 1990 levels will produce beneficial impacts in
some regions and harmful ones in others.
● A Special Report on Land and climate change focuses on the contribution of land related
activities to global warming.
● ‘The Special Report on the Ocean and Cryosphere in a Changing Climate’ underlined the dire
changes taking place in oceans, glaciers, and ice-deposits on land and sea:
○ Ocean Warming:
■ Global ocean has warmed unabated since 1970 and has taken up more than 90%
of the excess heat in the climate system.
■ Since 1993, the rate of ocean warming and marine heatwaves have very likely
doubled in frequency and intensity.
○ Global Mean Sea-Level:
■ Between 2006 and 2015, the global mean sea level recorded an average rise of 3.6
mm per year, which was more than double of 1.4 mm per year recorded in the first
90-year-period of the 20th century.
■ Sea-level rise is not globally uniform and varies regionally. Regional differences,
within 30 % of global mean sea-level rise, result from land ice loss and variations
in ocean warming and circulation
○ The Melting of Glaciers:
■ Between 2006 and 2015, the Greenland ice sheet lost ice-mass at an average rate
of 278 billion tonnes every year (e.g. Okjokull glacier of Iceland), which was
enough to result in a global sea-level rise of 0.8 mm per year. During the same
period, the Antarctic ice sheet lost a mass of 155 billion tonnes on an average every
year.
■ The glaciers in the Himalayas, together lost an average of 220 billion tonnes of ice
every year.

IMPACTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE : ON LAND & FOOD SECURITY, OCEANS

pg. 67
 [Link]

Climate change on land degradation: Land degradation on climate change:

1. Change in temperature and rainfall: 1. Deforestation and vegetation loss leading

Extreme weather events. to more CO2 emission.
2. Increase wildfires. 2. Livestock rearing, rice farming, peatlands
3. Species Invasion. causing methane emission.
4. Extreme heat reduces photosynthesis. 3. Agriculture and nitrogenous fertilizers
5. Reduction in permafrost. causing N2O emissions.
6. Reduce soil moisture.

Climate change on food security: Impact of food on climate change:

1. Unstable food production. 1. Agricultural expansion leading to more

2. Pests and diseases. land brought under cultivation.
3. Decline in crop yield. 2. Eliminating natural wetlands and forest
4. Reduced nutritional quality of food due to cover.
altered micro/macro nutrients in soil. 3. GHG emission from agriculture.

Impacts of Climate Change on Oceans:

1. Sea level Rise: As per IPCC special report on the Ocean and Cryosphere in a Changing Climate
(SROCC), if global temperatures are limited to well-below 2 degree Celsius in 2100, then the rate
of SLR will still increase from around 4mm per year today to 4-9mm/year by 2100.
a. 0.5-0.7% of the world’s land area is at a risk of episodic coastal flooding by 2100,
impacting up to 4% of the population.
b. Almost 3 billion people live within 200 km of the coasts and islands all over the world. A
sea level rise will lead to loss of habitation and hence leads to de-urbanization.
2. Coastal regions and small Island States
a. Coastal communities vulnerable to climate hazards.
b. Floods causing losses to coastal megacities.
c. Alter the size and direction of migration flow.
d. Indonesia is planning to shift its capital from Jakarta, the “world’s fastest-sinking city”
owing to sinking of land by 25 cm per year.
3. Marine life:
a. Marine heatwaves: around the world have doubled in frequency since 1982, becoming
longer-lasting, more intense and more extensive.
b. Change in Salinity, oxygen content and ocean acidification.
c. Surface warming combined with a surge in freshwater runoff entering the top layer of the
oceans is making the oceans more stratified.
d. Ocean Deoxygenation: Growth of Oxygen Minimum zones.
e. Projections of “net primary productivity” declining by 4-11% under a high-emissions
scenario. This may cause a decline of around 15% in the total mass of marine animals by
2100 and up to a 25.5% drop in “maximum catch potential” of fisheries.
f. Coral reefs are particularly threatened: Almost all coral reefs will degrade from their
current state, even if global warming remains below 2 degree Celsius

pg. 68
 [Link]

4. Extreme events:
a. Increased frequency of tropical cyclones.
b. The strongest El Niño and La Niña events since the pre-industrial have occurred during the
last fifty years. Extreme El Niño events are projected to occur about twice as often in the
21st century compared to the 20th century.
5. Socio Economic Impacts:
a. Decline in fisheries threatening food security. Seafood is an essential contributor to
humanity’s health, as over 4.5bn people in the world obtain more than 15% of their protein
intake from seafood.
b. Species migration and invasion can be a potential for conflicts.
c. It may also significantly affect tourism and recreation through impacts on landscapes (e.g.,
beaches), cultural features etc.
d. Algal bloom, Bacterial growth causing diseases and epidemic.
6. Maritime disputes: With sea-level rise, the baselines from which most maritime zones (defined
under United Nation Convention on Law of Seas (UNCLOS)) are measured will change. As a
consequence, the outer boundary of the zone may also change, retreating landward, which may lead
to maritime disputes.

Efforts to mitigate Climate Change:

GLOBAL EFFORTS: INDIA’S EFFORTS:

● PARIS AGREEMENT & COP 25: The ● Promotion of Renewable Energy:

central aim of the agreement is to ○ Renewable energy targets: Solar
strengthen the global response to the threat Energy (100 GW by 2022), Wind
of climate change by keeping the global Energy (60 GW by 2022) and
temperature rise, in this century, well Small Hydro and Biomass( 15 GW
below 2 degrees Celsius above pre- by 2022)
industrial levels and to pursue efforts to ○ Green Energy Corridor Project
limit the temperature increase even further that aims at synchronizing
to 1.5 degrees Celsius. electricity produced from
● COP 25@Madrid Leaders dubbed the renewable sources
event as “blue COP”, laying out its ○ Faster Adoption and
intention to focus on oceans. Manufacturing of Electric
● COP23@Bonn: Vehicles in India (FAME India)
○ Talanoa Dialogue: a facilitative ● Energy Efficiency measures:
dialogue in 2018, to take stock of ○ Perform Achieve and Trade
the collective efforts of Parties in (PAT)
relation to progress towards the ○ Star Rated Appliances to provide
long-term goal referred to Paris the consumer an informed choice
Agreement. about energy saving.
○ To inform the preparation of ○ Energy Conservation Building
nationally determined Code 2017
contributions (NDCs) was ○ Green Rating for Integrated
launched. Habitat Assessment (GRIHA) to
○ Gender Action Plan: The first recognize energy-efficient
ever Gender Action Plan to the buildings.
UNFCCC was adopted at COP23.

pg. 69
 [Link]

● Warsaw International Mechanism ○ Zero Defect and Zero Effect

(WIM) on Loss and Damage came into (ZED) to rate Micro, Small and
being in 2013 (COP 19). It acknowledges Medium Enterprises (MSMEs) on
that “loss and damage associated with the quality control and certification for
adverse effects of climate change includes, energy efficiency,
and in some cases involves more than that ● Financial Tools
which can be reduced by adaptation”. ○ Green bonds issued by financial,
● Carbon markets: Paris Agreement non-financial or public entities
contains three separate mechanisms for where the proceeds are used to
“voluntary cooperation” towards climate finance 100 percent green projects
goals: ○ Compensatory Afforestation
○ two based on markets ( called as Management and Planning
Internationally Transferred Authority (CAMPA) Funds for
Mitigation Outcomes (ITMO) promoting afforestation and
and “Sustainable Development regeneration activities.
Mechanism” (SDM) which seeks ○ Framework for Energy Efficient
to replace the CDM Economic Development (FEED)
○ and a third based on “non-market to ease the financing of energy
approaches”to boost “mitigation, efficiency projects.
adaptation, finance, technology ○ India joined the International
transfer and capacity- building”, in Platform on Sustainable Finance
situations where no trade is (IPSF) that acknowledges the
involved.. global nature of financial markets
● Carbon pricing is an instrument that which has the potential to help
captures the external costs of greenhouse finance the transition to a green,
gas (GHG) emissions low carbon and climate resilient
○ Emissions Trading Systems economy.
(ETS): ● Afforestation Measures:
○ carbon tax ○ National Afforestation
○ Other mechanisms to price the Programme for afforestation and
carbon emission reforestation of degraded forests
■ Offset programs and non -forest areas.
■ Results-Based Climate ○ Nagar Van Udyan Yojana: Aims at
Finance ecological rejuvenation of the city
■ Internal carbon pricing forests by creating/ developing at
● CLIMATE FINANCE: established least one city forest in each city.
Financial Mechanisms to provide funds to ● International collaborations:
developing country Parties. ○ International Solar Alliance
○ Global Environment Facility (ISA) to provide a dedicated
(GEF) platform for cooperation among
○ Copenhagen Accord,with a target solar-resource-rich countries.
of mobilizing $100 billion per year ○ REDD+ Reducing emissions to
by 2020 achieve additional carbon
○ Green Climate Fund (GCF) sequestration, emission reduction,
established by parties at COP 16 improve forest based livelihoods,
Cancun. conservation species and
○ Established special funds: improvement of watershed
Special Climate Change Fund hydrology.
(SCCF), the Least Developed ● Adaptation measures:
Countries Fund (LDCF), both

pg. 70
 [Link]

managed by the GEF; and the ○ National Initiative on Climate

Adaptation Fund (AF) under the Resilient Agriculture to enhance
Kyoto Protocol in 2001. resilience of Indian agriculture to
climate change.
○ Coalition for Disaster Resilient
Infrastructure (CDRI) aims to
promote resilience of new and
existing infrastructure systems to
climate and disaster risks.
○ National Agroforestry Policy
(NAP) that aims at encouraging
and expanding tree plantation in
complementarity and integrated
manner with crops and livestock.

Response Ahead:
1. Networks of protected areas help maintain ecosystem services and enable future ecosystem-based
adaptation options.
2. Ecosystem management tools such as coral gardening and species relocation.
3. Fisheries management strategies to reduce negative climate change impacts on fisheries, with
benefits for regional economies and livelihoods.
4. Restoration of vegetated coastal ecosystems, such as mangroves, tidal marshes and seagrass
meadows.
5. Integrated water management approaches support water resource management through the
development and optimization of multi-purpose storage and release of water from reservoirs, with
consideration of potentially negative impacts to ecosystems and communities.
6. Climate resilience and sustainable development to promote fair and just climate.
7. Monitoring, sharing of data, information and knowledge and improved context- specific
forecasts, including early warning systems to predict more extreme El Niño/La Niña events,
tropical cyclones, and marine heatwaves etc. help to manage negative impacts from ocean changes.

CRYOSPHERE AND GLOBAL CLIMATE

CRYOSPHERE: Many different kinds of snow and ice, including sea ice, lake and river ice, snow cover,
glaciers, ice caps and sheets, and frozen ground, make up the cryosphere (a word derived from kryos, the
Greek word for cold)—the places on Earth where water exists in solid form. Although most of Earth's
frozen water is found near the poles, snow and ice can actually be found on all seven continents.

Snow and ice are an important part of the global climate system:
● Acting like a highly reflective blanket, the cryosphere protects Earth from getting too warm. Snow
and ice reflect more sunlight than open water or bare ground. The presence or absence of snow and
ice affects heating and cooling over the Earth's surface, influencing the entire planet's energy
balance. Changes in snow and ice cover affect air temperatures, sea levels, ocean currents, and
storm patterns all over the world.

pg. 71
 [Link]

● Just as changes in the cryosphere can influence climate, changes in climate can also dramatically
alter the Earth's snow- and ice-covered areas. Unlike other substances found on the Earth, snow
and ice exist relatively close to their melting points and can easily change back and forth between
solid and liquid. With just slight variations in Earth's temperature, thousands of square miles of
snow and ice can accumulate or melt, making the cryosphere one of the most powerful indicators
of climate and climate change.
● The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) Special Report on the Ocean and
Cryosphere in a Changing Climate (SROCC) states that “over the last decades, global warming has
led to widespread shrinking of the cryosphere, with mass loss from ice sheets and glaciers,
reduction in snow cover, and Arctic sea ice extent and thickness, and increased permafrost
temperatures”.

How does cryosphere affect global climate:

● Albedo: Snow and ice have high albedo. They reflect much of the insolation, which helps in cooling
of the earth. Thus, presence or absence of snow and ice affects the heating and cooling of Earth’s
surface. This influences the entire planet’s energy balance.
● Feedback Loop: Melting ice reduces the reflective surface. And, the ocean and land are darker in
color, they absorb more solar radiation, and then release the heat to the atmosphere. This causes
more warming and so more ice melts. This is known as a feedback loop.
● Storage of Carbon: The permafrost of the polar region has trapped tonnes of carbon inside its soil.
If ‘feedback loop’ aggravates, this carbon will be released in the form of methane- a powerful
greenhouse gas- which will catalyze global warming.
● At polar regions, sea-water is converted into sea ice. As a result, the surrounding water gets
saltier. Saltier water has higher density, it sinks and initiates thermohaline circulation patterns
across the oceans of the world. These Ocean currents act like a conveyor belt, transporting warm
water from the equator toward the poles and cold water from the poles back to the tropics. Thus,
currents regulate global climate. Some of these currents affect rain and drought situations via the
El-Nino La-Nina effect.
● Melting of the cryosphere affects the volume of water in oceans. Any changes in the water cycle
affects global energy / heat budget, and thereby global climate.

Impact of Climate change on Cryosphere:

● High mountains:
○ High mountains are home to one- tenth of the world’s population.
○ Glaciers will continue to melt even with no further climate change.
○ By the end of the century, glaciers are projected to lose around 33% of their mass compared
to 2015 levels under a high-emissions scenario with the accompanying sea level rise
resulting from these glaciers to be 200mm.
○ Impacts:
i. River runoff: Following a period of increased runoff due to more ice melting, a
turning point known as “peak water” would occur after which runoff declines.
ii. Increase wet snow avalanches.

pg. 72
 [Link]

iii. Diminish drinking water quality as glaciers hold toxic human derived chemicals.
E.g. DDT, heavy metals, black carbon.
iv. Hydropower at risk due to change in runoff.
v. Threat to habitability and alpine biodiversity.
● Earth’s poles:
○ Arctic Ice declining since 1979. Arctic surface air temperatures over the past two decades
have increased at more than double the global average. This rapid phenomenon is known
as “Arctic amplification” resulting into decreasing albedo.
• Greenland ice sheet is currently losing mass at around twice the rate of its Antarctic
counterpart. Melting in Greenland has increased up to five times greater than the level seen
in preindustrial times becoming the largest terrestrial contributor to global sea level rise
between 2005 and 2016.
○ Antarctic Ice: Warming over western Antarctica. Human induced warming delayed by
southern ocean circulation.
○ Southern Ocean: Around 75% of the global ocean uptake of excess heat during 1870-
1995.
○ Impacts:
i. Phytoplankton bloom which was rarely observed in arctic waters earlier.
ii. Negative effect on arctic species. E.g. Polar cod
iii. Antarctic fishes have narrow thermal tolerance are under threat.
iv. Reduced reliability of permafrost for natural refrigeration.
v. Northern routes are becoming accessible leading to more shipping and marine
accidents, hazards, Invasive species.
vi. Alteration in regional weather: In recent times, high temperatures have been
recorded in the Siberian region, causing a prolonged heatwave, which have been
attributed to absence of sea ice among other factors.
vii. Impact on global climate: In the Arctic, ocean circulation is driven by the sinking
of dense, salty water. Fresh meltwater coming primarily from the Greenland Ice
Sheet could interfere with ocean circulation at high latitudes, slowing it down. Any
changes in ocean circulations can have unpredictable global impacts even in lower
latitudes such as extreme weather events, droughts etc.
viii. Positive feedback cycle (the ice-albedo feedback): Sea ice has higher albedo than
ocean water. Once sea ice begins to melt, a self-reinforcing cycle often begins
whereby as more ice melts and exposes more dark water, the water absorbs more
sunlight and the sun-warmed water then melts more ice.
● Permafrost: It refers to the ground surface which remains frozen for at least 2 consecutive years.
There is twice as much carbon in permafrost than in Earth’s atmosphere.
○ Impacts:
i. A warming climate increases the emission of CO2 and methane as permafrost
thaws, “thus accelerating the pace of climate change”.
ii. By 2100, near surface permafrost area will decrease by 2-66% and 30-99% under
various projections releasing up to as much as 240 GtC (gigatons) of permafrost
carbon as CO2 and methane to the atmosphere with the potential to accelerate
climate change.

pg. 73
 [Link]

[Link] stimulated plant growth in permafrost areas - from warmer conditions and
CO2 fertilisation could help sequestering new carbon into plant biomass and
increasing carbon inputs into the surface soil.
Q. What is the cryosphere? How do climate and the cryosphere influence each other?

HOW THE TILT OF EARTH’S AXIS ON ITS ORBITAL PLANE AROUND THE SUN CAUSE:
1. Seasons
2. Variation in length of day and night
3. Altitude of midday sun to change at different time of year

How the tilt of Earth’s axis causes seasons-

• As the earth spins on its axis, producing night and day, it also moves about the sun in an elliptical
(elongated circle) orbit that requires about 365 1/4 days to complete.
• The earth's spin axis is tilted with respect to its orbital plane. This is what causes the seasons.
• When the earth's axis points towards the sun, it is summer for that hemisphere.
• When the earth's axis points away, winter can be expected.
• Since the tilt of the axis is 23 1/2 degrees, the North Pole never points directly at the Sun, but
on the summer solstice it points as close as it can, and on the winter solstice as far as it can.
• Midway between these two times, in spring and autumn, the spin axis of the earth points 90
degrees away from the sun.
• This means that on this date, day and night have about the same length: 12 hours each, more or
less.
Why should this tilt of the Earth's axis matter to our weather?
• To understand this, take a piece of paper and a flashlight. Shine the light from the flashlight
straight onto the paper, so you see an illuminated circle.
• All the light from the flashlight is in that circle. Now slowly tilt the paper, so the circle elongates
into an ellipse.
• All the light is still in that ellipse, but the ellipse is spread out over more paper. The density of light
drops.
• In other words, the amount of light per square centimeter drops (the number of square
centimeters increases, while the total amount of light stays the same).
• The same is true on the earth. When the sun is overhead, the light is falling straight on you, and
so more light (and more heat) hit each square centimeter of the ground.
• When the sun is lower in the sky, the light gets more spread out over the surface of the earth,
and less heat (per square centimeter) can be absorbed.
• Since the earth's axis is tilted, the sun is higher when you are on the part of the earth where the
axis points more towards the sun, and lower on the part of the Earth where the axis points away
from the sun.
• For the Northern Hemisphere, the axis points most toward the sun in June (specifically around
June 21), and away from the sun around December 21. This corresponds to the (solWinter and
Summer Solstice. For the Southern Hemisphere, this is reversed.
• For both hemispheres, the earth is 90 degrees away from the sun around March 21 and then
again around September 21. This corresponds to the Fall and Spring Equinox. Everyplace in the
world has about 12 hours of daylight and 12 hours of night.

pg. 74
 [Link]

Length of day and night-

• The change between day and night is caused by the rotation of the Earth on its axis.
• If the Earth did not rotate as it does, the day/night cycle would be very different or possibly even
nonexistent.
• The changing lengths of days and nights depends on where you are on Earth and the time of
year.
• Also, daylight hours are affected by the tilt of the Earth's axis and its path around the sun.

pg. 75
 [Link]

Length of a Rotation-
• A solar day, 24 hours, is the time it takes for the Earth to rotate exactly once so that the sun appears
at the same place in the sky the next day.
• However, the Earth is also moving around the sun, and this movement makes measuring the day
somewhat complicated.
• The actual time of one Earth rotation is a little shorter – about 23 hours and 56 minutes.
• Astronomers discovered this by observing the time it took for a star to appear in the same place in
the sky the following day, and they called this a sidereal day.

Longer and Shorter Days-

• Although a solar day is 24 hours, not every day has 12 hours of daylight and 12 hours of night.
• Daytime is shorter in winter than in summer. This is because the Earth’s imaginary axis isn’t
straight up and down, it is tilted 23.5 degrees.
• As the Earth moves around the sun during a year, the northern half of the Earth is tilted towards the
sun in the summer, making daytime longer than night.
• In winter, this reverses; the earth tilts away from the sun and nighttime becomes longer.
• In the spring and fall, the tilt is neither toward or away from the sun but somewhere between, so
day and night are more the same at these times of the year.

Length of day at various latitudes-

Altitude of midday sun to change at different time of year-

• The altitude of the midday sun is not same at different time of a year, due to the tilt of earth’s
axis on its orbital plane around the sun.
• Due to the axial tilt, the position of sun changes with the revolution of earth around the sun.

pg. 76
 [Link]

• During the summer solstice in the northern hemisphere, the sun is closer to the northern
hemisphere. Moreover, the sun is closer to 23.5 degree latitude than the equator. As a result,
the distance between sun and 23.5 degree latitude is less than that of equator.
• Similarly, during the winter solstice, in northern hemisphere, the sun is farther to the 23.5 degree
latitude than that of equator.
• So, the altitude of sun is higher during winter solstice and lower during summer solstice.
• During the equinox, the sun is at equator, so, the altitude is less on equator and more on other
latitudes.
• Same is the case for the southern hemisphere.

EXPLAIN EQUINOX AND SOLSTICE

Introduction-
• Solstice is a Latin word that means ‘stalled sun’. It is a natural phenomenon that occurs twice
every year, once in the summer and again during winter, in each hemisphere of the earth - Summer
and Winter Solstice.

About Summer Solstice:

o It is the longest day and shortest night of the year in the Northern Hemisphere.
o During this, countries in the Northern Hemisphere are nearest to the Sun and the Sun shines
overhead on the Tropic of Cancer (23.5° North).
▪ At latitudes of 23.5° are the Tropics of Cancer and Capricorn, north and south of
the Equator.
▪ At 66.5° are the Arctic and Antarctic Circles, to the north and south.
▪ Latitudes are a measure of a location’s distance from the Equator.
o During the solstice, the Earth’s axis — around which the planet spins, completing one
turn each day — is tilted in a way that the North Pole is tipped towards the sun and the
South Pole is away from it.
o Typically, this imaginary axis passes right through the middle of the Earth from top to
bottom and is always tilted at 23.5 degrees with respect to the sun.
o At the Arctic Circle, the sun never sets during the solstice.

Winter Solstice:

pg. 77
 [Link]

• It is the shortest day and longest night of the year in the Northern Hemisphere and is also known
as the ‘first day of winter’ in the Northern Hemisphere as well as ‘Hiemal solstice or Hibernal
solstice’.
• During this, countries in the Northern Hemisphere are farthest from the Sun and the Sun shines
overhead on the Tropic of Capricorn (23.5° south).
o At latitudes of 23.5° are the Tropics of Cancer and Capricorn, north and south of the
Equator.
o At 66.5° are the Arctic and Antarctic Circles, to the north and south.
o Latitudes are a measure of a location’s distance from the Equator.
• This situation will be reversed on 21st June, when the Northern Hemisphere will see the
Summer Solstice, the year’s longest day and the Southern Hemisphere will see the year’s shortest
day.
• In Vedic tradition, the northern movement of the Earth on the celestial sphere is implicitly
acknowledged in the Surya Siddhanta, which outlines the Uttarayana (the period between
Makar Sankranti and Karka Sankranti). Hence, Winter Solstice is the first day of
Uttarayana.

Equinox-
• The word equinox is derived from two Latin words – aequus (equal) and nox (night).
• Equinox is a unique phenomenon during which the earth’s day and night are of equal length
resulting in 12 hours of daylight and 12 hours of night in every part of the earth.
• This is not the case on other days. The earth is tilted at an angle of 23.5 degrees because of which
the length of the day and night differs according to the time of year and the region of the earth.
• However, when the earth aligns itself with its orbit around the sun, equinox takes place.
• This phenomenon occurs twice a year, once on March 20 and again on September 23.
• During this time, the sun sits directly above the equator and both Northern and Southern
hemispheres get equal day and night.

Reasons:
• The phenomenon occurs due to the Earth’s axial tilt, or the angle by which the planet is tilted
relative to the Sun.
• The imaginary axis of our planet is not straight up and down but is tilted by 23.5 degrees.
• This is why different regions of the Earth experience different measures of sunlight.

Implications:

pg. 78
 [Link]

• The days become a little longer at the higher latitudes (those at a distance from the equator)
because it takes the sun longer to rise and set.
• The solstices, together with the equinoxes, are connected with seasons, harvests and livelihood.
Therefore, many cultures celebrate various combinations of the solstices, the equinoxes, and the
midpoints between them, leading to various holidays arising around these events.

OCEANOGRAPHY

OCEAN BOTTOM TOPOGRAPHY

Ocean floor is divided into 4 divisions: Continental shelf, Continental slope, Deep Sea/ abyssal Plains,
Oceanic Trenches.

● Continental Shelf:
○ These are extended continental margins.
○ Include shallow seas and Gulfs.
○ Average slope gradient is less than 1 degree
○ Sedimentary deposits; sources of fossil fuel
○ Varying width- Narrow/absent at Chile, West coast of Sumatra OR Largest Siberian Shelf.
○ There are various types of shelves based on different sediments of terrestrial origin —
■ glaciated shelf (Surrounding Greenland),
■ coral reef shelf (Queensland, Australia),
■ shelf of a large river (Around Nile Delta),
■ shelf with dendritic valleys (At the Mouth of Hudson River)
■ shelf along young mountain ranges (Shelves between Hawaiian Islands).

● Continental Slope:
○ Connect continental shelf and continental basin
○ Steep slope 2-5 degree
○ Slope boundary marks the end of the continents.
○ Canyons and trenches present.

● Continental Rise
o The continental slope gradually loses its steepness with depth.
o When the slope reaches a level of between 0.5° and 1°, it is referred to as the continental
rise.
o With increasing depth, the rise becomes virtually flat and merges with the abyssal plain.

● Deep Sea Plain/ abyssal Plain:

○ Depth= 3-6 kms.
○ Fine grained sediments; ex. Lay, silt
○ E.g. the Azores, Ascension Island

● Ocean Deeps/ Trenches:

○ Deepest part of the oceans

pg. 79
 [Link]

○ 3-5 kms deeper than sea plain

○ Active Volcanoes, Earthquakes
○ The Mariana Trench off the Guam Islands in the Pacific Ocean is the deepest trench
with, a depth of more than 11 kilometres.
○ Other ocean deeps –
▪ Mindanao deep (35000 feet)
▪ Tonga trench (31000 feet)
▪ Japanese trench (28000 feet) (all 3 in the Pacific Ocean)

MID OCEANIC RIDGE (MOR) OR SUBMARINE RIDGE:

● Two chains of Mountain Ranges separated by large depressions.
● These are the largest mountain systems on earth.
● Tectonic Origin
● MOR Formation:
○ Sea Floor Spreading
○ Mantle convection at divergent plate boundaries: less dense material rise to form MOR.
○ Ex. Mid Atlantic Ridge separates the North American plate from Eurasian plate.

OTHER OCEAN BOTTOM RELIEF:

● Sea mount:
○ Mountains with pointed summit
○ Volcanic in origin
○ Ex. Emperor seamount- Extension of Hawaiian Island
● Submarine Canyon:
○ Deep Valleys
○ Ex. Grand Canyon Colorado River; Hudson Canyon
● Guyots:
○ Flat topped seamount
○ Gradual subsidence
● Atolls:
○ Ring-shaped coral reef, including a coral rim that encircles a lagoon partially or completely.
○ Located in warm tropical or subtropical oceans.
○ Coral Islands.

pg. 80
 [Link]

OCEAN CURRENTS
OCEAN CURRENTS:
● An ocean current is a continuous, directed movement of sea water generated by a number of forces
acting upon the water, including wind, the Coriolis effect, breaking waves, cabbeling, and
temperature and salinity differences.
● Ocean currents are primarily horizontal water movements.
● An ocean current flows for great distances and together they create the global conveyor belt, which
plays a dominant role in determining the climate of many of Earth’s regions.
● More specifically, ocean currents influence the temperature of the regions through which they
travel. For example, warm currents traveling along more temperate coasts increase the temperature
of the area by warming the sea breezes that blow over them. Perhaps the most striking example is
the Gulf Stream, which makes northwest Europe much more temperate than any other region at the
same latitude.
• Ocean currents are influenced by two types of forces namely:
1. primary forces that initiate the movement of water;
2. secondary forces that influence the currents to flow.
• The primary forces that influence the currents are:
1. heating by solar energy
2. wind
3. gravity
4. Coriolis force
• The secondary forces that influence the currents are:
1. Temperature difference
2. Salinity difference

pg. 81
 [Link]

Desert Formation and Ocean Currents

• Major hot deserts are located between 20-30 degree latitudes and on the western side of the
continents-
o The aridity of the hot deserts is mainly due to the effects of off-shore Trade Winds, hence
they are also called Trade Wind Deserts.
o The major hot deserts of the world are located on the western coasts of continents between
latitudes 15° and 30°N. and S (Question asked in Previous Mains Exam).
o They include the biggest Sahara Desert (3.5 million square miles). The next biggest desert
is the Great Australian Desert. The other hot deserts are the Arabian Desert, Iranian
Desert, Thar Desert, Kalahari and Namib Deserts.
o The hot deserts lie along the Horse Latitudes or the Sub-Tropical High-Pressure Belts
where the air is descending, a condition least favorable for precipitation of any kind to take
place.
o The rain-bearing Trade Winds blow off-shore and the Westerlies that are on-shore blow
outside the desert limits.
o Whatever winds reach the deserts blow from cooler to warmer regions, and their relative
humidity is lowered, making condensation almost impossible.
o There is scarcely any cloud in the continuous blue sky. The relative humidity is extremely
low, decreasing from 60 per cent in coastal districts to less than 30 per cent in the desert
interiors. Under such conditions, every bit of moisture is evaporated and the deserts are
thus regions of permanent drought. Precipitation is both scarce and most unreliable.
o On the western coasts, the presence of cold currents gives rise to mists and fogs by chilling
the on-coming air. This air is later warmed by contact with the hot land, and little rain falls.
o The desiccating effect of the cold Peruvian Current along the Chilean coast is so
pronounced that the mean annual rainfall for the Atacama Desert is not more than 1.3 cm.

IMPACT OF OCEAN CURRENTS ON GLOBAL CLIMATE:

● The ocean influences weather and climate by storing solar radiation, distributing heat and moisture
around the globe, and driving weather systems.
● One way that the world’s ocean affects weather and climate is by playing an important role in
keeping our planet warm. The majority of radiation from the sun is absorbed by the ocean,
particularly in tropical waters around the equator, where the ocean acts like a massive, heat-
retaining solar panel.
● It also helps to distribute heat around the globe. Ocean water is constantly evaporating, increasing
the temperature and humidity of the surrounding air to form rain and storms that are then carried
by trade winds. In fact, almost all rain that falls on land starts off in the ocean. The tropics are
particularly rainy because heat absorption, and thus ocean evaporation, is highest in this area.

● Outside of Earth’s equatorial areas, weather patterns are driven largely by ocean currents. Currents
are movements of ocean water in a continuous flow, created largely by surface winds but also partly
by temperature and salinity gradients, Earth’s rotation, and tides. Major current systems typically

pg. 82
 [Link]

flow clockwise in the northern hemisphere and counter clockwise in the southern hemisphere, in
circular patterns that often trace the coastlines.
● Ocean currents act much like a conveyor belt, transporting warm water and precipitation from the
equator toward the poles and cold water from the poles back to the tropics. Thus, ocean currents
regulate global climate, helping to counteract the uneven distribution of solar radiation reaching
Earth’s surface. Without currents in the ocean, regional temperatures would be more extreme—
super hot at the equator and frigid toward the poles—and much less of Earth’s land would be
habitable.
● Both warm and cold ocean currents have a very strong influence over climate. Warm currents in
many areas make local climate warmer than the latitude would indicate. The cold currents may
cause only cold fog to appear on the shore, but the amount of condensed moisture is not sufficient
for any agricultural activity, nor it is sufficient to provide moisture to sustain natural vegetation.
This is why we observe deserts or semi-deserts along most of cold currents, especially on the
westerly sides of the continents.
Economic importance of ocean currents:
● Knowledge of surface ocean currents is essential in reducing costs of shipping, since traveling
with them reduces fuel costs.
● In the wind powered sailing-ship era, knowledge of wind patterns and ocean currents was even
more essential. A good example of this is the Agulhas Current (down along eastern Africa),
which long prevented sailors from reaching India.
● In recent times, around-the-world sailing competitors make good use of surface currents to build
and maintain speed.
● Ocean currents can also be used for marine power generation, with areas of Japan, Florida and
Hawaii being considered for test projects.
Q. What are ocean currents? Discuss its impact on global climate with examples.

IMPORTANCE OF INDIAN OCEAN REGION

About Indian Ocean:

● The Indian Ocean is the third largest ocean of the world and covers nearly 20% of water surface.
● The strategic importance of Indian Ocean Region (IOR) is ever increasing to the world order in
general and Indian sub-continent in particular.
● A secure IOR is key to ensuring security of India’s national interests. The importance attached
to sea lines of communication (SLOCs) security was first seen in India’s stated aspiration to become
a net security provider in the region.

Strategic Importance of IOR:

● Indian Ocean Region Indian Ocean countries have a long history of trade, culture and military
interaction with the rest of the world.
● The region has 51 coastal and landlocked states, namely 26 Indian Ocean Rim (IOR) states, five
Red Sea states, four Persian Gulf states, Saudi Arabia, France, Britain and 13 landlocked states.
● Four critically important access waterways are the Suez Canal (Egypt), Bab el Mandeb
(Djibouti-Yemen), Strait of Hormuz (Iran-Oman), and Strait of Malacca (Indonesia -Malaysia).

pg. 83
 [Link]

● Major seaports are: Chennai, Kolkata,Mumbai (India); Colombo (Sri Lanka); Durban, Richards
Bay (South Africa); Jakarta (Indonesia); Melbourne (Australia).
● The region contains 1/3 of the world’s population, 25% of its landmass, 40% of the world’s oil
and gas reserves.

Importance of Indian Ocean Region (IOR) for Indian security:

● Energy security: Nearly 80% of India’s crude oil requirement is imported, which are mostly
routed through the sea. Thus, IOR is very important to keep India’s oil route safe.
● Trade security: More than 80 % of the world’s seaborne trade in oil transits through Indian Ocean.
Today, almost 95% of India’s trade by volume and 68 per cent of trade by value are routed via
the Indian Ocean. Any impediment to flow of commercial traffic would have disastrous
ramifications on her economic objectives.
● Resources: The region is rich in energy resources and minerals such as gold, tin, uranium,
cobalt, nickel, aluminium and cadmium, and also contains abundant fishing resources. Roughly 55
percent of known oil reserves and 40 percent of gas reserves are in the Indian Ocean region.
● Security threats: The Indian Ocean is an area of conflict. Some notable conflict areas are Israel
and Palestine, Iraq, Sudan, Afghanistan, Somalia, Sri Lanka and Pakistan. One of the worst
terrorist attacks in Mumbai was perpetrated by terrorists arriving by sea.
● Piracy: The presence of non-traditional threats like piracy, smuggling, illegal fishing and human
trafficking also present major challenges and hence, a secure Indian Ocean is key to securing India’s
national interests. Multiple cases are reported in the past of drug smuggling near Gujarat coast,
Mumbai coast etc.
● Military Presence: Almost all the world’s major powers have deployed substantial military forces
in the Indian Ocean region. The US 5th Fleet is headquartered in Bahrain, and uses the island
of Diego Garcia as a major air naval base and logistics hub for its Indian Ocean operations. France
maintains a significant presence in the north and southwest Indian Ocean quadrants, with naval
bases in Djibouti, Reunion, and Abu Dhabi.
● China’s aggressive soft power diplomacy has widely been seen as arguably the most important
element in shaping the Indian Ocean strategic environment, transforming the entire region’s
dynamics.
● The increased significance of Indian Ocean Region in the world geopolitics is one of the reasons
behind the "Pivot to Asia" policy of the Obama Administration. The pivot is meant to be a strategic
"rebalancing" of U.S. interests from Europe and the Middle East toward Asia and Pacific.

Regional and sub-regional co-operations in IOR:

● The Indian Ocean Rim Association for Regional Cooperation (IOR-ARC): The aim of IOR-
ARC is to open the region based on four major components: trade liberalisation, trade and
investment facilitation, economic and technical cooperation, and trade and investment
dialogue. It does not address defence and security cooperation directly as the aim of ‘open and free
trade’ implies maritime security.
● ‘Indian Ocean Naval Symposium’ (IONS): IONS is a voluntary initiative that seeks to increase
maritime co-operation, establish a high degree of interoperability, share information among

pg. 84
 [Link]

navies of the littoral states of the Indian Ocean Region to overcome common trans-national
maritime threats and natural disasters, and maintain good order at sea.
● The South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC): To work towards economic
and social development. Maritime cooperation is not part of the agreement.
● The Association of South-East Asian Nations (ASEAN): ASEAN rests on three pillars, namely
an ASEAN security community, an economic community and a socio-cultural community. The
ASEAN Regional Forum (ARF) is the principal forum for security discourse between Asian
states and provides the opportunity to discuss regional security issues and develop cooperative
measures to enhance peace and security in the region.
● The Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC): To strengthen co-operation in agriculture, trade, industry,
investment and security among its six member states.
● Southern African Development Community (SADC): The SADC Standing Maritime Committee
has the aim of promoting regional peace and prosperity through maritime military co-
operation.
● Indian Ocean Commission (COI): The COI (Commission de l'océan indien in French) is an
intergovernmental organisation created in 1984 with the Comoros, Madagascar, Mauritius, France
and the Seychelles as members.
● The Five Power Defence Arrangements (FPDA): The FPDA is a defence relationship based on
a series of bilateral agreements between the UK, New Zealand, Australia, Malaysia and Singapore
dating from 1971. The FPDA makes provision for defence cooperation.

India’s policy of ‘Security and Growth for All in the Region’ (SAGAR) for IOR islands:
● Safeguard land and maritime territories and interests: Enhancing capacities to safeguard land
and maritime territories and interests is a major focus under SAGAR initiative. India has held
multilateral naval exercises called Milan in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands with 16 other
countries and in the Rim of the Pacific Exercise (RIMPAC).
● Deepening economic and security cooperation: The emergence of the Blue Economy promises
a new pillar of prosperity in the region with immense economic and employment potential. It is
important to engage with IOR in Blue Economy initiatives, particularly in the areas of marine bio-
technology, exploration and sustainable exploitation of ocean mineral resources, sustainable fishing
practices, and harnessing of ocean energy.
● Disaster management: Promoting collective action to deal with natural disasters and maritime
threats like piracy, terrorism and emergent non-state actors is a goal under SAGAR. India is
proactive in providing assistance to littoral islands during disaster. The Indian Navy and Air Force
provided 1,000 tonnes of fresh water to Male to help Maldives which is suffering from an acute
drinking water crisis. The Annual Joint HADR exercises, conducted by Indian Navy, help India
to connect with other nations.
● Working towards sustainable regional development through enhanced collaboration: India is
targeting for re-energising economic activity in our islands and our coastal areas. Coastal Economic
Zones being developed under Sagarmala. There is a renewed focus on strengthening marine
research, developing eco-friendly marine industrial technologies, promoting sustainable fisheries
and ensuring the protection of the maritime environment.

pg. 85
 [Link]

● Engaging with countries: With the aim of building greater trust and promoting respect for
maritime rules, norms and peaceful resolution of disputes. India is working on a range of projects
to improve maritime logistics in Sri Lanka, Maldives, Mauritius and Seychelles. Other initiatives
include the Kaladan transport project leading to Sittwe port in Myanmar, the Trilateral
Highway to Thailand, and the Chabahar port project in Iran.

NATURAL HAZARDS AND DISASTERS: CAUSES, CONSEQUENCE & MANAGEMENT

LANDSLIDES

Landslides: Landslides are simply defined as the mass movement of rock, debris or earth down a slope
under the influence of gravity that dislodges earth material. They often take place in conjunction with
earthquakes, floods and volcanoes. Landslides are one of the natural hazards that affect at least 15 percent
of the land area of our country.
● In the hilly terrain of India including the Himalayas, landslides have been a major and widely spread
natural disaster the often strike life and property and occupy a position of major concern
● Landslides Zonation Mopping is a modern method to identify landslides prone areas and has been
in use in India since 1980s The major parameters that call for evaluation are as follows:
○ Slope-Magnitude, length and Direction
○ Soil thickness
○ Relative relief
○ Land use
○ Drainage- pattern and density
○ Landslide affected population

Causes of Landslides: Landslides can be caused by

● Morphological Causes
○ Ground uplift (volcanic, tectonic etc)
○ Erosion (wind, water)
○ Deposition loading in the slope crest.
○ Vegetation removal (by forest fire, drought etc)
● Physical Causes
○ Prolonged precipitation, heavy spells of rainfall coupled with impeded drainage.
○ Rapid draw- down
○ Earthquake
○ Volcanic eruption
○ Thawing/ Shrink and swell
○ Artesian pressure
● Man- made Causes
○ Excavation (particularly at the toe of slope
○ Loading of slope crest
○ Draw -down (of reservoir)
○ Deforestation
○ Irrigation
○ Mining/ Artificial vibrations

pg. 86
 [Link]

○ Water impoundment and leakage from utilities

Regions vulnerable to landslides:

● The two regions most vulnerable to landslides are the Himalayas and the Western Ghats.
● The Himalayas mountain belt comprises tectonically unstable younger geological formations
subjected to severe seismic activity.
● The Western Ghats and nilgiris are geologically stable but have uplifted plateau margins influenced
by neo- tectonic activity.
● Compared to Western Ghats region, the slides in the Himalayas region are huge and massive and
in most cases the overburden along with the underlying lithology is displaced during sliding
particularly due to the seismic factor.

Recent Landslide events:

• A large landslide occurred in Noney district of the Indian state of Manipur near
the Tupul railway construction site on the night of 30 June 2022.
• It killed 58 people and three people were missing.
• Eighteen people were injured. Twenty-nine Indian Army personnel and 29 civilians were among
the deceased.

Q. What do you understand about landslides? Which regions of India are more vulnerable to
landslides? Discuss the factors responsible for landslides? Why are landslides common in the
Himalayas?

AVALANCHE
Avalanches are the falling masses of snow and ice that pose a threat to anyone on snowy mountain sides.
● There are various kinds of avalanches:
○ Rock avalanches which consist of large segments of shattered rock.
○ Ice avalanches which typically occur in the vicinity of a glacier.
○ Debris avalanches which contain a variety of unconsolidated materials, such as loose
stones and soil.
● The size of an avalanche can range from a small shifting of loose snow to the displacement of
enormous slabs of snow.
● Avalanches also have been triggered intentionally in warfare to kill enemy troops. In World War I,
during fighting in the Alps on the Austrian-Italian front in December 1916, more than 10,000 troops
were killed in a single day by avalanches triggered by artillery fired onto slopes of unstable snow.

Features of avalanches:
● Avalanches contain three main features:
○ the starting zone
○ the avalanche track
○ the runout zone
● Avalanches launch from the starting zone. That’s often the most unstable part of the stope, and
generally higher on the mountain.

pg. 87
 [Link]

● Once the avalanche starts to slide, it continues down the avalanche track, the natural path it follows
downhill. After avalanches, large clearings or missing chutes of trees provide clues to an
avalanche’s trajectory.
● The avalanche finally comes to a stop at the bottom of a slope, in the runout zone, where the snow
and debris pile up.

Factors responsible for the Avalanche:

● Heavy Snowfall: When a high rate of snowfall occurred leading to the snow accumulation on the
mountain slopes triggered the weaker layer of snow in the snowpack of unstable areas of the
mountain causes Avalanche.
● Wind Direction The direction of the wind determines the patterns of the snowfall as well snow
accumulation on the mountain slopes. If the strong wind blows, then the upward direction of the
winds might trigger the steep slope which causes an avalanche.
● Layering of Snow: The gradual snowfall creates layer by layer accumulation of snow that
hypersensitive the snowpack. If something catastrophic happens then these layers of snow fall
down that leads to an avalanche.
● Steeper Slopes: An avalanche is also caused by the influence of gravity. If gradual snowfalls
accumulated on the slopes of the mountain then it is prone to rush down the slopes at greater speeds.
● Higher Temperatures: Temperature is one of the important factors for the avalanche because of
high temperature the surface layer of the snowpack gets melted. The accumulated snow will
become highly susceptible to sliding down.
● Earthquakes:It is one of the important factors that triggered the layer of accumulated snowpack
because earthquakes generate seismic waves that cause the ground to vibrate.
● Movements or Vibrations Produced By Machines and Explosives: As we know that the
population is increasing day by day, which requires development activities to meet the population
requirement. During the developmental activities, the terrain vehicles in regions with unstable
layers of snow can dislodge the layers from the surface and cause them to slide down under gravity.
● Deforestation: Deforestation, clearance, or clearing is the removal of a forest or stand of trees
where the land is thereafter converted to a non-forest use. Trees and plants always protect land
against natural disasters like floods, tidal waves, strong winds, and also avalanches. Hence, a
developmental activity for economic gains makes the mountain region an avalanche-prone area
more susceptible to deadlier avalanches.
● Winter Sports Activities: Above all the factors, this factor will act like the last nail to trigger steep
slopes or loose snowpack by skiers or other winter sports activities.
● NDMA Guidelines for management of Landslides and Snow Avalanches:

pg. 88
 [Link]

Q. What are avalanches? Discuss the causes and its geographical distribution in India.

EARTHQUAKE & TSUNAMI

An earthquake in simple words is the shaking of the earth. It is a natural event. It is caused due to release
of energy, which generates waves that travel in all directions.
● The vibrations called seismic waves are generated from earthquakes that travel through the Earth
and are recorded on instruments called seismographs.
● The location below the earth’s surface where the earthquake starts is called the hypocenter, and the
location directly above it on the surface of the earth is called the epicenter.
Types of Earthquake and Causes:
1. Fault Zones:
○ The release of energy occurs along a fault. A fault is a sharp break in the crustal rocks.
○ Rocks along a fault tend to move in opposite directions. As the overlying rock strata press
them, the friction locks them together.
○ However, their tendency to move apart at some point of time overcomes the friction. As a
result, the blocks get deformed and eventually, they slide past one another abruptly.
○ This causes earthquakes in the form of release of energy, and the energy waves travel in
all directions.

pg. 89
 [Link]

Tectonic Earthquakes:
● The most common ones are the tectonic earthquakes.
● Although the Earth looks like a pretty solid place from the surface, it’s actually extremely active
just below the surface.
● The Earth is made of four basic layers (generally three): a solid crust, a hot, nearly solid mantle, a
liquid outer core and a solid inner core.
● Tectonic plates (Lithospheric plates) are constantly shifting as they drift around on the viscous, or
slowly flowing, mantle layer below.
● This non-stop movement causes stress on Earth’s crust. When the stresses get too large, it leads to
cracks called faults.
● When tectonic plates move, it also causes movements at the faults. Thus, the slipping of land along
the faultline along convergent, divergent and transform boundaries cause earthquakes.
● The point where the energy is released is called the focus of an earthquake, alternatively, it is called
the hypocentre. The energy waves travelling in different directions reach the surface.
● The point on the surface, nearest to the focus, is called epicentre. It is the first one to experience
the waves. It is a point directly above the focus.
Volcanic Earthquake
● A special class of tectonic earthquake is sometimes recognised as volcanic earthquake. However,
these are confined to areas of active volcanoes.
● Earthquakes produced by stress changes in solid rock due to the injection or withdrawal of magma
(molten rock) are called volcano earthquakes.
● These earthquakes can cause land to subside and can produce large ground cracks. These
earthquakes can occur as rock is moving to fill in spaces where magma is no longer present.
● Volcano-tectonic earthquakes don't indicate that the volcano will be erupting but can occur at any
time.
Human Induced Earthquakes
● In the areas of intense mining activity, sometimes the roofs of underground mines collapse causing
minor tremors. These are called collapse earthquakes.
● Ground shaking may also occur due to the explosion of chemical or nuclear devices. Such tremors
are called explosion earthquakes.

pg. 90
 [Link]

● The earthquakes that occur in the areas of large reservoirs are referred to as reservoir induced
earthquakes.
5. Earthquakes based on the depth of focus
● The earthquakes are divided into three zones: shallow, intermediate, and deep based on their depth
which range between 0 – 700 km.

○ Shallow earthquakes have a focus 0 – 70 km deep.

○ Intermediate earthquakes have a focus 70 – 300 km deep.
○ Deep earthquakes have a focus 300 – 700 km deep.

Distribution of Earthquakes:
● The world's greatest earthquake belt, the circum-Pacific seismic belt, is found along the rim of the
Pacific Ocean, where about 81 percent of our planet's largest earthquakes occur.
○ It is called "Ring of Fire".
○ The belt exists along boundaries of tectonic plates, where plates of mostly oceanic crust
are sinking (or subducting) beneath another plate.
● The Alpine earthquake belt (mid Continental belt) extends from Java to Sumatra through the
Himalayas, the Mediterranean, and out into the Atlantic.
○ This belt accounts for about 17 percent of the world's largest earthquakes, including some
of the most destructive.
● The third prominent belt follows the submerged mid-Atlantic Ridge. The ridge marks where two
tectonic plates are spreading apart (a divergent plate boundary).
○ Most of the mid-Atlantic Ridge is deep underwater and far from human development.

Measurement of Earthquakes:
● The energy from an earthquake travels through Earth in vibrations called seismic waves.

pg. 91
 [Link]

● A seismometer detects seismic waves below the instrument and records them as a series of zig-
zags.
● The earthquake events are scaled either according to the magnitude or intensity of the shock. The
magnitude scale is known as the Richter scale. The magnitude relates to the energy released during
the quake. The magnitude is expressed in absolute numbers, 0-10.
● The intensity scale is named after Mercalli, an Italian seismologist. The intensity scale takes into
account the visible damage caused by the event. The range of intensity scale is from 1-12.

Seismic Waves (Earthquake Waves):

● Seismic waves are the waves of energy caused by earthquakes or an explosion. They are the energy
that travels through the earth and is recorded on seismographs.
● Earthquake waves are basically of two types — body waves and surface waves.
● Body waves are generated due to the release of energy at the focus and move in all directions
travelling through the body of the earth. Hence, the name body waves.
● There are two types of body waves. They are called P and S-waves.
○ P-waves move faster and are the first to arrive at the surface. These are also called ‘primary
waves’. The P-waves are similar to sound waves. They travel through gaseous, liquid and
solid materials.
○ S-waves arrive at the surface with some time lag. These are called secondary waves. An
important fact about S-waves is that they can travel only through solid materials.
● The body waves interact with the surface rocks and generate a new set of waves called surface
waves. These waves move along the surface.
● The surface waves are the last to report on seismographs. These waves are more destructive. They
cause displacement of rocks, and hence, the collapse.
● Thus, the characteristics of the seismic waves are quite important. It has helped scientists to
understand the structure of the interior of the earth.

Effects of Earthquake:
● Earthquakes are a natural hazard. If a tremor of high magnitude takes place, it can cause heavy
damage to the life and property of people. The following are the immediate hazardous effects of
earthquake:

pg. 92
 [Link]

○ Ground Shaking
○ Differential ground settlement
○ Land and mudslides
○ Fires
○ Ground lurching
○ Avalanches
○ Ground displacement
○ Floods from dam and levee failures
○ Structural collapse
○ Tsunami
Earthquakes in India:
● India is one of the highly earthquake affected countries because of the presence of technically active
young fold mountains - Himalaya.
● India has been divided into four seismic zones (II, III, IV, and V) based on scientific inputs relating
to seismicity, earthquakes that occurred in the past and tectonic setup of the region.

Tsunami and Its Causes:

● Tsunami meaning "harbour wave" in literal translation comes from the Japanese characters for
harbour ( tsu ) and wave ( name ).
● A tsunami, also called seismic sea waves, is one of the most powerful and destructive natural
forces.
● It is a series of extremely long waves caused by a large and sudden displacement of the ocean
due to earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, Landslides, earth objects (e.g., asteroids, comets),

pg. 93
 [Link]

certain meteorological conditions and nuclear tests etc. When they reach the coast, they can
cause dangerous coastal flooding and powerful currents that can last for several hours or days.

Global distribution of Tsunami:

● Globally, 70% of the confirmed tsunami sources have been in the Pacific Ocean, 9% in the
Caribbean Sea, 15% in the Mediterranean Sea and the Atlantic Ocean and 6% Indian Ocean. Most
of these Tsunamis were generated by earthquakes.
● Tsunamis are frequently observed along the Pacific ring of fire, particularly along the coast of
Alaska, Philippines, Japan and other islands of South Asia and Southeast Asia including Malaysia,
Indonesia, Myanmar, Sri Lanka and India etc.

How is a tsunami different from a wind-generated wave?

● Most ocean waves are generated by wind. Tsunamis are not the same as wind waves.
● First of all, they have different sources. Tsunami is caused due to Earthquakes, landslides, volcanic
activity, certain types of weather, near earth objects while wind wave is caused by Winds that blow
across the surface of the ocean.
● Also while wind waves only affect the ocean surface, tsunamis move through the entire water
column, from the ocean surface to the ocean floor.
● Waves can also be described based on their wavelength (horizontal distance between wave crests),
period (time between wave crests), and speed. These characteristics highlight the differences
between wind waves and tsunamis.

Effects of Tsunami:
● The Tsunami of 2004 in the Indian Ocean is one of the devastating natural disasters in the modern
time. It took a toll of nearly 230000 people living on the coasts of Indian Ocean.
● Unfortunately escaping a tsunami is nearly impossible. Hundreds and thousands of people are killed
by tsunamis, most commonly by drowning, electrocution, explosions from gas and collapsing of
buildings etc.
● Flooding and contamination of drinking water can cause disease such as Malaria to spread in the
tsunami-hit areas.

pg. 94
 [Link]

● Tsunamis not only destroy human life, but also have a devastating effect on animal and plant life
and other natural resources. A tsunami changes the landscape. It uproots trees and plants and
destroys animal habitats.
● There may be nuclear pollution due to radiation resulting from damaged nuclear plants, as it
happened in Fukushima, Japan in March 2011.
● Tsunamis are extremely dangerous to coastal life and coastal property. They produce unusually
strong currents, rapidly flooding the land and causing great damage to coastal property and life.
● Victims of tsunami events often suffer psychological problems such as PTSD (Post Traumatic
Stress Disorder) which can last for days, years or an entire lifetime.
● Poor nations are more prone to large-scale destruction as the infrastructure are not well developed,
and warning systems are not robust or unavailable. Also, their ability to cope with such a massive
disaster remains inadequate.

Tsunami Early Warning System:

● Tsunamis are detected in advance using a tsunami warning system (TWS) and early warnings are
issued to safeguard the life of people.
● It is made up of two equally important components: a network of sensors to detect tsunamis and a
communications infrastructure to issue timely alarms to permit evacuation of the coastal areas.
● India had volunteered to join the International Tsunami Warning System after the December 2004
tsunami disaster. The Indian Tsunami Early Warning Centre (ITEWC) embedded with specific
systems called Deep Ocean Assessment and Reporting of Tsunamis (DART), established in 2007
at Indian National Centre for Ocean Information Sciences, (INCOIS - ESSO) Hyderabad,
autonomous body under Ministry of Earth Sciences, is up and running to provide tsunami advisories
for the events occurring in the global oceans. It has been recognized as one of the best systems in
the world.

Way forward and recommendations:

Following suggestions can be observed for enhancing India's preparedness for future Tsunami events:-
● Adopting integrated multi-hazard approach with emphasis on cyclone and tsunami risk
mitigation in coastal areas
● Strict implementation of the coastal zone regulations.
● Plantation of mangroves and coastal forests along the coastline
● Identification of vulnerable structures and appropriate retrofitting for tsunami resistance of all such
buildings as well as appropriate planning, designing, construction of new facilities
● Capacity building programmes and public awareness campaigns should be held at Tsunami prone
areas
● Streamlining the relief distribution system and evacuation plans in Tsunami prone areas
● Components of planning for reconstruction and rehabilitation should be added to disaster
management plans at all levels.
● Emphasis on mental health and to socio-psychological issues during post-disaster period should
be accorded in every plan

pg. 95
 [Link]

FLOODS

Floods:
● A high water level that overflows the natural banks along any portion of a stream is called a
flood. Thus, Floods are commonly associated with a stream or river.
● A stream floods when its discharge is greater than the capacity of its river channel. Excess water
flows over the river banks and submerges the adjacent land which is usually dry. When it happens,
the channel and the flood plain together allow passage of water.

Causes of Floods:
Natural Causes
● Heavy rainfall and cloud bursts : Heavy concentrated rainfall reduces the capacity of rivers to
accept any more surface run–offs due to rainfall and as result water spills over to adjoining areas.
Cloud bursts are thunderstorms which yield very heavy rains within a short span of time.
● Heavy melting of ice and snow,
● Changes in river systems and large catchment areas,
● Sediment deposition/Silting of river beds,
● The collapse of dams,
● Transgression of sea at the occasion of tropical cyclone, and
● Tsunami in coastal areas and landslides in course of rivers
Man-made/Anthropogenic causes: Unlike other natural disasters, human beings play an important role in
the genesis as well as spread of floods.
● Deforestation – It leads to soil erosion and Landslides. It is responsible for the loss of vegetation
and soils which holds down the soil that acts as a sponge and absorbs most of the water when it
rains. It also leads to silting of river beds.
● Unscientific use of land utilization and bad farming practices – Some farmers have caused soil
and water to flush into the rivers by leaving fields bare. Even choosing the wrong direction to
plough in can cause floods.
● Increased Urbanisation – It has reduced the ability of the land to absorb rainfall through the
introduction of hard impermeable surfaces. This results in an increase in the volume and rate of
surface run-off as less water infiltrates into the ground.

pg. 96
 [Link]

Consequences of Floods: Floods cause more damage than any other single disaster nowadays.

● Floods are taking thousands of lives and loss of property every year.
● The crops get adversely affected by the temporary loss of the agricultural season and fertile soil
cover.
● It leads to changes in habitats, destruction of habitats, and loss of animals due to drowning.
● Disruption of the lines of rail, road communication, and essential services creating great problems
for the movements of people and goods.
● Spread of water-borne and infectious diseases like cholera, gastro-enteritis, etc. immediately after
floods.
● Positive consequences : Floods also make a few positive contributions. Every year floods deposit
fertile silt over agricultural fields which are good for the crops. It also recharges the groundwater
table.

Flood distribution in India:

● Floods have been a recurrent phenomenon in India and 12% geographical area is prone to floods.
● State-wise study shows that about 27% of the flood damage in the country is in Bihar, 33% in Uttar
Pradesh and Uttarakhand, and 15% by Punjab and Haryana.
● The major flood areas in India are in the Ganges – Brahmaputra – Meghna Basin which accounts
for nearly 60% of the total river flow of the country.
● Distribution of flood plains –
○ Brahmaputra River Region
○ Ganga River Region
○ North – West River Region
○ Central and Deccan India
● The middle and lower courses of North Indian rivers such as Ganga, Brahmaputra, Kosi,
Damodar, Mahanadi, etc. Are prone to floods due to very low gradients. The flat plains do not
have enough gradients for the outlet of drainage.
● Peninsular rivers are mature and have hard rock beds, so they have shallow basins. This makes
them prone to flooding.
● Parts of the Eastern coasts of India are particularly prone to cyclones during October – November.
These cyclones are accompanied by strong winds, storm surges, tidal waves, and torrential rains.

Flood Control Management: The central and State Government have taken the following steps to reduce
the menace of floods:-

● Flood Forecasting- It involves giving prior information regarding the occurrence of floods. It is of
immense help in taking timely action to reduce the loss of human lives, livestock, and movable
properties. The central water commission started flood forecasting in November 1985, when the
first flood forecasting station was established near the old railway bridge of Delhi.
● Reduction in Run-Off- It is one of the very effective methods of flood control. Runoff can be
reduced by inducing and increasing infiltration of the surface water into the ground in the catchment
areas. This can be done by large scale afforestation, especially in the upper catchment areas.
● Construction of Dams- Dams and multi-purpose projects are being constructed across the rivers
to store the surplus water in the reservoirs. A number of such reservoirs were constructed during

pg. 97
 [Link]

the 1st Five-year plan. In the subsequent plans also, many dams have been constructed to reduce
the run-off and to store and release water under controlled conditions.
● Channel Improvements and Construction of Embankments- The channels of the rivers more
prone to flood are improved by deepening and widening. The water of those rivers is also diverted
into canals. Such embankments have been constructed along the Brahmaputra, Krishna, Godavari,
Gandak, Kosi, and Narmada, Tapi, son, satluj, and their tributaries.
● Flood Plain Zoning- It is also an important step to control floods which are based on information
regarding flood plains, particularly the identification of floodways in relation to land use.

NDMA Guidelines for flood management:

STRUCTURAL NON – STRUCTURAL

● Reservoirs, dams, other water storages ● Flood plain zoning

● Embankments/flood walls ● Flood proofing
● Drainage improvement ● Flood management plans
● Desilting/ dredging of rivers ● Integrated watershed management
● Diversion of flood water
● Afforestation/ catchment area treatment

Government Programmes for Flood management:

● National Flood Control Management Programme, 1954

○ At the national level, the first policy statement on flood control in India was established in
1954. This policy statement envisaged 3 types of flood control measures, namely,
Intermediate, short and long term.
● National Hydrology Project, 2016
○ It is a central sector scheme with 50% of the outlay amount received from the World Bank
loan. This project gathers hydro-meteorological data which will be stored and analyzed on
a real-time basis and can be seamlessly accessed by any user at the State/District/Village
level.

Glacial Lake Outburst Flood:

What is GLOF?
○ A GLOF is a type of outburst flood that occurs when the dam containing a glacial lake
fails. An event similar to a GLOF, where a body of water contained by a glacier melts or
overflows the glacier, is called a jökulhlaup.
○ The dam can consist of glacier ice or a terminal moraine.
○ Failure can happen due to various factors such as:
1. Erosion, a buildup of water pressure
2. Avalanche of rock or heavy snow
3. Earthquake or volcanic eruptions under the ice or

pg. 98
 [Link]

4. Displacement of water in a glacial lake when a large portion of an adjacent glacier collapses
into it
Possible causes for Chamoli GLOF:
○ Avalanche: An avalanche is falling masses of snow and ice which gathers pace as it comes
down the slope. But an avalanche is unlikely to result in the rise of water of that magnitude,
which Chamoli witnessed.
○ Cloudburst: What happened in Uttarakhand in 2013 was a multi-day cloudburst. It is a
sudden, very heavy rainfall accompanied by a thunderstorm. But it generally happens in
the monsoon. In fact, the season in which such a disaster was witnessed has surprised
experts as there is no immediate trigger that can be pointed to as the reason why water level
rose to that level washing away two hydro projects.
Why always Uttarakhand?
○ Human activities profoundly affect the earth’s climate and mountains are a sensitive
indicator of that effect.
○ The mountain ecosystem is easily disrupted by variations in climate owing to their altitude,
slope and orientation to the sun.
○ As the earth heats up, mountain glaciers melt at unprecedented rates.
Guidelines on Risk Reduction:
○ Identifying Potentially Dangerous Lakes:
■ Potentially dangerous lakes can be identified based on field observations, records
of past events, geomorphologic and geotechnical characteristics of the lake/dam
and surroundings, and other physical conditions.
○ Use of Technology:
■ Promoting use of Synthetic-Aperture Radar imagery (a form of radar that is
used to create two-dimensional images) to automatically detect changes in water
bodies, including new lake formations, during the monsoon months.
■ Methods and protocols could also be developed to allow remote monitoring of
lake bodies from space.
○ Channeling Potential Floods:
■ To manage lakes structurally, the NDMA recommends reducing the volume of
water with methods such as controlled breaching, pumping or siphoning out
water, and making a tunnel through the moraine barrier or under an ice dam.
○ Uniform Codes for Construction Activity:
■ Developing a broad framework for infrastructure development, construction
and excavation in vulnerable zones.
■ There is a need to accept procedures for land use planning in the GLOF prone
areas.
○ Enhancing Early Warning Systems (EWS):
■ The number of implemented and operational GLOF EWS is very small, even at
the global scale.
■ In the Himalayan region, there are at three reported instances (two in Nepal and
one in China) of implementation of sensor- and monitoring-based technical
systems for GLOF early warning.
○ Training Local Manpower:

pg. 99
 [Link]

■Apart from pressing specialised forces such as National Disaster Response Force
(NDRF), ITBP and the Army, NDMA has emphasised the need for trained local
manpower.
■ It has been observed that over 80% of search and rescue is carried out by the
local community before the intervention of the state machinery and specialised
search and rescue teams.
■ The local teams could also assist in planning and setting up emergency shelters,
distributing relief packages, identifying missing people, and addressing the needs
for food, healthcare, water supply etc.
○ Comprehensive Alarm Systems:
■ Besides classical alarming infrastructure consisting of acoustic alarms by sirens,
modern communication technology using cell and smartphones can complement
or even replace traditional alarming infrastructure.

● Conclusion:
○ The entire State of Uttarakhand is categorised as falling in Zone-IV and V of the earthquake
risk map of India. The potential of the cumulative effect of multiple hydro projects has
turned out to be more environmentally damaging than sustainable.

Urban Floods/ Flash Floods:

● What is urban flooding?
○ Urban flooding is the inundation of property in a built environment, particularly in densely
populated urban areas, caused by intense rainfall (on impermeable surfaces) which exceeds
the capacity of drainage systems.

pg. 100
 [Link]

● What are Flash floods?

○ Flash floods are sudden surges in water levels during or following an intense spell of rain,
occurring in a short time duration over a localised area.
○ The flood situation worsens in the presence of choked drainage lines or encroachments
obstructing the natural flow of water.
○ This occurs in hilly or sloping lands where heavy rainfall and thunderstorms or cloudbursts
are common.
● Causes of Flash floods:
○ Rapid inundation of geomorphically low-lying areas: washes, rivers, dry lakes and
basins. It may be caused by heavy rainfall associated with a severe thunderstorm, hurricane,
tropical storm, or meltwater from ice or snow flowing over ice sheets or snowfields.
○ Dam or Levee Breaks, and/or Mudslides (Debris Flow).
○ In areas on or near volcanoes, flash floods have also occurred after eruptions, when
glaciers have been melted by the intense heat.
○ The intensity of the rainfall, the location and distribution of the rainfall, the land use and
topography, vegetation types and growth/density, soil type, and soil water- content all
determine the Flash Floods.
● Impacts of Urban/Flash Floods:
○ Deterioration of water quality.
○ Loss of life and damage to property.
○ Damage to vital urban infrastructure causing disruptions in transport and power.
○ Risk of epidemics due to exposure to waterborne and vector borne infections.
○ Economic losses due to disruption in industrial activity, supply chains etc.
○ Displacement of population in low lying areas.
○ Accidents and fires due to short circuit
● Recent examples flash floods in India:
○ In the latest incident involving flash floods, Hyderabad city was battered by heavy rain,
resulting in massive flooding. The city recorded 191 mm of rain within the span of a few
hours, the heaviest in 97 years recorded in October 2020, several water bodies in
Telangana’s capital breached danger levels, worsening the overall flood situation. Nearly
70 people lost their lives and many hundreds were displaced from their homes.
○ Solapur, Sangli and Pune districts in Maharashtra also faced similar intense rain and
flooding that claimed over 30 lives and damaged standing kharif crops.
● Government Initiatives on Flash Floods:
○ The India Meteorological Department (IMD) has recently launched the South Asian
Flash Flood Guidance System (FFGS). The model will provide forecasts by computing
likelihood of rainfall and soil moisture levels to warn of possible floods at least six hours
in advance.
● NDMA guidelines on Urban Flooding 2016: It designates Ministry of Urban Development as
the Nodal Ministry for Urban Flooding. Among key provisions of the Guideline are
○ National Hydro-meteorological Network for providing early warning in all urban
centres.
○ Local networks for real-time rainfall data collection with a ‘Local Network Cell’.

pg. 101
 [Link]

○ Subdivide Cities/ towns on the basis of watersheds

○ Risk assessment with a multi-hazard concept leading to fool proof land use planning.
○ National Urban Information System (NUIS) to cover infrastructure facilities at
community level integrated with socio-economic data.
○ Ward-based inventory of the existing storm water drainage system to be prepared.
○ Pre-monsoon desilting of all major drains to be completed by March 31 each year.
● Way Forward:
○ Evolve an integrated response to floods: Often these approaches involve both hard
engineering solutions and ecologically sustainable soft solutions.
○ Developing Sponge Cities: The idea of a sponge city is to make cities more permeable so
as to hold and use the water which falls upon it. Sponge cities absorb the rain water, which
is then naturally filtered by the soil and allowed to reach urban aquifers.
○ Convergent Approach: These can all be delivered effectively through an urban mission
along the lines of the Atal Mission for Rejuvenation and Urban Transformation (AMRUT),
National Heritage City Development and Augmentation Yojana (HRIDAY) and Smart
Cities Mission.
○ Water Sensitive Urban Design: These methods take into consideration the topography,
types of surfaces (permeable or impervious), natural drainage and leave very less impact
on the environment.

DROUGHTS

Drought:
● Drought is a temporary reduction in water or moisture availability below the normal or expected
amount for a specific period.
● In India, the erratic nature of the summer monsoon with long dry spells and high temperature are
responsible for the drought conditions.
● Drought is a relative phenomenon as the inadequacy is with reference to prevailing agro-climatic
conditions. Aridity is a permanent condition whereas drought is a temporary situation. Arid and
semi-arid regions are more prone to drought.

Types & Causes of Drought:

● Meteorological Drought
○ It is a situation where there is a reduction in rainfall for a specific period below a specific
amount i.e. the actual rainfall in an area is significantly less than the climatologically mean
of that area. According to Indian Meteorological Department (IMD), a drought exists
when the average annual rainfall is less than 75% of the normal.
○ Causes of Meteorological droughts:
■ Lean monsoon and below-average rainfall.
■ Late-onset or early withdrawal of monsoons.
■ Prolonged breaks in Monsoon.
● Hydrological Drought

pg. 102
 [Link]

○ It is associated with the reduction of water levels. There are 2 types of Hydrological
Droughts
■ Surface water Drought – It is concerned with the drying up of surface water
resources such as rivers, streams, lakes, ponds, tanks, reservoirs, etc.
■ Groundwater Drought – It is associated with the fall in the groundwater level.
○ Causes of Hydrological Drought:
■ Large scale deforestation.
■ Ecologically hazardous mining.
■ Excessive pumping of groundwater.
● Agricultural Drought
○ It occurs when soil moisture goes below the level needed to sustain plant growth. It is
also called the Soil Moisture Drought. The erratic rainfall conditions and inadequate
soil moisture result in crop failures.
○ Causes of Agricultural Droughts:
■ Excessive use of High Yielding Seeds (HYV) as these seeds requires more water
and proper irrigation.
■ Change in cropping pattern. E.g. With the introduction of the green revolution,
we increased our production of wheat and rice. Rice is a water-intensive crop and
growing them in an area where less water is available made the area prone to
agricultural drought.
● Socio-Economic Drought
○ It reflects reduced availability of food and income loss due to crop failure.
● Ecological Drought
○ It occurs when the productivity of the natural ecosystem fails due to a shortage of water
and causes environmental damages like the deaths of cattle, wildlife, and trees in the forest.

pg. 103
 [Link]

Droughts in India:
● About 30% of the country’s total area is drought-prone affecting 68% of the total sown area.
Severity wise, the years of 1965, 1972, 1979, 1987, 2002, 2009, and 2012 were the most severe
drought years in post-independence India.
● Northwest Region being the arid and semi-arid region of India receives the residual rain from
the monsoon as monsoon time over this region is nearly 2 months. Rajasthan and some parts of the
west-central areas come in this category.
● Other naturally drought-prone areas are the kutch and the Thar desert region which cannot be
fully rectified, what can be done is to reduce the impact by using irrigation methods and crops
suitable for the region.
● Peninsular region- The leeward side (rainshadow region) of the western ghat receives little
rainfall. Also, this area lacks irrigation. Adding to the deficit rainfall the crops which are chosen on
a commercial basis are not suitable for that agro region like cotton and sugarcane in Marathwada
which demand high water availability.

Consequences of Droughts:
● Economic losses:
○ It includes a decline in cultivated areas and a fall in agricultural production, which leads to
the slowing down of secondary and tertiary activities and a decline in purchasing power.
● Environmental Impact:
○ It leads to damages to plant and animal species, wildlife habitat, air and water quality, forest
and range fires, degradation of landscape quality, and soil erosion.
○ Soil moisture, surface run-off, and groundwater table get adversely affected.

pg. 104
 [Link]

● Impact on society:
○ Migration of people from drought-hit areas to other areas in search of livelihood and food.
○ Farmers suicide. Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, and Karnataka are the states having
maximum farmer suicides.
○ Disruption of social institutions and increase in social crimes.
○ Scarcity of drinking water, food grains and hence causes famine and starvation.
○ Poor health and spread of diseases like diarrhoea, cholera, and other diseases associated
with malnutrition, a hunger which sometimes causes death.

Drought Management
NDMA guidelines for Drought Management- State and UTs to prepare Drought management plans.
● Regular meetings and review by Crisis Management Groups.
● Operationalize control rooms for drought management.
● Modernise drought assessment- Drought forecast; Early warning system.
● Develop vulnerability profiles for regions, communities, population groups etc.
● Specific Drought Management cells should be created at the state level under SDMA. These
DMCs will be responsible for the preparation of vulnerability maps for their respective states.
● Specific guidelines for use of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) and real-time
drought-related information that will help in the assessment and early warning.
● Assessment of damage expected will include agricultural production, depletion of water resources,
livestock population, land degradation, and deforestation as well as human health.
● Enhance capacity building.
● Improve compliance regime.

Current challenges in drought management:

● Drought declaration criteria and time differ across states.
● Indicators for intensity assessment/ monitoring differ across states.
● Insufficient use of ICT.
● Inadequate water storage in rainfed areas; lack of check dams.
● Lack of community participation in drought management.
● Low involvement of SHGs/ NGOs and the corporate sector.

Q. What is drought according to IMD? Which regions in India are vulnerable? Discuss the causes
and strategies to manage it.

FOREST FIRES
Context:
● Australia recently battled its largest bushfire on record, while parts of the Arctic, the Amazon
and central Asia have also experienced unusually severe fires. Wildfires in Western USA
(California) are another example. These are examples of the human activities leading to forest fire
turning into disasters of such level which otherwise is a natural phenomenon based on season.
Forest fire:
● These are uncontrolled fires in the forest and wildlands.

pg. 105
 [Link]

● Forest fires that take place naturally are nature's way of regeneration. It can play a vital role in
keeping the forests healthy, recycling nutrients, helping tree species regenerate, removing invasive
weeds and pathogens, and maintaining habitat for some wildlife.
● For example, it helps in cleaning dead trees and decaying plant matter and clears the forest for new
growth cycles, help add fertility to the soil, while certain tree species like Pine need forest fire
(high temperature to release seeds) for reproduction.
● But such naturally occurring forest fires are just 10 to 15% of total incidents.
● Incidents of human-led fires have increased in recent years which disturb this process and create
havoc for ecosystems as well as cause climate change.

Causes of forest fire:

NATURAL CAUSES: MAN-MADE CAUSES:

1. Lightning & Thunderstorms: These are 1. Smoking: Throwing away the cigarette
the most likely natural causes for forest butts without completely extinguishing it
fires. leads to forest fires.
2. Volcanic eruption: Hot magma expelled 2. Campfires: During camping or outdoor
out flows into nearby fields or lands to start activities people normally leave lit fires or
wildfires. combusting materials unattended which
3. Heat patterns: Increased temperatures due ignite wildfires.
to global warming are making the forests 3. Shifting cultivation practiced by tribal
more vulnerable. Rising atmospheric communities in different parts of the world
temperatures and dryness (low humidity) are also the cause of forest fire.
make favorable circumstances for a fire to 4. Burning Debris: Wastes and trash are on
start. several occasions burned to ashes as a way
4. Naturally the dry season creates a huge fuel of reducing the accumulation of rubbish.
base fuelled by the wind which year-on- This slowly burning debris can potentially
year due to factors like lightning, set anything ablaze and start a wildfire.
5. Fireworks: Fireworks are used by humans
spontaneous combustion etc. cause fire.
for various reasons such as festivals.
However, their explosive nature can start
wildfires.

Impacts of forest fire:

Short-term:
● Environmental catastrophe: Consume vast swaths of bushes, trees, vegetation and animals.
● Toxic gases, flames, smoke inhalation impacting wildlife as well as people.
● Loss of habitat, food for millions of species. Ex- As per IUCN, 137 species from Amazon forest
are lost everyday.
● Rise in health concerns due to smoke in places even thousands of kilometres away.
● Displacement of mammals, birds as well as people will impact local balance and alter the
ecosystem.

Long-term:

pg. 106
 [Link]

● Large scale fires like in case of Amazon & Australian bush fire creates a long-term impact which
may change its vegetation characteristic itself. According to the Center for International Forestry
Research Indonesia, one of the results of such forest fires can be increased probability of such fire
events in future
● Repeated burns will lead to replacement of rainforest with the pyrophytic grasslands which
need fire to complete the reproduction cycle like that in Savannah forest.
● Biodiversity loss: Rainforests account for 50% of world's biodiversity. Not only does it burn
many of them to death but impacts the functioning of plants and animal species.
● Stress, loss of habitat, territories, shelter and food loss will accelerate the process of extinction of
species. Wildlife with the niche environments with lower populations, including certain types of
frogs and birds, could be wiped out entirely.
● Climate change: With accelerated forest fire it will not only put a break on carbon sequestering
but also releases a huge amount of CO2 in the environment.
● Threatens the food security as well as the economy of the region.
● Impact micro-climate of region by reduced cooling impact, less rainfall and altered vegetation.
● Soil Degradation: Forest soils are loaded with nutrients released from decaying forest debris.
Forest fires kill beneficial soil microorganisms that are responsible for breaking down the soil and
promoting soil microbial activities. The burning of trees and vegetation cover also leaves the soil
bare making it readily vulnerable to soil erosion.
● Destruction of Watersheds: Trees and vegetation cover acts as watershed protectors since
approximately all the water comes from forest-derived water tables. Whenever they burn, the
natural protection systems for water tables, streams, and rivers may be affected.

Forest Fires in India:

● About 21.40% of forest cover in India is prone to fires according to a 2019 report by the Forest
Survey of India that demands urgent action.
● According to the Global Forest Watch, India witnessed 125% increase in forest fires from 2015
to 2017 (Average was 46% for 2005-15).
● The major forest fires in India occur in the tropical dry forests of our country.
● With 70% of forests in India composed of scrub, savanna grassland, dry and moist-deciduous
forests (particularly in A.P, M.P, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Karnataka, Maharashtra, Odisha and
Assam) there is always the threat of forest fire.
● Incidents:
○ January 2021 saw prolonged fires in Uttarakhand, Himachal Pradesh (Kullu Valley)
and Nagaland-Manipur border (Dzukou Valley).
○ The Simlipal National Park in Odisha saw a major fire between February-end and early
March 2021.
○ Recent fires also include those in Bandhavgarh Forest Reserve in Madhya Pradesh, and
in sanctuaries for the Asiatic lion and the great Indian bustard in Gujarat.

Importance of Forests:
• Forests play an important role in mitigation and adaptation to climate change.
• They act as a sink, reservoir and source of carbon.
o A healthy forest stores and sequesters more carbon than any other terrestrial ecosystem.

pg. 107
 [Link]

• In India, with 1.70 lakh villages in close proximity to forests (Census 2011), the livelihood of
several crores of people is dependent on fuelwood, bamboo, fodder, and small timber.

Measures to curb Forest fires:

● Comprehensive Forest fire Policy: For example, India follows “No Fire Forest Policy”. This
strict ban on all types of fires at times prevents necessary fire in dry forests to control invasive
species. The policy should seek to develop based on remote sensing data and there should be space
for natural fires of low intensity, while addressing man-made causes and high intensity fire.
● National Action Plan on Forest Fires 2018 prepared by MOEFCC to minimize forest fires by
informing, enabling and empowering forest fringe communities and incentivizing them to work in
tandem with the State Forest Departments. The plan also intends to substantially reduce the
vulnerability of forests and enhance capabilities of forest personnel and institutions in fighting fires
and swift recovery subsequent to fire incidents.
● Forest Fire Prevention and Management scheme, the only centrally funded program specifically
dedicated to assist the states in dealing with forest fires.
● Fire triangle: Fuel (Dry wood, leaves etc), Oxygen and heat are three must components of fire.
Strategy has to develop based on sustainable management of all three under possible limits. Ex-
Using Water Bomber when heat rises very high as in Australia Strategize management and
response.
● Strong early Warning system: As Forest Survey of India issues warnings based on parameters
like Forest Cover, Forest Type, Climatic Variables (Temperature and Rainfall) and recent fire
incidents over the area. More technology and satellite data needs to be used.
● Addressing Climate change: To prevent increased incidents of fires like in Amazon and
Australian forest the Paris Climate Commitment need to be strictly worked upon to address heat
rise in the fire triangle.
● Response, Rebuild & restoration: Appropriate strategy to contain recurrent small fires after such
fires, afforestation on large scale based on local vegetation and community.
● Community Engagement: Sensitisation of communities should be done to ensure that fire is used
responsibly in a way that promotes forest health, while seeking to avoid damaging and out-of-
control fires.

Way Forward:
Forest fires incidents have increased due to global warming. Destruction of forests is a crisis and needs
immediate action. Forest fires of such scale need a multi-stakeholder and multi-dimensional approach. It
has to be addressed politically (Inter-governmental knowledge, resource and experience sharing), legally
(to prevent man-made fire), socially (Community participation) as well as technologically (Early warning
system, Water Bomber) and environmentally (Addressing climate change).

HEAT WAVES

What is Heat Wave?

pg. 108
 [Link]

● A heat wave is a period of abnormally high temperatures, more than the normal maximum
temperature that occurs during the summer season in the North-Western and South Central parts of
India.
● Heat waves typically occur between March and June, and in some rare cases even extend till July.
● Higher daily peak temperatures and longer, more intense heat waves are becoming increasingly
frequent globally due to climate change.
● A heatwave spell generally lasts for a minimum of four days. On some occasions, it can extend up
to seven or ten days. The longest recorded heat wave spell, in recent years, was between 18 – 31
May 2015.

Criteria for Heat Waves:

● The heat wave is considered when the maximum temperature of a station reaches at least 40°C
for Plains and at least 30°C for Hilly regions.
● If the normal maximum temperature of a station is less than or equal to 40°C, then an increase of
5°C to 6°C from the normal temperature is considered to be heat wave condition.
Further, an increase of 7°C or more from the normal temperature is considered as severe heat
wave condition.
● If the normal maximum temperature of a station is more than 40°C, then an increase of 4°C to
5°C from the normal temperature is considered to be heat wave condition. Further, an increase
of 6°C or more is considered as severe heat wave condition.
● Additionally, if the actual maximum temperature remains 45°C or more irrespective of normal
maximum temperature, a heat wave is declared.

Favourable conditions for heat wave:

● Transportation / Prevalence of hot dry air over a region.
● Absence of moisture in the upper atmosphere.
● Anti-cyclonic flow over the area.
● Clear Skies.

pg. 109
 [Link]

Factors affecting Heat Wave vulnerability:

● Quality of housing and built environment, local urban geographies, resident lifestyle, income
levels, employment trends, social networks and self- perceptions of risk.
● Unplanned urban growth and development, changes in land use and land cover, densely
populated areas and increasing urban sprawl and unique challenges associated with it such as
Urban Heat Island effect in cities are exacerbating the impact of heatwaves.
● Climate change is driving temperatures higher as well as increasing the frequency and severity of
heat waves in India.

Impact over the country:

● Heatwaves are common over the Core Heatwave Zone (CHZ): Rajasthan, Punjab, Haryana,
Chandigarh, Delhi, West Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Orissa, Vidarbha in
Maharashtra, parts of Gangetic West Bengal, Coastal Andhra Pradesh and Telangana, as
categorised by India Meteorological Department.
● However, the regions in the extreme north, northeast and southwestern India are less prone to
heatwaves.

Health Impacts of Heat Waves:

● It causes dehydration, heat cramps, heat exhaustion and/or heat stroke.
● It also causes fatigue, weakness, dizziness, headache, nausea, vomiting, muscle cramps and
sweating.
● The extreme temperatures and resultant atmospheric conditions adversely affect people living in
these regions as they cause physiological stress, sometimes resulting in death.
● Reduce work hours and productivity.

Key strategies for Heat Wave Management:

● Early Warning System and Inter-Agency Coordination to alert residents on predicted high and
extreme temperatures.
● Capacity building / training programme for health care professionals at local level to recognize
and respond to heat-related illnesses, particularly during extreme heat events.
● Public Awareness and community outreach: Disseminating public awareness messages on how
to protect against the extreme heat wave through print, electronic and social media and Information,
Education and Communication (IEC) materials such as pamphlets, posters and advertisements and
Television Commercials (TVCs) on Do‟s and Don’ts and treatment measures for heat related
illnesses.
● Collaboration with NGOs and civil society: Collaboration with non-governmental organizations
and civil society organizations to build temporary shelters, wherever necessary, improved water
delivery systems in public areas and other innovative measures to tackle Heat wave conditions.

pg. 110
 [Link]

Heat apocalypse across Europe in 2022-

• Dozens of towns and regions across Europe reeled under what has been described as a “heat
apocalypse”, which has caused widespread devastation this year.
• Wildfires caused by a combination of extreme heat and dry weather have destroyed 19,000 hectares
of forest in south-western France.
• What is behind the extreme heat waves in Europe?
o Climate change, but exactly how
▪ Scientists are near-unanimous that the heat waves are a result of climate change
caused by human activity.
▪ Global temperatures have already risen by more than 1°C , and studies in the UK
had shown that a one degree rise in temperature raises the probability of the country
witnessing 40°C by ten times.
▪ The rising global temperature, which this year led to deviations above the normal
by as much as 15 degrees in Antarctica, and by more than 3 degrees in the north
pole.
• Major factor: Changes in old wind patterns
o In the case of the US, the record temperatures are being linked to changes in the jet stream
— a narrow band of westerly air currents that circulate several km above the earth’s
surface.
o While a conventionally strong jet stream would bring cooler air from the northern Atlantic,
in recent years the jet stream has weakened and split into two.

Heat Dome:
• Context- Recently, the Pacific Northwest and some parts of Canada recorded temperatures
around 47 degrees, causing a "historic" heat wave.
o This is a result of a phenomenon referred to as a "heat dome".
• A heat dome is effectively what it sounds like - an area of high pressure that parks over a region
like a lid on a pot, trapping heat.
• They are more likely to form during La Niña years like 2021, when waters are cool in the eastern
Pacific and warm in the western Pacific.
• Heat Dome also prevents clouds from forming, allowing for more radiation from the sun to hit
the ground.

pg. 111
 [Link]

URBAN HEAT ISLAND

A recent study from IIT Kharagpur called “Anthropogenic forcing exacerbating the urban heat islands
in India” noted that mean daytime temperature of surface urban heat island (UHI Intensity) going up to 2
degrees C for most cities.

What is Urban Heat Island Effect?

● An Urban Heat Island (UHI) is that part of an urban or a metropolitan area that is marked by
remarkably high temperature as compared to its rural counterpart due to excessive human activity.
● The UHI is noticed when both the summer and winter seasons are at their peak.

pg. 112
 [Link]

Why are these Urban Areas Hotter than Surrounding Suburbs?

● The materials used for pavements, roads and roofs, such as concrete, asphalt (tar) and bricks, have
higher heat capacity and thermal conductivity than rural areas, which have more open space,
trees and grass.
● These materials have low albedo that absorb more solar radiation than the surfaces found in rural
areas.
● Additionally, these materials have different surface radiative properties, which means they emit
energy as thermal radiation or heat.
● Geometric effects are also a cause for UHI. The tall buildings within many urban areas provide
multiple surfaces for the reflection and absorption of sunlight, increasing the efficiency with which
urban areas are heated. This is called the “urban canyon effect”.
● Waste heat from automobiles, air conditioning, industry, and other sources also contributes to
the UHI.
● The lack of evapotranspiration in the city leads to the city experiencing higher temperature than
its Surroundings.

What is the impact of Urban Heat Islands?

● Changes in local climate:
○ Higher Precipitation levels, cloud coverage, fog, presence, humidity levels, and wind
patterns.
○ Increased precipitation and thunderstorm results in Increase in plant growing seasons in
nearby locations. For example, some studies have found that growing areas located around
6.2 miles outside of city limits are extended by an average of 15 days.
● Impact on animals:
○ Migration of animals towards cities. The UHI increases the colonisation of species that like
warm temperatures, such as lizards and geckos.
○ Urban heat islands caused by cities have altered the natural selection process.
● Thermal pollution of neighbouring water bodies:
○ When the heated runoff enters these bodies of water, it goes on to increase their temperature
as well.
○ Thermal pollution has a negative impact on local fish populations, sending them into
thermal shock.
● Human Health:
○ Increased city temperatures can be fatal during summer heatwaves, particularly for senior
citizens.
○ Research has found that urban heat islands not only increase temperatures during heat
waves but also prolong their duration. Extreme temperatures lead to heat cramps,
heatstroke, and heat exhaustion. Heatstroke may cause respiratory distress syndrome,
impaired mobility, or decreased awareness.

Way Forward:
Urban planning should include passive cooling measures and also proper ventilation set up. Also, India's
Cooling Action Plan is a good plan in this direction.

pg. 113
 [Link]

DESERTIFICATION & LAND DEGRADATION NEUTRALITY

Context:
● India held the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD) COP meeting
in 2019. India also became part of the “Bonn Challenge”, a global effort to bring 150 million
hectares of the world’s deforested and degraded land into restoration by 2020, and 350
million hectares by 2030.

Land degradation:
● Land degradation is defined as the temporary or permanent decline in the productive capacity
of the land, and the diminution of the productive potential, including its major land uses (e.g., rain-
fed arable, irrigation, forests), its farming systems (e.g., smallholder subsistence), and its value as
an economic resource.
● According to the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD), globally 1/3rd
of the area is impacted by land degradation and every year there is loss of 24 billion tons of
fertile soil.

9.3. Desertification: When Land Degradation occurs in dryland areas (arid, semi- arid and sub-humid)
areas, it is called desertification. Desertification generally occurs after a prolonged degradation of land.

Status of land Degradation in India:

● According to Desertification and Land Degradation Atlas of India, About 29.32% of the Total
Geographical Area of the country is undergoing the process of desertification/land degradation.
● With approximately 69% of Indian land falling under dryland, the land degradation or
desertification is a huge challenge on India’s already scarce land resource (With 2.4% of world
surface area it supports 17% of world population).
● State of India’s Environment 2019 shows that 30% of India’s total geographical area is being
affected by land degradation. 82% of these degraded land lies in just nine states: Rajasthan,

pg. 114
 [Link]

Maharashtra, Gujarat, Jammu & Kashmir, Karnataka, Jharkhand, Odisha, Madhya Pradesh and
Telangana.

Causes of land Degradation in India:

● Water erosion and Wind erosion: Soil erosion in India due to water erosion is highest at around
71% and 10% for wind erosion.
● Chemical factors: Natural occurrence of alkaline chemicals, movement of subsoil chemicals (e.g.
salinity) to the surface due to water logging, as well as excessive use of fertilizers or industrial
pollutants). Culture of plastic use is another concern.
● Physical factors: waterlogging, over-irrigation, geomorphological changes caused by mining or
other activity)
● Poor agricultural practices such as improper crop rotations; overuse of agrochemicals etc.
Vegetation degradation through activities such as deforestation, shifting cultivation etc.
● Increasing urbanization driven by increasing population pressure has increased diversion of land.
● Overgrazing: On one hand, India has one of the largest numbers of cattle population while on the
other the grazing practices in India are not sustainable.
● Last year, UNCCD published a report that there is a strong nexus between land use and land
degradation leading to drought. This is said to be intrinsically related to the water use due to human
activities.
● The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) in its report “Climate change and Land”
said that the land degradation is linked to several climate variables, such as temperature,
precipitation, wind, and seasonality.

Impact of Land Degradation:

● Desertification: ISRO’s Desertification and Land Degradation Atlas of India shows that
desertification increased in most of the states.
● Water Scarcity: The dryland population vulnerable to water stress and drought intensity is
projected to reach 178 million under the most ideal conditions of 1.5 deg-C warming by 2050.
● Agriculture: With around 46% of the Net Sown Area and 45% of work dependence agriculture is
hardest hit due to dependence on land.
● Increasing poverty and ‘Environment refugees’: Most poor in India are dependent on land-based
resources (agriculture, Minor Forest Produce etc) and are highly threatened.
● Economic loss: A study by The Energy and Resources Institute (TERI) says economic losses from
land degradation and change of land use in 2014-15 stood at 2.54% of India’s GDP.
● Food security: Land Degradation/desertification has created concern over agriculture production
due to reduced land resources, loss of grazing lands (livestock loss), nutritional insecurity due to
drought etc. which threaten food security amidst rising population.
● Climate Change: It is exacerbating climate change events, which in turn, are causing even greater
degradation. For e.g. degraded land loses its capacity to absorb carbon-dioxide (CO2), a greenhouse
gas (GHG) that is the biggest factor in worsening global warming.
● For India, which fares poorly on the Global Hunger Index (94th out of 107) and where 190 million
people go hungry every night, desertification can create huge problems not only food security in
terms of calorie, but also nutrition.

pg. 115
 [Link]

● Health concerns: Rise in malnutrition cases, respiratory diseases due to dust and threats of
infectious diseases due to population migration.

Land Degradation Neutrality (LDN) to counter land degradation:

● UNFCCC in RIO+20 in 2012 gave the idea of the LDN.
● As per the UNCCD definition, LDN is a state whereby the amount and quality of land resources,
necessary to support ecosystem functions and services and enhance food security, remains stable
or increases within specified temporal and spatial scales.
● LDN is a condition where further land degradation (loss of productivity caused by environmental
or human factors) is prevented and already degraded land can be restored.

9.8. Approach to Land Degradation Neutrality:

Significance of LDN:
● LDN is a shift from current land management policies and practices.
● It is a unique approach that counterbalances the expected loss of productive land with the
recovery of degraded areas.
● It strategically places the measures to conserve, sustainably manage and restore land in the
context of land use planning.
● LDN can prevent Soil erosion, desertification, water scarcity, migration insecurity and income
inequalities caused by land degradation. Thus, it helps in combating the impacts of climate change.
● India has adopted the goal of achieving LDN by 2030 as adopted under Sustainable Development
Goals.

Achieving LDN needs two-pronged strategy based on multi-stakeholder approach, collaboration with
all sectors, national level targets and monitoring.

1. Protect what is left: 2. Fix what has been degraded:

pg. 116
 [Link]

➢ Sustainable agriculture: Focus on ➢ Aggressive REDD+ strategy which not

increasing productivity of land to meet only focuses on preventing deforestation,
food security through Integrated Farming but also increasing carbon stock through
Mechanism or Zero Budget Natural Afforestation.
Farming. ➢ Appropriate drainage system in
➢ Strong forest laws, its implementation and degraded areas through Check dams, dug-
community participation in protection: channels, distributed canal system to
Along with the legal regulation community reclaim it.
needs to be given responsibility to prevent ➢ Activities to reclaim land and care of
losses like the Amazon forest fire last year. landscape: In situ soil and moisture
Ex- Protection of Khejri tree in Rajasthan conservation measures like terracing,
by the Bishnoi tribe bunding or Afforestation of degraded
➢ Address flood and heavy precipitation forest and non-forest wasteland.
related degradation by watershed ➢ Reorienting Consumption choices of the
management, better drainage and bringing Urban society: Consumption culture
in traditional water conservation needs to give way to an alternative which
practices like Ahar Pynes, Bawari etc. is based on Gandhian idea which says
➢ Shelter belts in arid areas to prevent wind nature has everything for our need but not
erosion. for our greed.
➢ Addressing water logging/over- ➢ Global Technology support through
irrigation by planned drainage system as UNCCD to fund capacity building and
well as the distributed canal system. training in the area.
➢ End perverse incentives like free power ➢ Tackling food security threat due to
for irrigation, subsidy for fertilisers to rich desertification: There has to be focus on
farmers to protect pressure on land. maintaining buffer food stock and better
➢ Banning single use plastic at global level Food provisioning through the PDS has to
to address soil pollution due to plastic. be strengthened through the use of BAPU
(Biometric Authenticated Physical
Uptake).
➢ Agriculture reforms through crop
diversification and importance be given to
the less water-intensive coarse grains.

Delhi Declaration:
● COP-14 to the UNCCD 2019 issued the Delhi Declaration. It committed for ecosystem
restoration, taking action on climate change, private sector engagement, Peace Forest Initiative and
recovery of five million hectares of degraded land in India by 2030. We need to follow this
target to achieve a world which can give gifts safely to our future generation.

Global Land outlook by UNCCD outlines following pathways:

➢ Multifunctional landscape approach.

pg. 117
 [Link]

➢ Farming for multiple benefits.

➢ Managing the rural-urban interface.
➢ Creating an enabling environment to scale local successes.
➢ Ensure no net loss of healthy and productive land.

WATERSHED DEVELOPMENT
Watershed: Watershed is defined as a geohydrological unit draining to a common point by a system of
drains. All lands on earth are part of one watershed or other. Watershed is thus the land and water area,
which contributes runoff to a common point.
Types of Watershed
Watersheds could be classified into a number of groups.. The usually accepted five levels of watershed
delineation based on geographical area of the watershed are the following;
● Macro watershed (> 50,000 Ha)
● Sub-watershed (10,000 to 50,000 Ha)
● Milli-watershed (1000 to10000 Ha)
● Micro watershed (100 to 1000 Ha)
● Mini watershed (1-100 Ha)

Watershed management involves the judicious use of natural resource with active participation of
institutions, organizations, people’s participation in harmony with the ecosystem.
Components of Watershed Management
The three main components in watershed management are land management, water management and
biomass management.
Land Management
Water Management
Biomass management

pg. 118
 [Link]

Planning For Watershed Management

• Comprehensive planning for watershed management starts with obtaining suitable maps through
remote sensing techniques.
• Remote sensing provides a synoptic picture of the watershed for the characterization of natural
resources, land, water, vegetation, and inter-relationship between them. Besides mapping natural
resources, satellite imagery can give the estimate of the area covered by major crops, crop
yield, area affected by pests and diseases and drought conditions, if any. The location of
structures like check-dams, farm ponds etc., can also be delineated using satellite imagery pictures.
• Distribution patterns and assessments of the status of material resources can be obtained
from satellite pictures. Comprehensive planning of various activities is then carried out.
Mechanical, agronomical, agro-ecological and forestry measures of soil and rainwater conservation
are then planned and implemented.
SIGNIFICANCE OF WATERSHED DEVELOPMENT FOR INDIA:
● Help India manage and augment its water resources.
● Sustainable agriculture: MItigate effects of drought and other challenges related to climate change.
● Restoration of degraded soils which is leading to shrinking arable land resource.
● Groundwater Recharge
● Stop distress migration
● Improve the standard of living of the local population which is a key tool for poverty reduction in
rural areas.
GOVERNMENT INITIATIVES:
● Govt. set up the National Wasteland Development Board in 1985 under the MInistry of
Environment.
○ Traditional water management approach.
○ Focus on micro watershed for planning.

pg. 119
 [Link]

● Drought prone area programme; Desert Development programme; Integrated wasteland

Development Program
● PM Krishi Sinchayi Yojana
○ To restore ecological balance
○ Conserve Degraded Natural Resources(soil, vegetative cover and water)
IMPACT OF MICRO WATERSHEDS ON ARID AND SEMI ARID REGIONS:
Micro-watershed management became inevitable for the development in drought-prone and semi-arid
regions that could sort out the problem of water scarcity and drought. It could help in the following way.
● It may help in moisture conservation measures like the contour bunds to resist the runoff flowing
down the slope by an embankment and the overall land development.
● The block plantations, horticultural development program will increase the green cover of the
region as well as enhance the groundwater recharge rate.
● It helps to hold the sloping land into different parts of the level to enable cultivation.
● It leads to restoration and the improvement of common property.
● It enables smart management of less water-dependent cropping practices that also suits the agro-
climatic conditions of the region.
● Desiltation of water tanks, resource management improves the water availability for drinking and
irrigation.
Case Study
• On July 27, 2016, rain for only two hours paralyzed the life in Gurgram (Gurgaon), with deep
waterlogging. The main cause of this tragedy was ill-conceived planning. In the planning of
Gurgram, Watershed Planning was ignored.
• The Firozpur-Jhikra-Delhi ridge forms the western boundary and the Delhi ridge forms the
eastern boundary of this watershed. The natural drainage pattern of the city comprises of large
depression and streams, tending to cover inland instead of flowing into the Yamuna.
• The Delhi-Jaipur Highway No. 8 crosses several watersheds almost in the middle and blocks the
natural drainage pattern from south to north. Thus, the unscientific planning of National Highway
No. 8 is largely responsible for the Gurgram tragedy. It is thus, important to incorporate the
watershed approach in the planning of a city.

Q. In what way micro-watershed Development projects help in water conservation in drought prone
and semi-arid regions of India.

HAZARD VULNERABILITY OF INDIA

Hazard vulnerability of India
● India is vulnerable to natural and man–made disasters.
● About 60% of the land mass is prone to earthquakes.
● Over 40 million hectares (about 8%) is prone to floods.
● 68% of the area is susceptible to Drought.
● The 8000 Kms coastline is prone to cyclones/high wind velocity.
● Coastal States/UTs are vulnerable to Tsunamis.

pg. 120
 [Link]

● Hilly terrain is prone to landslides/avalanches/ cloudbursts

● Man-made disasters – fire, terrorist activities using conventional weapons or nuclear, biological
and chemical materials; industrial accidents etc.

Urban Areas Vulnerability to disasters:

● According to the World Bank, By 2050, cyclones and earthquakes in urban areas will double in
frequency.
● High population density leading to migration and slum development with poor quality of buildings.
● Increasing concretisation prevents discharge of water to ground causing floods and disappearance
of water bodies causing droughts.
● Industrial and chemical disasters. ex. Bhopal gas tragedy. Vizag Gas leak 2020.
● Reduced tree cover causing urban heat islands and change in micro climate, pollution, reduced
work hours.
Measures to prevent urban disaster vulnerability:
● Survey and retrofitting of old buildings.
● Adopting targets under SDG and sendai framework.
● New Urban agenda: Sustainable, equitable, safe, inclusive, resilient future for all.
● Schemes like SMART Cities Mission, AMRUT and PM AWAS for affordable and sustainable
housing.
● Building codes: Hazard resilient building codes (ECBC-R).
● National Afforestation Programme based on Miyawaki principle.
● Alternate finance. Ex. Natural Disaster bonds; Municipal bonds.

CLIMATE HAZARDS AND VULNERABILITY ATLAS OF INDIA:

• The Indian Meteorological Department (IMD) launched India’s 1st Climate Hazards and
Vulnerability Atlas.
About The Climate Hazards and Vulnerability Atlas of India.
• It is developed by the scientists at the Climate Research and Services (CRS) office of the India
Meteorological Department (IMD), Pune.
• It is based on 14 extreme weather events and the risks they pose to the local population,
livelihoods and economy of each district.
o The atlas features extreme rainfall, drought, coldwave, heatwave, dust storms, hail storms,
thunderstorms, cyclones, snowfall, lightning, winds and fog.
• The hazards and vulnerability values have been calculated utilising the Met department’s
historical climate data.
• Each weather phenomenon’s month-wise hazard levels posed to the respective district has been
enlisted in this one-of-its-kind atlas.
o In all, 640 maps are available in the online atlas.

Q. India is vulnerable, in varying degrees, to a large number of disasters. Draw the vulnerability
profile of India.

pg. 121
 [Link]

ENVIRONMENT & BIOGEOGRAPHY

FORESTS

Forests in India: As per Indian State of Forests Report (ISFR 2019), Total forest cover in the country is
21.67%.

● Forest is the second largest land use after agriculture.

TYPES OF FORESTS : SPATIAL DISTRIBUTION & ECONOMIC USE

● Tropical Evergreen and semi evergreen forests:
○ Western slopes of western Ghats; NE Hill Region; Andaman & NIcobar Island.
○ Well Stratified: Shrubs, creepers, short trees, tall trees.
○ Ex. Rosewood, mahogany, ebony, rubber, bamboo
○ Economic use: Hard and durable timber, railway construction, rubber industry.
● Tropical Deciduous/ Monsoon Forests:
○ Most widespread.
○ Moist Deciduous
■ 100-200 cms rainfall
■ NE Hills, Eastern slopes of Western ghats, Odisha
■ Ex. teak, sal, shisham,mahua, amla
○ Dry Deciduous
■ 70- 100 cms rainfall
■ Peninsula; Plains of UP & Bihar
■ Tendu; palas; amaltas; bel; khair
○ Economic Use: Timber; Recreation; agroforestry; medicine; wildlife conservation; bidi
making etc.
● Tropical Thorn Forest:
○ Semi arid areas of SW Punjab; Haryana; Rajasthan; Gujarat; MP; UP
○ Rainfall less than 5 cm
○ Ex. Babool, ber, Neem, Khejri
○ Economic Use: Agroforestry; medicine; handicrafts; livelihood to poor and tribals.
● Montane Forests:

NORTHERN MOUNTAIN FOREST SOUTHERN MOUNTAIN FOREST

1. Succession of vegetation from tropical 1. Peninsula- western ghats, Vindhyas,

to tundra. Nilgiris.
2. E.x. Hilly areas of WB, UK, NE states. 2. Closer to the tropics, only 1500 m
above sea level.
3. Temperate forest in shola, satpura,
maikal

pg. 122
 [Link]

Economic Use: Deodar construction activity; cinar and walnut- kashmir handicrafts; livelihood to
tribes- gujjar, bakarwals, bhotiyas, gaddi.

● Littoral and Swamps/ Wetlands forests:

○ Deccan (RJ, GJ, Gulf of kutch); Delta wetlands(Chilika lake); Gangetic marshes;
Brahmaputra marshes; Mangroves of Island arcs; Andaman & NIcobar Islands.
○ Economic Use: Biodiversity; Wildlife conservation; Tourism.

Why resource rich forested areas are hotbeds of Maoist movements in India.
● Forest war: Naxalism started as a movement against land alienation. Today it has become a
popular movement against natural resource alienation, particularly forests.
● Large areas of densely forested regions in the country are controlled by [Link] use the
growing alienation of tribal people against forest laws to gain ground.
● They secure tribal rights over non- timber forest produce and dispense quick justice -- at gunpoint.
Sadly, the victims of Naxal violence are invariably the custodians of our forests -- forest guards.
● On one side is the elected government, which with its misplaced regulations has never addressed
people's needs. On the other, is a band of armed people knocking on people's doors to solve their
problems instantly -- at gunpoint. Caught between the warring groups, the people prefer the latter.
● "The parallel government is fast, accessible and gives people access to their livelihood sources. For
example, courts in the Naxalite-affected areas of Jharkhand have witnessed a drop in the number
of cases -- from 2,400 in 1996 to 1,600 in 1997.

Q. There are various types of forests found in the Indian subcontinent. Comment

WESTERN GHATS ECOLOGY

Western Ghats: Importance:
● The Western Ghats is an extensive region spanning over six states.
● It is the home of many endangered plants and animals.
● Western Ghats host India’s richest wilderness in 13 national parks and several sanctuaries.
● Recognised by UNESCO as one of the world’s eight most important biodiversity hotspots, these
forested hills are also sourcing numerous rivers, including the Godavari, Krishna and Cauvery.

Geology of Western Ghats:

▪ There are two views regarding the Geology of the Western Ghats.
o The mountains of the Western Ghats are Block Mountains formed due to the down
warping of a part of land into the Arabian Sea.
o The mountains of the Western Ghats are not true mountains, but are the faulted edge of the
Deccan Plateau.

Basic Topography:
▪ Geographical Extent:

pg. 123
 [Link]

o The Western Ghats extend from the Satpura Range in the north, go south
past Goa, through Karnataka and into Kerala and Tamil Nadu end at Kanyakumari
embracing Indian ocean.
o A chain of mountains runs parallel to India’s western coast, approximately 30-50 km
inland.
o These mountains cover an area of around 140,000 km² in a 1,600 km long stretch.
▪ Mountain Ranges:
o The Niligiri ranges southeast of Mysore in Karnataka, meet the Shevaroys (Servarayan
range) and Tirumala range farther east, linking the Western Ghats to the Eastern Ghats.
o The peak of Anamudi in Kerala is the highest peak in the Western Ghats, as well as the
highest peak in India outside the Himalayas
o Famous hill station: This range is home to many hill stations like Matheran, Lonavala-
Khandala, Mahabaleshwar, Panchgani, Amboli Ghat, Kudremukh and Kodagu.
▪ Rivers:
o West flowing: The rivers that originate in Western Ghats and flow towards west are
Periyar, Bharathappuzha, Netravati, Sharavathi, Mandovi etc.
• The west flowing rivers of Western Ghats are fast-moving, owing to the short
distance travelled and steeper gradient.
• This makes Western Ghats more useful in terms of production of hydroelectricity.
The steep
o East flowing: The rivers that originate in Western Ghats and flow towards east
include three major rivers viz. Godavari, Krishna and Kaveri, and many smaller/tributary
rivers such as Tunga, Bhadra, Bhima, Malaprabha, Ghataprabha, Hemavathi, Kabini.
• These east flowing rivers are comparatively slower moving and eventually merge
into larger rivers such as the Kaveri and Krishna.
▪ Climate and Vegetation:
o The forests of the site include some of the best representatives of non-equatorial tropical
evergreen forests anywhere and are home to at least 325 globally threatened flora, fauna,
bird, amphibian, reptile and fish species.
o The high montane forest ecosystems influence the Indian monsoon weather pattern.
• The Ghats act as a key barrier, intercepting the rain-laden monsoon winds that
sweep in from the south-west during late summer.
o The western slopes have tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests marked
predominantly by Rosewood, Mahogany, Cedar etc.
• These slopes appear green in almost all parts of the year.
• No time is fixed when these trees would shade their leaves.
o The eastern slopes of the Western Ghats have dry as well as moist deciduous
forests marked predominantly by Teak, Sal, Shisham, Sandalwood trees.
▪ Wildlife:
o The Nilgiri marten, brown palm civet, stripe-necked mongoose, Indian brown mongoose,
small Indian civet and leopard cat are the small carnivores living in the forests of the
Western Ghats.

pg. 124
 [Link]

o Many species are endemic, such as the Nilgiri tahr (Hemitragus hylocrius) and the lion-
tailed macaque (Macaca silenus).
o At least 325 globally threatened (IUCN Red Data List) species occur in the Western
Ghats.
• The globally threatened flora and fauna in the Western Ghats are represented by
229 plant species, 31 mammal species, 15 bird species, 43 amphibian species, 5
reptile species and 1 fish species.
▪ Protected Areas:
o Western Ghats is home to India’s two biosphere reserves, 13 National parks, several
wildlife sanctuaries and many Reserve Forests.
o The Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve forms the largest contiguous protected area in the Western
Ghats.
• It comprised the evergreen forests of Nagarahole, deciduous forests of Bandipur
National Park and Nugu in Karnataka and adjoining regions of Wayanad and
Mudumalai National Park in the states of Kerala and Tamil Nadu.
o The Silent Valley National Park in Kerala is among the last tracts of virgin tropical
evergreen forest in India.

Significance of Western Ghats:

▪ Hydrological:
o The Western Ghats feeds a large number of perennial rivers of peninsular India including
the three major eastward-flowing rivers Godavari, Krishna, and Kaveri.
o The peninsular Indian states that receive most of their water supply from rivers originating
in the Western Ghats.
▪ Climate:
o The mountains of the Western Ghats influence the Indian monsoon weather patterns that
mediate the warm tropical climate of the region
• The Ghats act as a key barrier, intercepting the rain-laden monsoon winds that
blow from the south-west during late summer.
o The Western Ghats play a significant and important ecological function in sequestration of
atmospheric CO2 and hence have an important role in climate change.
• It is estimated that they neutralize around 4 million tonnes of carbon every year-
around 10% of emissions neutralised by all Indian forests.
▪ Biodiversity:
o Western Ghats along with its geographical extension in the wet zone of Sri Lanka are now
also considered one of the eight‚ hottest hotspots‛ of biodiversity
o The Western Ghats contain exceptional levels of plant and animal diversity and endemicity.
▪ Economic:
o The Western Ghats are rich in iron, manganese and bauxite ores.
o The forests of Western Ghats are an important source of timber and support a large number
of forest-based industries such as paper, plywood, poly-fibres and matchwood.
o In parts of their ranges Pepper and cardamom, which are native to the evergreen forests of
the Western Ghats have been taken up as plantation crops on a large scale.

pg. 125
 [Link]

• Other large scale plantations include tea, coffee, oil palm and rubber.
▪ Home to Indigenous Tribes:
o The indigenous people of the Western Ghats, including the Particularly Vulnerable Tribal
Groups, constitute 44.2% of the tribal population of 6.95% of Karnataka.
o The Western Ghats are also home to a sizable population of communities like Gowlis,
Kunbis, Halakki Vakkala, Kare Vakkala, Kunbi, and Kulvadi Marathi.
o The communities have been deriving sustenance from the forest by collecting non-timber
forest produce (NTFP).
▪ Tourism and Pilgrimage Centre:
o There are a number of tourist centres that have sprung up in the Western Ghats; example:
Ooty, Thekkady WS etc.
o There have been important pilgrimage centres in the region- prominent amongst these
being Sabarimalai in Kerala, Madeveshwaramalai in Karnataka and Mahabaleshwar in
Maharashtra.

Threats to Western Ghats:

• Mining: The mining activities have grown rapidly especially in Goa and often in violation of all
laws, resulting in serious environmental damage and social disruption.
o Sand mining has emerged as a major threat in Kerala.
o Unsustainable mining has increased vulnerability to landslides, damaged water sources and
agriculture, thus negatively affected the livelihoods of the people living in those areas
• Extraction of Forest Produce: Human communities living within and adjacent to protected areas
in the Western Ghats are often dependent on extraction of NTFPs to meet a diversity of subsistence
and commercial needs.
o With rising population and changing consumption patterns, sustainability of NTFP is a
critical issue.
• Livestock Grazing: Livestock grazing within and bordering protected areas by high densities of
livestock (cattle and goats) is a serious problem causing habitat degradation across the Western
Ghats.
• Human-wildlife Conflict: Given that the Western Ghats exists within an intensely human-
dominated landscape, human-wildlife conflicts are a common phenomenon.
• Hunting: Illegal local hunting driven by tradition or demand for wild meat is pervasive across the
Western Ghats.
o Hunters employ guns as well as a wide array of traditional methods such as poisoning,
snaring and trapping.
o Wild meat is a nonessential part of the diet of hunters who frequently have access to
alternative sources of animal protein.
• Plantations: Agroforestry systems in the Western Ghats are today dominated by tea, coffee, rubber
and monocultures of various species, including the recently introduced oil palm.
o Large-scale planting of coffee in the Western Ghats began in 1854 when the British
established themselves in Kodagu.

pg. 126
 [Link]

o Over the years, plantations of cash crops have displaced extensive patches of natural forests
throughout the Western Ghats and are frequently associated with encroachment of
surrounding forest areas.
• Encroachment by Human Settlements: Human settlements where legal and/or traditional rights
of land ownership occur both within and outside protected areas all across the Western Ghats and
represent a significant landscape level threat.
• Hydropower Projects: Large dam projects in Western Ghats have resulted in environmental and
social disruption despite cost benefit analyses and environmental impact assessments being done
by the government and companies
• Deforestation: Conversion of forest land into agricultural land or for commercial purposes like
tourism, illegal logging for timber have had significant negative effects on biodiversity.
• Climate Change: The changes in land use and deforestation have led to big variations in the
duration and intensity of rainfalls.
o Climate change has been considered as a cause of floods in many regions in the recent past.

The Ministry of Environment and Forests of India set up in March 2010 an expert panel (Gadgil
commission) to find a strategy for conserving these Ghats.

Madhav Gadgil Committee Report on the Kasturirangan committee on the Western Ghats
Western Ghats

1. Kasturirangan committee was constituted

1. Gadgil Commission, an environmental to examine the WGEEP report. The
research commission named after its committee is often called HLWG – 10
chairman Madhav Gadgil. The member high-level working group headed
commission is formally known as Western by Kasturirangan
Ghats Ecology Expert Panel (WGEEP). 2. Instead of the total area of Western Ghats,
The commission submitted the report to the only 37% (i.e. 60,000 sq. km.) of the total
Government of India in August 2011. area be brought under ESA under
2. WGEEP designated the entire hill range Kasturirangan report.
as an Ecologically Sensitive Area (ESA). 3. A complete ban on mining, quarrying and
3. The report has classified Western Ghats sand mining in ESA.
into Ecologically Sensitive Zones (ESZ) 1, 4. Distinguished between cultural ( human
2 and 3. settlements, agricultural fields and
4. ESZ-1 being of high priority, almost all plantations) and natural landscape .
developmental activities (mining, thermal 5. Current mining areas in the ESA should be
power plants etc) were restricted in it. No phased out within the next five years, or at
new dams based on large-scale storage the time of expiry of mining lease,
be permitted in ESZ 1. whichever is earlier.
5. Gadgil Committee recommended a bottom 6. No thermal power be allowed and
to top approach (right from Gram sabhas) hydropower projects are allowed only after
rather than a top to bottom approach and detailed study.

pg. 127
 [Link]

decentralization and more powers to local 7. Red industries, i.e. which are highly
authorities. polluting, to be strictly banned in these
6. The commission recommended the areas.
constitution of a Western Ghats Ecology 8. The Kasturirangan report on the Western
Authority (WGEA), as a statutory Ghats has made several pro-farmer
authority under the Ministry of recommendations, including the exclusion
Environment and Forests, with the of inhabited regions and plantations from
powers under Section 3 of the Environment the purview of ecologically sensitive areas
(Protection) Act, 1986. (ESAs).
7. Criticisms of Madhav Gadgil Report 9. Criticisms of Kasturirangan committee
● The major criticism was that it was more Report
environment-friendly and not in tune with ● The Kasturirangan panel used remote
the ground realities. sensing and aerial survey methods for
● Recommendations were cited as zonal demarcation of land in the Western
impractical to implement. Ghats. The usage of such techniques,
● Gadgil report has asked for a complete eco- without examining the ground reality, has
sensitive cover for the Western Ghats caused many errors in the report.
which hamper different states on energy ● The power is vested with the bureaucrats
and development fronts. and forest officials and not with gram
● There was a criticism against the sabhas.
constitution of a new body called WGEA. ● Many fear that the farmers would get
States insist that protection can be given evicted if the Kasturirangan Committee
under existing laws. report is implemented. Under this report,
● The Gadgil report doesn’t give a solution the mining and quarrying lobbies are
for revenue losses due to the expected to flourish.
implementation of its recommendations. ● The use of “erroneous method” had caused
● Gadgil report is against dams in the inclusion of many villages under
Western Ghats, which is a crucial blow on Ecologically Sensitive Areas (ESA)
the ailing power sector. Considering the though there were only rubber plantations
growing energy needs of India, critics and no forest land!
argue that this recommendation cannot be ● Kasturirangan report included ecologically
taken. non-sensitive areas under ESA, and left out
many ecologically sensitive areas!

Q. Discuss the significance of Western Ghats in the light of a report of Western Ghat Ecological
Panel.

MANGROVES
Mangroves are littoral plant formations of tropical and subtropical coastlines growing below high tide
level.

pg. 128
 [Link]

Characteristics of mangrove:
● Evergreen plants
● Located best on sandy beaches.
● Physiological adaptation to salinity stress.
● Pneumatophores (blind roots) and stilt roots.
● Eg. Rhizophora (prop roots down); Avicenna (roots up from the mud).
● Leaves are thick and contain salt secreting glands.

Mangrove profile in India:

● Mangroves of sunderbans are the largest single block of tidal holophytic in the world.
● Bhitarkanika mangroves (Odisha) is the second largest in the Indian subcontinent.
● Godavari krishna deltaic regions of Andhra Pradesh.
● Mangroves of Pichavaram and Vedaranyam are degraded mainly due to construction of aquaculture
ponds. And salt pans.
● On the west coast of India, mangroves are mostly scrubby and degraded along Maharashtra , Goa
and Karnataka coast.
● Gulf of Kutch and Kori creek.

Importance of mangroves:
● Stabilize the coastal shores and breeding ground for fishes.
● Reduce inundation of coastal lowlands.
● Protects coasts from Tsunami, hurricanes, cyclones.
● Enhance natural recycling of nutrients.
● Supports numerous flora fauna and wildlife.

pg. 129
 [Link]

● Supply wood, firewood, medicinal plants, and food to local people.

● Employment opportunities to local communities.

Threat to mangroves:
● Conversion of area for agricultural purposes, fuel, fodder, mining, oil spills, aquaculture, use of
chemical pesticides, and fertilisers and industrial purposes.
Q. Discuss the causes of depletion of mangroves and explain their importance in maintaining coastal
ecology.

CORAL BLEACHING & CORAL RESTORATION

Status of corals:
● A survey has found record sea temperatures had caused the third mass bleaching of the 2,300-
kilometre Great Barrier Reef system in just five years.
● The United Nations has reported that:
○ 70% of the Earth's coral reefs are threatened,
○ 20% have been destroyed with no hope for recovery,
○ 24% are under imminent risk of collapse, and
○ an additional 26% are at risk due to longer-term threats.
● If stern measures to bring down the greenhouse gas emission levels are not adopted urgently, then
Australia’s Great Barrier Reef might be in danger of coral bleaching as frequently as every two
years by 2034.
● Hawaii became the first U.S. state to put curbs on the sale of sunscreens containing oxybenzone
and octinoxate, which can cause coral bleaching.

What are Corals?

pg. 130
 [Link]

● Corals are invertebrate animals belonging to a large group of colourful and fascinating animals
called Cnidaria.
● Corals are made up of genetically identical organisms called polyps. These polyps have
microscopic algae called zooxanthellae living within their tissues.
● The corals and algae have a mutualistic relationship.
● They are also called the “rainforests of the seas”.
● There are 2 types of corals:
○ Hard, shallow-water corals—the kind that build reefs.
○ Soft corals and deep water corals that live in dark cold waters.

Growth conditions for Coral Reefs

1. Temperature of water between 23°C to 25°C.
2. An average salinity between 27% to 40%.
3. Shallow water having a depth less than 50 m.

What is Coral Bleaching?

● When corals face stress by changes in conditions such as temperature, light, or nutrients, they
expel the symbiotic algae zooxanthellae living in their tissues, causing them to turn completely
white. This phenomenon is called coral bleaching.
● The pale white colour is of the translucent tissues of calcium carbonate which are visible due to the
loss of pigment producing zooxanthellae.
● Coral bleaching has occurred in the Caribbean, Indian, and Pacific oceans on a regular basis.

Causes of Coral Bleaching?

pg. 131
 [Link]

● Extreme climate conditions: High temperature of water leads to the declination of these corals as
they cannot survive in high temperature. El Nino elevates the sea temperature and destroys coral
reefs.
● Ocean Acidification: Due to rise in carbon dioxide levels, oceans absorb more carbon dioxide.
This increases the acidity of ocean water and inhibits the corals ability to create calcareous
skeletons, which is essential for their survival.
● Solar radiation and ultraviolet radiation: Changes in tropical weather patterns result in less
cloud cover and more radiations which induce coral bleaching.
● Infectious Diseases: Penetration of bacterium like vibrio shiloi inhibits photosynthesis of
zooxanthellae. These bacteria become more potent with elevated sea temperatures.
● Pollution: Increased nutrient concentrations affect corals by promoting phytoplankton growth,
which in turn supports increased numbers of organisms that compete with coral for space.
● Increased Sedimentation: Land clearing and coastal construction result in high rates of erosion
which can
○ smother corals when particles settle out (sedimentation),
○ reducing light availability (turbidity) and
○ reduce coral photosynthesis and growth.
● Anthropogenic factors: Overfishing, pollution from agricultural and industrial runoff, coastal area
development, coral mining etc. also adversely impact corals.

Consequences:
● Disturb the entire food chain: Changes in coral communities can affect the species that depend
on them, such as the fish and invertebrates that rely on live coral for food, shelter.
● Declines in genetic and species diversity may occur when corals die as a result of bleaching.
● Coral reefs protect coastlines by absorbing constant wave energy from the ocean, thereby
protecting people living near the coast from increased storm damage, erosion and flooding.
● Bleached and degraded reefs can discourage tourism, which can affect the local economy.
● Coral bleaching can cause large shifts in fish communities resulting in reduced catches for fishers,
which in turn impacts food supply and associated economic activities.

Measures taken for Coral Restoration:

GLOBAL MEASURES MEASURES TAKEN IN INDIA

● International Coral Reef Initiative ● Coastal Regulation Zones (CRZ) and

(ICRI): An informal partnership between National Coastal Zone Management
Nations and organizations which strives to Authority and State Coastal Zone
preserve coral reefs and related ecosystems Management Authority to protect coral
around the world. reefs.
● Chapter 17 of “Agenda 21” specifically ● Coastal Ocean Monitoring and Prediction
addresses the protection and sustainable system (COMAPS), Land Ocean

pg. 132
 [Link]

development of the marine and coastal Interactions in Coastal zones (LOICZ) and
environment within the context of the Integrated Coastal and Marine Area
United Nations Convention on the Law of Management (ICMAM) to protect coral
the Sea (UNCLOS). reefs.
● UN Environment World Conservation ● Coral Bleaching Alert System (CBAS):
Monitoring Centre (UNEP-WCMC): It by INCOIS, uses the satellite derived Sea
works with scientists and policy makers Surface Temperature (SST) to assess the
worldwide to place biodiversity at the heart thermal stress accumulated in the coral
of environment and development environment.
decisionmaking to enable enlightened ● Coral Reef Recovery Project, a joint
choices for people and the planet. venture of Wildlife Trust of India and the
Gujarat Forest Department, supported by
Tata Chemicals Limited (TCL).
○ In Mithapur, the project envisions
the creation of a model PPP coral
ecosystem of international
standards to restore degraded reefs
through activities including coral
transplantation.
● ReefWatch India- An NGO, has taken up
two projects Re(ef)Build and Re(ef)Grow
to conserve the reefs.

pg. 133
 [Link]

Way Forward:
● Solutions for protecting the future for coral must transcend social, economic and cultural
boundaries.
● Promoting sustainable fishing and providing opportunities for ecotourism can help conserve
corals.
● There is a need to minimize the use of chemically enhanced fertilizers, insecticides, pesticides,
and herbicides and harmful industrial waste which are non-degradable and harm corals.
● Taking all possible measures to prevent actions that worsen global warming since Climate
change is the greatest global threat to coral reef ecosystems.

SAND MINING

SAND:
● MInor mineral.
● Buffer against strong tidal waves.
● Sand acts as an aquifer.
● Natural carpet on river bottom.

Sand Mining:
● Sand mining is a practice that is used to extract sand, mainly through open pit mining.
● Main sources of sand are agricultural fields, riverbeds and floodplains, coastal and marine sand,
lakes and reservoirs.
● It is also done on beaches, inland dunes and dredged from ocean beds and river beds.
● Under the Mines and Minerals (Development and Regulation) Act, 1957 (MMDR Act), sand is a
minor mineral and sand mining is regulated by the respective state governments and empowers
state governments to frame rules to prevent illegal mining, transportation and storage of minerals
(both major minerals and minor minerals).
● Illegal sand mining is posing the biggest threat to the last of the wild and breeding ghariyals
left. Found in maximum strength in National Chambal Sanctuary running across three states- UP,
MP and Rajasthan, gharials are losing out to human interference.

Issues with sand mining:

● Desert sand and sea sand are not suitable for construction which makes river-sand a highly
demanded mineral.
● Higher prices of sand in many cities due to non-availability, and absence of robust monitoring
mechanism or regulation by the Government. This leads to illegal sand mining.
● Mixing of low-quality sand with usable sand leading to construction of weak buildings.
● Loss of revenue for exchequer due to cartelization among mining companies during auction.

pg. 134
 [Link]

CONSEQUENCES OF SAND MINING:

● Downstream erosion- deepening of rivers and estuaries.
● Enlargement of river mouths
● Affects local groundwater
● Reduce light penetration
● Reduce primary production
● Environmental Consequences:
○ Change river course; increase river erosion
○ Illegal dredging- robbing
○ Groundwater depletion- ex. Papagani catchment area (KN)
○ Impact habitat of microorganisms
○ Damage to roads and bridges

pg. 135
 [Link]

○ Threat to agriculture
○ Damage to coastal ecosystem
○ Saline water intrusion
● Economic consequences: Loss of employment, revenue and livelihood.

Importance of sustainable sand mining:

● To ensure the conservation of the river equilibrium and its natural environment by protection &
restoration of the ecological system.
● To ensure there is no obstruction to the river flow, water transport and restoring the riparian
habitats.
● To avoid pollution of river water leading to water quality deterioration.
● To prevent groundwater pollution by prohibiting sand mining on fissures where it works as filter
prior to ground water recharge.

MEASURES:
● Alternatives like m-sand (from stone crushing plants) and glass sand can be used.
● Use of fly ash for construction
● Guidelines for sustainable sand mining:
○ Demarcate where to mine and where to prohibit mining.
○ Sustainable mining.
○ District level EIA Authority under District Collector
○ Use of Scientific tools.
○ Real time data on sand mining.

Steps taken by government to Promote Sustainable Mining:

● The Ministry of Environment Forest & Climate Change (MoEFCC) has released the Enforcement
& Monitoring Guidelines for Sand Mining (EMGSM-2020). This Guideline is supplemental to
the existing SSMG-2016 and these two guidelines implemented in sync with each other.
● Mining Surveillance System (MSS): Ministry of Mines, through the Indian Bureau of Mines
(IBM), has developed the MSS to use the space technology to check illegal mining.
● Mining Tenement System (MTS): It will facilitate end to end national scale accounting of all the
minerals produced in the country through automation from the pithead to its end use, reducing the
scope for illegal mining.
● Pradhan Mantri Khanij Kshetra Kalyan Yojana (PMKKKY): funds collected under District
Mineral Foundations (DMF) are utilised for the welfare and development of the mining affected
areas.
● Enforcement & Monitoring Guidelines for Sand Mining (EMGSM-2020)
○ All districts to prepare a comprehensive mining plan and identify and define the mining
and no mining zones considering environmental and social factors.
○ Mining depth should be restricted to 3 meters.
○ No riverbed mining operation allowed in monsoon period.

pg. 136
 [Link]

○ Abandoned stream channels on the floodplains should be preferred rather than active
channels and their deltas and floodplains.
○ Annual audit of each mining lease shall be carried out.
○ It suggested the use of technology such as drones, mobile application and/or bar code
scanners etc. for checking illegal mining, reserves estimation, quantity estimation, land use
monitoring.
○ District Level Task Force (DLTF) under the Chairmanship of District
Magistrate/Collector to keep regular watch.

FLY ASH UTILIZATION

Context:
● National Thermal Power Corporation (NTPC) has recently developed an infrastructure to transport
fly ash from power plants in bulk to cement plants, at a cheaper cost. This development is in line
with NTPC's commitment towards 100% utilization of fly ash from power plants. At present, 63%
of the fly ash is being utilised in India.

What is Fly Ash?

● Fly ash is the end product of combustion during the process of power generation in the coal-based
thermal power plants.
○ It is called fly ash because it is transported from the combustion chamber by exhaust gases.
○ It is collected from the exhaust gases by electrostatic precipitators or bag filters.
● Fly ash includes substantial amounts of silicon dioxide (SiO2), aluminium oxide (Al2O3), ferric
oxide (Fe2O3) and calcium oxide (CaO).
● It resembles Portland cement but is chemically different and exhibits cementitious properties.
● It is used in concrete and cement products, road base, metal recovery, and mineral filler among
others.

Environmental Concerns Associated with Fly Ash:

● Fly ash particles are toxic air pollutants. They can trigger heart disease, cancer, respiratory diseases
and stroke. Fly ash gets easily ingested through respiration, which causes many diseases such as
asthma, neurological disorders.
● It also pollutes the soil, and affects the root development system of trees.
● It becomes airborne, and gets transported to a radius of 10 to 20 kms. It can settle on water and
other surfaces. It can also contaminate water and soil systems.
● A large quantity of fly ash dumped into poorly designed and maintained ash ponds. About a billion
tonnes of this toxic ash lie dumped in these ponds, polluting land, air, and water.
● All the heavy metals found in fly ash—nickel, cadmium, arsenic, chromium, lead, a large amount
of PM 2.5 and black carbon (BC), etc—are toxic in nature. They leech into the surrounding soil
and can enter food-chains.
● Fly ash settles on leaves and crops and reduces crop productivity.
● There is a reduction in recharging of groundwater due to fly ash filled mine voids.

pg. 137
 [Link]

● Reduces visibility by creating dense fog in the winter season.

Government Initiatives for Optimum Utilization of Fly Ash:

● A 2016 notification by Ministry of Environment Forest & Climate Change (MoEFCC) on fly
ash utilization mandates:
○ Increase in mandatory jurisdiction of area of application from 100 kms to 300 kms.
○ TPS should provide fly ash at the rate of Re 1 per tonne and bear the full transportation
cost upto 300 km to such units.
○ Mandatory use of fly ash based products in all government schemes [Link] National
Rural Employment Guarantee Act, 2005, PM Gramin Sadak Yojana, Swachh Bharat
Abhiyan etc.
○ The existing Red Clay Brick kilns located within 300 km shall be converted into fly
ash based bricks or blocks or tiles manufacturing units within one year from the
publication of notification.
● FLY ASH UTILISATION 2018 expands its scope to include new bio-based ash resources and
their expanding relevance for multiple applications, such as road construction and agriculture and
will also bring focus on SLAGS (e.g. blast furnace, steel slags) and their co-existence with ashes.
● GST rates on fly ash and its products have been reduced to 5%.
● ASH TRACK Mobile App has been launched by the Ministry of Power for better management
of fly ash produced by thermal power plants.
● Ash-parks, for promoting fly ash-based product manufacturing units, and awareness programme
for utilisation of fly ash and its products have been conducted.
● Central Electricity Authority (CEA) on behalf of Ministry of Power has been monitoring since
1996-97 the fly ash generation and its utilization in the country at local/lignite based thermal power
stations.
● Fly Ash Notification 2021:
o Fly Ash Notification 2021 was issued under the Environment (Protection) Act 1986.
▪ Prohibiting dumping and disposal of fly ash discharged from coal or lignite based
thermal power plants on land or into water bodies, the Centre has made it
mandatory for such plants to ensure 100% utilization of ash in an eco-friendly
manner, and introduced for the first time a penalty regime for non-compliance
based on 'polluter pays' principle.
▪ Under new rules, the non-compliant power plants will be imposed with an
environmental compensation of Rs 1,000 per tonne on unutilised ash during the
end of every financial year.
o The Notification holds the CPCB and State Pollution Control Boards (SPCB) /
Pollution Control Committees (PCC) responsible for monitoring the effective
implementation of mandates under it.
o The Notification mandates the individual thermal power plant to upload monthly
information regarding ash generation and utilisation on its web portal.
• The National Green Tribunal (NGT) directed the constitution of a ‘Fly Ash Management and
Utilisation Mission.

Fly Ash Utilization Benefits:

pg. 138
 [Link]

● Fly ash is proven resource material for many applications of construction and industries e.g.
manufacturing of portland cement, road embankment construction, fly ash bricks, concrete dams
like GHATGHAR DAM etc.
● Prevent contamination of Water resources through erosion, runoff, discharge from coal ash
ponds etc.
● Helps restrict usage of top soil for manufacturing of bricks and prevent soil erosion.
● Usage in agriculture: For acidic soil as a soil conditioner and helps in improving some important
physicochemical properties of the soil such as hydraulic conductivity, bulk density, porosity, water
holding capacity etc.

Way Forward:
● Proper management of fly ash is important for not only the environment but for us also as the ash
produced by the power plants occupies a lot of land space.
● Maharashtra has become the first state to adopt Fly Ash Utilization Policy, paving way for
prosperity by generating “waste to wealth”, and environment protection.
● “Fly Ash Mission of Government of India” is a slow but steady start, the pace of which needs to
be ramped up.
● Induction of ‘Fly Ash’ as a subject in academic curriculum of Engineering and Architecture may
be introduced.

SOIL ORGANIC CARBON

Context:
● The United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD)’s Committee on Science and
Technology release a report which emphasises the importance of soil organic carbon (SOC) in
preventing land degradation and desertification.

pg. 139
 [Link]

What is Soil Organic Carbon?

● Soil organic carbon is an important soil property.
● Soil organic carbon (SOC) is the carbon associated with soil organic matter (SOM) together
with hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus and sulfur.
● SOM comprises the remains of plants and animals in the soil at various stages of decomposition,
along with the microbial biomass and several by-products of complex biotic metabolic processes.
● It affects many soil properties such as hydrology, structure, and habitat and tends to be
concentrated in the topsoil.

Forms of soil organic carbon:

● Soil organic carbon is a complex mixture of organic compounds at different stages of
decomposition. Because different forms of carbon behave differently, they are often grouped into
three distinct pools:
Labile pool
Slow pool
Inert pool.
1. Labile carbon includes fresh plant and animal material and micro-organisms which are easily
decomposed.
2. The slow pool includes well-decomposed organic materials called humus.
3. The inert pool is the soil carbon fraction that is old, resistant to further breakdown and in the last
stage of decomposition. Soils differ not only in total soil organic carbon but also in the composition
of the different organic carbon pools.
● It is our aim to maximise the amount of slow pool and inert pool carbon as this will maximise soil
condition, health and stability.

pg. 140
 [Link]

Why is soil organic carbon important?

The nature and quantity of organic carbon in the soil affects a wide range of physical, chemical and
biological soil properties.

1. Soil nutrients. Decomposition of organic materials in the soil releases soil nutrients such as
nitrogen, phosphorus etc.
2. Soil structure. Soil organic carbon promotes good soil structure by binding soil particles together
in stable aggregates. Improved structure aids aeration, water holding capacity, etc.
3. Soil biology. Organic matter and organic carbon in the soil are a food source for a range of soil
organisms and so enhance soil biodiversity and biological health. A wide range of organisms in the
soil also helps release nutrients and create pores and can help protect against crop diseases.
4. Soil protection. Adequate soil carbon reduces the severity and costs of natural phenomena (eg
drought, flood, and disease) and can contribute to farm production and increasing soil organic
carbon is valuable for a range of soil health, sustainability and production benefits.
Climate. Rainfall and temperature have by far the strongest influence on soil organic matter levels. Soil
organic matter content is usually higher where rainfall is higher and temperatures are cooler. Soil organic
matter tends to decompose more rapidly in warmer soils.
1. Soil type. Soils that are naturally more fertile will tend to have higher organic matter contents due
to the greater amount of both living and dead organic matter (biomass) that can be produced. Soils
high in clay will tend to retain more soil organic matter than sandy soils.
2. Soil moisture. Moist soils tend to have more carbon than their drier counterparts. Waterlogged
soils or soils in wet depressions will tend to have more carbon.
3. Soil aeration. Soils that are better aerated tend to lose carbon more rapidly.
4. Topography. Soils at the bottom of slopes will usually have higher organic matter levels because
these areas are generally wetter and have higher clay contents. Poorly drained areas also have much
slower rates of organic matter decomposition and higher organic matter contents.
5. Plant productivity. The greater the plant growth, the more organic matter is made available to the
soil. The hardier the plant is, the slower the decomposition rate and hence the higher the soil organic
matter levels.
6. Management effects. Land-use and land management practices can also influence the amount of
organic matter in the soil. Land management affects soil carbon due to the balance of carbon inputs
against outputs (ie. how much organic matter is produced, how much is removed from the site).

Measures to improve Soil organic Carbon:

SOC is one of the three global indicators of Land Degradation Neutrality (LDN). Hence, predicting,
monitoring change & protecting SOC is vital to achieving LDN targets.

pg. 141
 [Link]

Advancing sustainable development goals through management of soil health:

#Goal Objective Impact of soil health

1 No poverty Increase farm income

2 End hunger Enhance quantity and quality of food

3 Good health Produce nutritious food

5 Gender equality Improve crop productivity of women farmers

6 Clean water and Improve water quality

sanitation

8 Economic growth An engine of economic development

10 Reduce inequalities Enhance and sustain farm productivity

12 Responsible Reduce input of water, nutrients and energy by decreasing losses

consumption

13 Climate action Sequester C and mitigate climate change

pg. 142
 [Link]

15 Life on land Increase activity and species diversity of soil biota

Conclusion:
The 2015 Status of the World’s Soil Resources report highlights that more carbon resides in soil than in
the atmosphere and all plant life combined. However, roughly 33% of the world’s soils are degraded,
which has led to large losses of SOC. Capturing carbon in the soil helps improve soil health and
productivity, stabilize the global carbon cycle, and ultimately help to mitigate climate change.

ISLAND DEVELOPMENT

NITI Aayog’s Great Nicobar Development plan:

● NITI Aayog’s Great Nicobar Development plan aims to promote the holistic development of
Greater Nicobar. Based on that, the Standing Committee of the National Board for Wildlife
(NBWL) denotified the entire Galathea Bay Wildlife Sanctuary for building port and other
related infrastructure.

About Great Nicobar Island:

● Great Nicobar is the southernmost and largest of the Nicobar Islands of India. The island of
Sumatra is located 180 km to the south of Great Nicobar.
● The island is home to one of the most primitive tribes of India — the Shompens.

pg. 143
 [Link]

● The island includes the Great Nicobar Biosphere Reserve (GNBR) comprising the Galathea
National Park and the Campbell Bay National Park.
● Indira Point in the Great Nicobar Island is the southernmost point of India’s territory.

Great Nicobar Development plan

● Phase 1 of the plan will cover:
○ 22 sq. km. airport complex,
○ Transshipment port (TSP) at South Bay
○ Parallel-to-the-coast mass rapid transport system and
○ Free trade zone and warehousing complex on the southwestern coast.
● Andaman and Nicobar Islands Integrated Development Corporation (ANIIDCO) will be the nodal
agency for the implementation of the Great Nicobar Development plan.

Significance of the Great Nicobar Development plan

1. Job opportunities for locals: The plan involves the creation of infrastructure (ports, airports, etc.).
This will help in creating satisfactory jobs for the locals.
2. Economic Development: It will help in creating tourism prospects in the region. This will aid the
income generation in the region.
3. Connectivity: The development of world-class infrastructure will help in improving inter-island
connectivity. Thereby, improving governance and boosting export potential.
4. Social Benefits: It would further create affordable state-of-the-art facilities for healthcare, quality
education, and adequate air, sea and web infrastructure.
○ It will facilitate the delivery of e-governance services such as telemedicine and tele-
education, as a part of the Digital India initiative.
5. Strategic benefit: The Nicobar island located in proximity to the strait of Malacca. This demands
the creation of robust infrastructure for meeting geopolitical interests in the region.
○ The islands are also home to India’s only tri-services command – the Andaman and
Nicobar Command (ANC).
○ The command holds immense relevance due to rising Chinese aggression in the Indo-
Pacific region.

Concerns with the Great Nicobar Development plan

1. Threat to biodiversity: Any construction in the region threatens the survival of certain important
organisms. Such as,
○ The beaches at the mouth of the river Galathea in South Bay are among the most prominent
nesting sites of Giant leatherback turtles.
○ Similarly, 90% of the Nicobar megapode’s nesting sites are within a distance of 30 m from
the shore.
2. Jeopardizing environment for economics: Galathea sanctuary lies in Coastal Regulation Zone
(CRZ)-I (the zone with maximum protection). But still, a slew of high-value projects got
precedence over the pristine biodiversity.

pg. 144
 [Link]

3. Neglecting tribal rights: The proposed project areas are important grounds for the hunter-gatherer
nomadic community especially Shompen. Initiation of work would make large forest areas
inaccessible and useless for the Shompen.
4. Geological volatility: Andaman & Nicobar Islands are located in seismic zone V. Furthermore,
The Andaman & Nicobar observe frequent storms and cyclones. This can easily destroy constructed
structures.
○ For instance, In 2004 Tsunami caused a 3-4 metre land subsidence. This is the reason for
the submergence of a lighthouse located at Indira point.
5. Undermining international obligations: The Galathea Bay Wildlife Sanctuary forms part of a
UNESCO World Heritage Site. So preservation of this pristine biodiversity is an International
Obligation of India.
6. Information Deficit: The rationale, process of creation, and other relevant provisions of the plan
are still not publicly available.

Suggestions
1. It must be carried out with due regard to tribal rights. This would involve proper adherence to
policies like the Shompen Policy of 2015.
○ The Shompen Policy of 2015 calls for giving priority to tribal rights over large scale
development proposals.
2. Any construction under the Great Nicobar Development plan should involve a proper
Environment impact assessment (as mandated by the Environment Protection Act 1986).
3. Construction of infrastructure should be done using eco-friendly practices like strict adherence to
GRIHA code for building construction.
4. NITI Aayog and the agencies participating in planning should maintain transparency in data.
The government should release the data on the rationale, the process of creation, consulted groups
etc. in public domain. This will give a holistic view to critics and supporters.
5. India should enhance Cooperation with countries like Japan, South Korea etc. This will help in
developing successful island development models.

DECARBONISING TRANSPORT

India’s Transport Sector:

● India has the world’s second-largest road network, which contributes to maximum GHG
emissions among all means of transportation.
● With increasing urbanisation, the sales of vehicles is increasing rapidly. It is projected that the total
number of vehicles will be doubled by 2030.
● Therefore, the transition to a decarbonisation path for the transport sector in India is essential to
achieving the goals of the Paris Climate Agreement for 2050

Decarbonising Transport:
● NITI Aayog in collaboration with International Transport Forum (ITF) has launched the
“Decarbonising Transport in India” project, with the intention to develop a pathway towards a
low-carbon transport system for India.

pg. 145
 [Link]

● The India project is carried out as a part of the International Transport Forum’s “Decarbonising
Transport” initiative. It is part of the “Decarbonising Transport in Emerging Economies”
(DTEE) family of projects, which supports transport decarbonisation across different world
regions.
● The project will design a tailor-made transport emissions assessment framework for India.
● It will provide the government with a detailed understanding of current and future transport activity
and the related CO2 emissions as a basis for their decision-making.
● Financing climate actions in transport.
● Offering policy recommendations on electric vehicle (EV) demand and supply policies etc.

Benefits:
● The programme will help to promote electric mobility in India.
● It will also support the development of policies and regulations to promote electric vehicle charging
infrastructure.

Measures to achieve decarbonisation in transport sector:

● Transit oriented development (TOD) increasing the accessibility on short-to medium distances
that enable the use of public transit, walking and cycling.
● Emerging trends such as work from home, e-commerce etc. incentivising people to travel less.
● Make the use of CO2 and energy intensive modes less attractive, e.g. reduced and more expensive
parking space; high taxes on fuel and polluting vehicles, promoting electric vehicles etc.
● Improving energy savings Infrastructure: This includes escalators, lifts, building insulation,
heating, cooling, cogeneration, lighting, etc. Another example is the increasingly popular
production of renewable electricity from photovoltaic panels installed on roofs of maintenance and
parking/stabling facilities when tax or investment incentives are available.
● Other policies such as increasing commercial speed and reliability for public modes of
transport, such as priority at traffic lights and reserved corridors/lanes such as Dedicated Freight
Corridors.

pg. 146
 [Link]

Government initiatives for decarbonising transport:

Roads 1. National Electric Mobility Mission Plan (NEMMP).
2. Faster Adoption and Manufacturing of (Hybrid &) Electric vehicles in India
(FAME India).
3. National Policy on Biofuels, 2018
4. Bharatmala Project.
5. BS VI norms.
6. Promoting public transports such as metro rail & Transit Oriented
Development.
7. H-CNG fuel based public transport.

Railways 1. Dedicated freight corridors.

pg. 147
 [Link]

2. Railway Electrification.
3. Improving energy efficiency of locomotives & trains and green certification
for installations/stations.
4. It is all set to transform itself as 'Net Zero' Carbon Emission Mass
Transportation Network by 2030.

Airways 1. AAI has outlined a series of initiatives to check depletion of ozone layer and
emissions through improved air navigation service (ANS) procedures:
a. Route optimisation.
b. Upgrading of surveillance infrastructure.
c. Blended bio-jet fuel experiment.
d. Upper airspace harmonisation.
e. Collaborative environmental initiatives

Waterways 1. National Waterways.

2. Sagarmala Pariyojana.
3. Ro-Ro ferry services.
4. LNG propelled vessels.

ECOSYSTEM RESTORATION
Context:
● The United Nations General Assembly (UNGA) proclaimed 2021–2030 as the Decade on
Ecosystem Restoration.
What is Ecosystem Restoration (ER)?
● It is the process of assisting the recovery of an ecosystem that has been degraded, damaged or
destroyed.
● The concept has gained importance due to the unprecedented pace of degradation of world’s
landscapes and ecosystems because of over-exploitation of natural resources.
● Restoration activities may be designed to replicate a pre-disturbed ecosystem or to create a new
ecosystem where it had not previously occurred.
● It involves practices such as restoring vegetation, planting native trees, clearing invasive species,
regenerative (perennial) agriculture, agroforestry etc.

Why is there a need for ecosystem restoration?

Terrestrial Ecosystems: Aquatic Ecosystems:

1. Declining land fertility: About 20% of the 1. Decline in wetland areas: Around 70
planet’s land area has seen a decline in percent of wetlands have been lost over the
productivity with fertility losses linked to last century, leading to biodiversity losses
erosion, soil depletion and pollution. This and acute water shortages.
affects vegetation. 2. Marine ecosystems: Climate change and
2. Declining Forest Cover: World’s forest human activities has led to:
area decreased from 31.6% of global land

pg. 148
 [Link]

area in 1990 to 30.6% in 2015 and around a. Rise in Dead zones around major
70 million hectares of forests has been lost river deltas which affect fishing
since 2000. This has led to reduction in industry.
carbon sink and loss of habitat for a wide b. Coral reefs are projected to decline
variety of species. by a further 70 to 90 percent at a
3. Land degradation causes loss of more than temperature increase of 1.5
10 percent of annual global GDP. degrees Celsius.
3. 20 to 50 percent of global blue carbon
ecosystems have already been converted or
degraded.

What are the Benefits associated with Ecosystem Restoration?

● ER can help achieve International commitments & targets under agreements such as 2030
Agenda for Sustainable Development, the Paris Climate Agreement, Aichi Biodiversity Targets
etc.
● Climate change mitigation: Restoration could also remove 13 to 26 gigatons of greenhouse gases
from the atmosphere through healthy ecosystems such as forests, mangroves and peatlands.
● Biodiversity Conservation: Protecting and restoring ecosystems can help save the 1 million
animal and plant species currently threatened with extinction.
● Poverty Alleviation: Restoring 350 million hectares of degraded landscapes by 2030 can present
a boost to rural economies worth US$9 trillion in ecosystem services.
● Food security: Healthy soils can store more nutrients and produce higher quality plants.
● Enhanced tourism: through revival of natural landscapes.
● It can prevent conflict and migration triggered by environmental degradation.

pg. 149
 [Link]

● Reviving coastal and marine biodiversity hotspots on Earth: These ecosystems also provide
storm protection, fisheries and carbon storage.

Challenges associated with ecosystem restoration:

● Time taking process: ER needs continuous and long-term efforts to generate desired results.
● High initial financial Investment: It will take around $ 800 billion to restore 350 million hectares
of land.
● Lack of coordination: Usually ecosystems do not confer to geographical boundaries and thus
international coordination is a necessity for restoration efforts.
● Poor understanding of ecosystem characteristics: ER without conducting proper research and
study of specific ecosystems can have undesirable results and cause further degradation.

UN Decade on Ecosystem Restoration:

The UN Decade on Ecosystem Restoration aims to:
● massively scale up the restoration of degraded and destroyed ecosystems as a proven measure
to fight the climate crisis and enhance food security, water supply and biodiversity.
● Showcase successful government-led and private initiatives to halt ecosystem degradation and
restore degraded ecosystems.
● Enhance knowledge exchange to implement restoration at scale.
● Create links between ecosystem restoration and businesses interested in sustainable production
and impact investment.
● It includes forests, grasslands, croplands, wetlands, savannahs, inland water, coastal and marine
ecosystems, and even urban environments.
● On land, restoration of at least 350 million hectares of degraded landscapes by 2030 is targeted.
● UN Environment and the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) will lead the
implementation.
● This endeavour builds on regional efforts such as:
○ o Initiative 20×20 in Latin America that aims to restore 20 million hectares of degraded
land by 2020,
○ AFR100 African Forest Landscape Restoration Initiative that aims to bring 100 million
hectares of degraded land under restoration by 2030.

COMPENSATORY AFFORESTATION
What is Compensatory Afforestation?
● The Forest (Conservation) Act of 1980 requires that non-forest land, equal to the size of the forest
being “diverted”, is afforested.
● Compensatory afforestation is defined as afforestation done in lieu of the diversion of forest
land for non-forest use.
● To compensate for the loss in the interim, the law requires that the Net Present Value (NPV) of
the diverted forest is calculated for a period of 50 years, and recovered from the “user agency”
that is “diverting” the forests.
Need for Compensatory Afforestation:
● India State of Forest Report(ISFR), 2019 stated that The Total Forest and Tree cover is 24.56% of
the geographical area of the country.

pg. 150
 [Link]

●For the past two decades concern for climate change and sustainable development is the talk over
all major international platforms but on the other side there is increasing deforestation, forest fires,
encroachments etc.
Compensatory Afforestation (CA) process in India:
● The Supreme Court of India in 2002 (TN Godavarman case) had ordered for the creation of
CAMPA fund.
● CAMPA was established in 2004 to manage the Compensatory Afforestation Fund (CAF)
● After the CAG report of 2013 where it was mentioned that CAMPA funds are going unutilised The
government enacted Compensatory Afforestation Fund Act 2016 to provide a proper
institutional mechanism for compensatory afforestation matters.
● National Compensatory Afforestation Fund under the Public Account of India and State
Compensatory Afforestation Fund under the Public Account of each state was created
● The State Funds will receive 90% of the payments while the National Fund will receive the
remaining 10%.
● The project proponent identifies land for CA and also pays the current economic value of the
diverted forest land ‘Net Present Value’. This money which is transferred to the forest department
gets collected in the Compensatory Afforestation Fund.
● The forest department then undertakes appropriate plantation work on that land, which grows into
forests over time.

Issues with the Act:

● Compromising community forest rights: The land identified for compensatory afforestation
would be under forest department’s jurisdiction thus, having adverse consequences for the hard-
won rights of tribals and forest dwellers.

pg. 151
 [Link]

● Scarcity of land as land is a limited resource, and is required for multiple purposes, such as
agriculture, industry, etc. The problem is compounded by unclear land titles.
● A High Level Committee on Environment Laws observed that quality of forest cover has declined
between 1951 and 2014, with poor quality of compensatory afforestation plantations being one of
the reasons behind the decline.
● Lack of monitoring mechanism for expenditure from funds.
● Inadequate Capacity of state forest departments for planning and implementation. Still
utilisation of 90% of funds depend on it.
● .Artificial vs original: Natural ecosystems take thousands of years to develop over a place. Raising
artificial plantations elsewhere such as those along the flanks of railway lines, highways, and so on
can’t be supposed to have the same biodiversity value as the original ones. Often, they have a poor
survival rate.
● Also, computing the appropriate Net Present Value of a forest is a challenge.
● Poor survival rate of plantations raised under compensatory afforestation also raises serious
questions about their effectiveness.

Way forward:
An ecosystems approach with focus on climate justice and the rights and role of local communities is the
need of the hour. It should also address biodiversity and poverty effectively and challenge the underlying
causes of deforestation directly, resolving governance, poverty and land tenure issues.

OZONE LAYER RECOVERY

Context:
Recently the EU’s Copernicus Atmosphere Monitoring Service (CAMS) announced that a hole in the
Arctic ozone layer, believed to be the biggest reported, has closed. Earlier A UN study ‘Scientific
Assessment of Ozone Depletion, has shown that the ozone layer is recovering at a rate of 1-3% per decade.
Ozone Layer:
● The ozone layer or ozone shield is a region of the Earth’s stratosphere that absorbs most of the
Sun’s Ultraviolet (UV) radiation. Roughly 10 km to 40 km up in the atmosphere (the layer called
the stratosphere), the ozone layer is sunscreen, shielding Earth from harmful ultraviolet radiation.

pg. 152
 [Link]

What is ozone hole?

● The ‘ozone hole’ is not really a hole — it refers to a region in the stratosphere where the
concentration of ozone becomes extremely low in certain months.
● The ozone hole is a region of depleted layers of ozone above the Arctic & Antarctic region.
● Each spring over Antarctica, atmospheric ozone is destroyed by chemical processes. This creates
the ozone hole, which occurs because of special meteorological and chemical conditions that exist
in that region.
Factors responsible for the depletion of ozone:
● Manufactured chemicals deplete the ozone layer. The release of chlorine from CFCs
(Chlorofluorocarbons) destroys the ozone. CFCs are released by products such as hairsprays, old
refrigerators etc.
What healed the hole in the Ozone this year?
● The ozone hole’s closing was because of a phenomenon called the polar vortex, and not because
of reduced pollution levels due to Covid-19 lockdowns around the world.
● The hole in the North Pole’s ozone layer, which was first detected in February, had since reached
a maximum extension of around 1 million sq km.
How long will it take for complete recovery?
● As per UN study ‘Scientific Assessment of Ozone Depletion 2018, The Northern Hemisphere
and mid-latitude ozone is predicted to recover by around 2030, followed by the Southern
Hemisphere around 2050, and polar regions by 2060.
Measures taken:
● The IMO (International Maritime Organisation) mandated that cargo ships must not use fuel
that has sulphur content any higher than 0.5%. This will be implemented from 1st January
2020 as this is one of the many environmental-related issues that is associated with the shipping
industry.
● The Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer was signed in 1985 under which
UN member countries recognized the importance of curbing damage to the ozone layer. Montreal
Protocol to further the goals of the Vienna Convention.
● Efforts on an Individual level can be as follows:
● Avoid Using Pesticides
● Use Eco-friendly Cleaning Products
● The Use of Nitrous Oxide should be Prohibited

RESOURCES OF INDIA AND THE WORLD

OCEAN RESOURCES
Oceans cover 70 percent of Earth’s surface, host a vast variety of geological processes responsible
for the formation and concentration of mineral resources, and are the ultimate repository of many materials
eroded or dissolved from the land surface. Hence, oceans contain vast quantities of materials that presently
serve as major resources for humans.
Resources in the ocean:
• Classified in to two broad categories –

pg. 153
 [Link]

BIOTIC RESOURCES ABIOTIC RESOURCES

• Biotic means alive and Abiotic means Mineral Reserves
non-living. 1. Mineral dissolved in sea-water
• Biotic resources of the seas 1. Salt
include fishes, crustaceans, molluscs, 2. Bromine
corals, reptiles and mammals etc. 3. Magnesium
1. Planktons 4. Gold
• Plankton are the diverse collection of 5. Zinc
organisms found in water that are 6. Uranium
unable to propel themselves against a 7. Thorium
current. 2. Continental Shelf and Slope Deposits
o Phytoplanktons– floating and • Sulphur – associated with marine
drifting micro plants. volcanism. Ex. Gulf of Mexico – a rich
o Autotrophs source of sulphur
o E.g.- algae and diatoms • Magnetite reserves are found along
o Zooplanktons– floating and the circum pacific volcanic belt.
drifting micro animals. • monazite sand (source of thorium) at
2. Nektons Kerala coast
• Nekton (or swimmers) is living • Gold (Alaska)
organisms that are able to swim and • Zircon (Brazil, Australia)
• Diamond (South Africa)
move independently of currents at
• Calcium-– Peruvian coast rich deposits
various depths of seas and oceans. E.g.- of calcium and phosphate
• Fishes- • Sand and gravel – significant building
o pelagic materials widely found on beds of
o demersal continental shelves
• mammals- • Fishes are rich in nitrate and phosphate,
• dolphin
high protein, medicinal use
• Pearls
• Blue whale
3. Deep ocean bottom deposits
Fishes • Manganese nodules– It comprises
• Pelagic fish live in the pelagic zone of several minerals like nickel, copper,
ocean or lake waters – being neither cobalt, lead, zinc, etc.
close to the bottom nor near the shore • The maximum percentage of Iron and
• Demersal fish that live on or near the Manganese.
• Cobalt-rich marine deposits associated
bottom.
with seamounts and guyots.
3. Benthos- • Phosphate-in form of phosphoritic
• Benthos is the community of organisms modules on shallow seabeds.
that live on, in, or near the seabed, also • Polymetallic nodules
known as the benthic zone. This • Polymetallic nodules are rounded
community lives in from tidal pools accretions of manganese and iron
along the foreshore, out to the hydroxides that cover vast areas of
continental shelf, and the seafloor but are most abundant
then down to the abyssal depths. on abyssal plains
• Benthos –
1. mobile • Energy reserves
2. immobile Renewable, OTEC, Wave, Tidal, Wind,
Non-Renewable, Gas hydrates, Mineral
oil and Natural gas

pg. 154
 [Link]

Ocean thermal energy conversion (OTEC) –

• Ocean thermal energy conversion
(OTEC) uses the temperature difference
between a cooler deep and warmer
shallow or surface seawaters to run a
heat engine and produce useful work,
usually in the form of electricity.
• However, since the temperature
differential is small, the thermal
efficiency is low, making its economic
feasibility a challenge.
Wave Energy –
• Wave energy is produced when
electricity generators are placed on the
surface of the ocean. The energy
provided is most often used in
desalination plants, power plants, and
water pumps. Energy output is
determined by wave height, wave speed,
wavelength, and water density.
Tidal energy –
• Tidal energy is produced through the use
of tidal energy generators.
• Large underwater turbines are placed in
areas with high tidal movements and are
designed to capture the kinetic motion of
ocean tides in order to produce
electricity.
Offshore Wind energy –
• Offshore wind power or offshore wind
energy refers to the construction of wind
farms in bodies of water to generate
electricity from wind. Stronger wind
speeds are available offshore compared
to on land, so offshore wind power’s
contribution in terms of electricity
supplied is higher.

pg. 155
 [Link]

How Deep sea mining can affect ocean resources:

● Life on the ocean beds moves at a glacial pace. Sediment accumulates at a rate of 1 millimetre
every millennium. With such a slow rate of growth, areas disturbed by deep-sea mining would be
unlikely to recover on a reasonable timescale.
● It is also likely possible that the extraction of resources on a large scale from the ocean beds may
result in the disturbance in the water cycle. In turn affecting the climate of the Earth.
● Species such as whales, tuna and sharks could be affected by noise, vibrations and light pollution
caused by mining equipment and surface vessels, as well as potential leaks and spills of fuel and
toxic products.

Measures: A better understanding of the deep sea is necessary to guide mitigation strategies and proper
enforcement of regulations in order to limit the environmental impacts of mining activities.
● Comprehensive baseline studies are needed to understand what species live in the deep sea, how
they live, and how they could be affected by mining activities.
● More funds are needed for training and educational programmes focused on improving our
understanding of the deep sea.
● High-quality environmental assessments are needed to assess the full range, extent and duration of
environmental damage from deep-sea mining operations.
● The repair, recycling and reuse of products should be encouraged to help reduce the demand for
raw materials from the deep sea.

pg. 156
 [Link]

● The ISA is operating with the dual mandate of promoting the development of deep-sea minerals
whilst ensuring that this development is not harmful to the environment.

Q. Critically evaluate the various resources of the oceans which can be harnessed to meet the resource
crisis in the world.

OIL & NATURAL GAS

Geographical Distribution of Oil and Natural Gas Deposits
● Hydrocarbons - oil and gas - are at present the most important energy fuels.
● Together they account for more than 60 % of the world-wide total primary energy supply.
International Energy Agencies (e.g. IEA 2005) predicted a further increase of oil and gas demand.
● There is a geographical mismatch between resource location and demand that will continue to
increase in the future.
● About 70 % of global conventional oil and natural gas reserves are concentrated inside a so-called
Strategic Ellipse stretching from the Middle East to the North of West Siberia.
● Oil is of extreme importance for transportation, heat production and the chemical industry whereas
natural gas is primarily of importance for heat and electricity production as well as for chemical
industry.
● The availability of fuels, taking into account their uneven worldwide distribution, can be broken
down into the following elements:
○ Geological availability,
○ Technical availability,
○ Availability of transportation,
○ Political availability.
Oil Reserves:
● The regional distribution of conventional crude oil reserves is very uneven. Inside the so -called
Strategic Ellipse is located about 71 % of global reserves. About 62 % of global reserves are in
the Middle East, about 13 % in North and South America, and about 10 % in the CIS countries.
● OPEC has about 73 % of global reserves (of which 61 % is in the Persian Gulf region), OECD
about 8 %, leaving about 17 % for the rest of the world.

Natural Gas Reserves, production and consumption:

● Natural gas accounts for about 24 % of primary energy consumption, after crude oil and hard coal.
Its share has increased in the last several years. This trend is expected to continue in the future.
● The regional distribution, like for crude oil, is very uneven. Inside a so called Strategic Ellipse is
located about 69 % of global reserves. About 41 % of global reserves are in the Middle East, about
32 % in the CIS countries and about 8 % in Africa.
● OPEC has about 50 % of global reserves (of which 40 % is located in the Persian Gulf region),
OECD about 9 % .
● The three counties with major gas reserves Russia, Iran and Qatar dispose of more than a half of
global gas reserves.
● Figure : Strategic Ellipse and countries with natural gas reserves >1 T.m³

pg. 157
 [Link]

● India, the world's third biggest oil importer and consumer, imports about 84% of its overall crude
needs with over 60% of that coming from Middle Eastern countries, which are typically cheaper
than those from the West

Factors that explain why diversification of energy sources is a good idea for India:
1. Growing price competitiveness: Energy alternatives such as gas, fossil fuels etc. collectively pose
a risk for power plant operators, along with end users, with their price volatility. While the natural
gas prices fluctuate from one state to another, the fluctuation of fossil fuel rates also appears from
time to time. But the renewable energy sector has witnessed tremendous advancement in the whole
value chain, especially the technology leap enabled by innovation along with immense potential to
drive down the prices of renewables rapidly.
2. Renewable energy is a safe bet for the long run: The average wind or solar farm is built for up
to 25 to 30 years of operation, which is even longer in case of hydro power plants. Consequently,
renewables have the capacity to continue generating electricity maintaining its efficiency that
further boosts competitiveness.
3. Energy security: While oil and gas sources are limited to certain regions of the world, renewable
energy is available everywhere and is domestic. Not only does it offer security of energy supply
but also reduces dependence on imported sources.
4. India is better placed for energy diversification: With various factors giving the renewable
energy segment a push, India now has a great opportunity ahead to shape its energy mix.
Contributing factors like supportive government policies, coupled with incentives and
infrastructure and investment promotions are being taken, to serve the social and economic growth
of the country through renewable energies.
5. Another important factor in favor of renewable energy is the lack of fiscal support from the
government. Therefore, an investor with capital can fund more projects across regions to diversify
resource-based risks.

Challenges for India: Despite these growth opportunities the segment is dealing with a bunch of challenges
like:
● grid integration
● counterparty risk,
● cost of finance,
● imbalance costs
● market creation has not been easy
● but with the rising awareness of environmental, economic and social benefits, public opinion has
been positive.
In a nutshell, diversification of energy supply is a great way to strengthen the energy security of any nation.
In order to attain a long term, sustainable energy strategy that protects the power supply from market
fluctuations, a diversified portfolio of energy could prove to be an asset. As the saying goes ‘never put all
your eggs in one basket’ and the power sector is not an exception.

Q. Discuss the distribution of oil and natural gas in the world. Make a case for diversification of
India’s oil basket.

pg. 158
 [Link]

SHALE GAS RESERVES, PRODUCTION & POLLUTION

What is shale gas?
● Shale gas is natural gas, one of several forms of unconventional gas (also known as methane or
CH4).
● Shales are fine-grained sedimentary rocks that can be rich sources of petroleum and natural gas.
● Shale gas is trapped within the pores of this sedimentary rock in three ways:
[Link] gas: The gas is within the rock pores and natural fractures.
[Link] gas: The gas is adsorbed on organic materials and clay.
[Link] gas: The gas is dissolved in the organic materials.
● The Energy Information Administration of the USA predicts that by 2030, shale gas will meet 14%
of the world’s gas needs.
● China is estimated to have the world's largest reserves of shale gas.

How is shale gas produced?

● The United States, Canada, China, and Argentina are currently the only four countries in the
world that are producing commercial volumes of either natural gas from shale formations.
● Shale Gas is produced through a method known as hydraulic fracturing, most popularly known
as fracking.
● Shale gas reserves are usually distributed horizontally rather than vertically.

Shale Gas Reserves in India:

As per the NITI Aayog Report, India has 96 Trillion Cubic feet of recoverable Shale gas resources.

pg. 159
 [Link]

India has identified six basins as areas for shale gas exploration:
● Cambay (Gujarat),
● Assam-Arakan (North East),
● Gondwana (Central India),
● Krishna Godavari onshore (East Coast),
● Cauvery onshore, and
● Indo-Gangetic basins.

Major challenges of shale gas exploration in India:

The Energy & Resource Institute (TERI) has raised certain concerns related to exploration of shale gas
in its report “Look Before You Leap” which discusses following major challenges:
1. Water Scarcity in India: Impact on availability of water for other purposes, since fracking requires
a huge quantity of water. This can be further supported by the report of 'India water portal’ which
points out that in the next 12– 15 years, while the consumption of water will increase by over 50
per cent, the supply will increase by only 5 to 10 per cent.
2. Environmental Concerns: The pumping of deadly hydrochloric acid and carcinogens into the
shale formations to release the gas pollute the groundwater.
3. Land Acquisition: Acquisition of huge tracts of land would pose not only legal challenges but
would also lead to displacement of large number of people.
4. Shale gas wells leak substantial amounts of methane, a potent greenhouse gas.
3.5. Way Forward:
Shale gas can be a solution for the rising energy requirements for a fast-growing economy like India.
Utilisation of domestic shale gas can support India’s growing energy demands besides reducing dependence
on expensive energy imports. However, the government needs to comprehensively regulate the fracking
process for developing sustainable shale gas exploration resources in India.

pg. 160
 [Link]

RARE EARTH MINERALS

Rare Earth Minerals:
● The rare earth minerals (REM) are a set of seventeen metallic elements. These include the fifteen
lanthanides on the periodic table in addition to scandium and yttrium that show similar physical
and chemical properties to the lanthanides.
● The REMs have unique catalytic, metallurgical, nuclear, electrical, magnetic and luminescent
properties.
● While named ‘rare earth’, they are in fact not that rare and are relatively abundant in the Earth’s
crust

Strategic importance of REMs:

● They have distinctive electrical, metallurgical, catalytic, nuclear, magnetic and luminescent
properties.
● They are strategically very important due to their use of emerging and diverse technologies that
cater to the needs of current society.
● Its usage range from daily use (e.g., lighter flints, glass polishing mediums, car alternators) to high-
end technology (lasers, magnets, batteries, fiber-optic telecommunication cables).
● Even futuristic technologies need these REMs (For example high-temperature superconductivity,
safe storage and transport of hydrogen for a post-hydrocarbon economy, environmental global
warming and energy efficiency issues).
● The global demand for REMs has increased significantly in line with its expansion into high-end
technology, environment, and economic areas.
● They are extremely important for many modern technologies, including consumer electronics,
computers, and networks, communications, clean energy, advanced transportation, health care,
environmental mitigation, national defense, etc.
● Due to their unique magnetic, luminescent, and electrochemical properties, they help in
technologies perform with reduced weight, reduced emissions, and energy consumption; therefore
give them greater efficiency, performance, miniaturization, speed, durability, and thermal stability.

Applications of REMs in various fields:

● Electronics: Television screens, computers, cell phones, silicon chips, monitor displays, long-life
rechargeable batteries, camera lenses, light-emitting diodes (LEDs), compact fluorescent lamps
(CFLs), baggage scanners, marine propulsion systems.
● Defense Sector: Rare earth elements play an essential role in our national defense. The military
uses night-vision goggles, precision-guided weapons, communications equipment, GPS equipment,
batteries, and other defense electronics.
● Renewable Energy: Solar panels, Hybrid automobiles, wind turbines, next-generation
rechargeable batteries, bio-fuel catalysts.
● Manufacturing: High strength magnets, metal alloys, stress gauges, ceramic pigments, colorants
in glassware, chemical oxidizing agent, polishing powders, plastics creation, as additives for
strengthening other metals, automotive catalytic converters
● Medical Science: Portable x-ray machines, x-ray tubes, magnetic resonance imagery (MRI)
contrast agents, nuclear medicine imaging, cancer treatment applications, and for genetic screening
tests, medical and dental lasers.

pg. 161
 [Link]

● Technology: Lasers, optical glass, fiber optics, masers, radar detection devices, nuclear fuel rods,
mercury-vapor lamps, highly reflective glass, computer memory, nuclear batteries, high-
temperature superconductors.
● These are used for air pollution control, illuminated screens on electronic devices, and the
polishing of optical-quality glass.
What is the rare earth dilemma?
● The extraction of REMs is one of the most environmentally negative and toxic generating of all
mining practices.
● Disproportionate rare earth mining has resulted in landslides, clogged rivers, environmental
pollution emergencies and even major accidents and disasters, causing great damage to people’s
safety and health and the ecological environment.
● China produces tens of millions of tons of wastewater every year while extracting rare earth
minerals.
● Therefore, it’s a dilemma whether we really have a better lifestyle using these materials in emerging
technologies or we are polluting our environment in the process too much!

India & REM:

● The ‘Make in India’ program whose goal is to make India a manufacturing economy will need
REMs in huge amounts.
● Although India is among the top five nations with reserves of rare-earth minerals, there is no
required technology to extract in an environmentally sustainable way. There is a need to develop
suitable technologies, promote Research and Development to tap the REM.

World Distribution of REM:

● REM reserves worldwide total 140 million tonnes. They are distributed mainly in China (55
million tonnes), the United States (13 million tonnes), India (3.1 million tonnes), Australia (2.1
million tonnes), Brazil (2.2 million tonnes), Malaysia (30,000 tonnes), Russia, Egypt, Canada,
South Africa and other countries.

pg. 162
 [Link]

Q. What are rare earth metals? Discuss its geographical distribution and its strategic significance.

LITHIUM RESERVES

About Lithium:
● Lithium is a key component in green energy storage technologies and is rapidly becoming a metal
of crucial importance.
● It is a chemical element with the symbol Li.
● It is a soft, silvery-white metal.
● Under standard conditions, it is the lightest metal and the lightest solid element.
● It is highly reactive and flammable, and must be stored in mineral oil.
● It is an alkali metal and a rare metal.

Lithium Uses:
● Lithium is a versatile metal, with a wide range of uses. Its applications vary from its use, in the
form of lithium carbonate, as a medication to treat mental illness to its use in the manufacture of
lightweight alloys for the aeronautics industry. the main industrial uses of lithium.
● Lithium metal is used to make useful alloys. For example, with lead to make ‘white metal’
bearings for motor engines, with aluminium to make aircraft parts, and with magnesium to
make armour plates.
● Glass and Ceramics: For a long time, the principal use of lithium ore was in glasses, glass
ceramics, porcelain enamels, fritted glazes, raw glazes, and refractories. The glass and ceramics
industries are still major consumers of lithium.
● Butyllithium is used in both polymer and pharmaceutical industries as an intermediate.

pg. 163
 [Link]

● Lithium as a Lubricant: Lithium grease is waterproof, capable of maintaining its viscosity for a
long time, has an extremely low melting point, high mechanical strength, and high thermal
resistance.
● Lithium in Warfare: Both stable isotopes of lithium 6Li and 7Li are used in the production of
nuclear weapons.
● Lithium Batteries: LIB advantages include high energy density, low self-discharge rate, long life
cycle, no memory effect, low maintenance, fast charging, and low weight.
● Lithium has become the new 'white gold' as the demand for high performing rechargeable
batteries is rising.

Global Lithium Reserves: Lithium is found in the Environment in water, soil, brines, minerals etc. The
aluminium silicate, spodumene, is the most commonly available economic lithium-bearing mineral.
World’s Lithium Reserves World’s Lithium Production

Country Reserves Country Production

● Chile 47% ● Australia 43%
● China 20% ● Chile 33%
● Australia 17% ● Argentina 13%
● Argentina 13% ● China 7%

Lithium Reserves in Karnataka:

● The survey shows presence of 1,600 tonnes of lithium resources in the igneous rocks of the
Margalla-Allapatna region of Karnataka’s Mandya district.
● Other Potential Sites:
○ The major mica belts in Rajasthan, Bihar, and Andhra Pradesh.
○ Pegmatite (igneous rocks) belts in Odisha and Chhattisgarh.
○ Brines of Sambhar and Pachpadra in Rajasthan, and Rann of Kachchh in Gujarat.
Benefits of Domestic Exploration:
● Reducing Import Bill:
○ India currently imports all its lithium needs. Over 165 crore lithium batteries are
estimated to have been imported into India between 2016-17 and 2019-20, at an estimated
import bill of upwards of USD 3.3 billion.
● Reducing Overdependence on China:
○ China is a major source of lithium-ion energy storage products being imported into the
country.

Extraction Method:
• Lithium can be extracted in different ways, depending on the type of the deposit .
o Solar evaporation of large brine pools.
▪ A brine pool is a volume of brine collected in a seafloor depression.

pg. 164
 [Link]

➢ For example: Brines of Sambhar and Pachpadra in Rajasthan.

o Hard-rock extraction of the ore (a metal-bearing mineral).
➢ For example: rock mining at Mandya.

Q. Discuss the importance of lithium mineral and its distribution in the world.

RUSSIA’S FAR EAST

India’s views on Russia’s new Far East Policy:
● India views Russia’s new Far East policy as both a geopolitical and geo-economic opportunity.
● Indian business should look beyond oil and gas and explore new opportunities in farming, mineral
exploration, manufacturing and shipping.
● The Russian Far East can also become a manufacturing base for Indian exporters seeking to tap the
markets of North-east Asia.
● Russia’s ‘pivot to the East’ and India’s move from ‘Look East’ to ‘Act East’ have created a new
framework for closer India-Russia geo-economic and geopolitical relations.
● As a labour-surplus and energy deficient economy, India can benefit from access to land (farming
and food) and energy resources in the Russian Far East.
● As a labour-deficit economy, Russia can benefit from Indian in-migration, which does not pose any
long-term strategic challenge in the manner that an influx from neighbouring regions could.
● At the St Petersburg Economic Forum 2017 India was a special guest. Addressing the Forum,
Prime Minister Narendra Modi emphasised that India-Russia relations were based on trust and,
would gain in strength in an ever-changing world.
● In September 2017, the then Indian foreign minister Sushma Swaraj led a high-level business
delegation to the meeting of the EEF in Vladivostok and committed India to closer economic
cooperation with the Russian Far East.

Indian Industries in the Region

• Indian firms have invested over $7 billion in taking stake in Russian oil and gas fields. ONGC
Videsh in 2001 acquired a 20 per cent stake in Sakhalin-1 oil and gas field in Far East Russia.
• OVL later bought Imperial Energy, which has fields in Siberia, as also stakes in Vankor oilfield in
eastern Siberia.
• IOC and its partners have picked up 29.9 per cent stake in a separate Taas-Yuryakh oilfield in East
Siberia.

Strategic and economic importance of Russia’s Far East:

1. Gateway to East Asia: India’s ties with the Russian Far East could help cement Indo-Russian
relations as well as bolster its ties with Central Asia and East Asia. It would connect India to East
Asia, especially Japan.
2. Economic opportunities: The region occupying 40 percent of Russia’s total territory is rich in
natural resources, particularly diamonds, gold, oil, natural gas, coal, timber, silver, platinum, tin,
lead, and zinc. It also has rich fishing grounds. The region is economically undeveloped, lacks good
infrastructure and communications.

pg. 165
 [Link]

3. Employment opportunities: A lack of manpower is one of the main problems faced by the Far
East and Indian professionals like doctors, engineers and teachers can help in the region’s
development. Presence of Indian manpower will also help in balancing Russian concerns over
Chinese migration into the region. Further, India, one of the largest importers of timber, can find
ample resources in the region. Japan and South Korea have also been investing and New Delhi may
explore areas of joint collaboration.
4. Strategic importance: The Russian Far East is at the forefront of geopolitics centred on the Indo-
Pacific and is key in pivot to Asia. The region borders the Chinese provinces of is one of the longest
in the world. Presence in these areas will help to tackle China economically and strategically.
5. Energy Resources: The area's rich hydrocarbon reserves in the region throw up immense
opportunities for Indian companies. ONGC Videsh has already invested in the Sakhalin-1 project
and its terminal is acknowledged as the best in Russia. India is set to get gas from Gazprom that
will probably be liquefied at a plant near Vladivostok.
6. Small scale industries: For India, there is immense potential for mid-sized and small businesses
who should be assisted to overcome language and cultural barriers so that they successfully adopt
local business practices. The large diamond reserves in the region should be a magnet for the Indian
diamond cutting and polishing industry, which is already facing tough competition in Africa from
the Chinese.
7. Manufacturing industries: Infrastructure, pharmaceuticals, and agriculture development are also
areas of opportunity for Indian business and labour. Tele-medicine and long distance education are
other areas where Indian companies can make a mark. It would also help in increasing India’s
exports.
8. It is in this context that the Chennai-Vladivostok sea route development has been proposed.

Impact of cooperation between the Russian Far East and India:

Russian Far East is characterized by a huge geographic landscape that is very sparsely populated. It is a
backward region of Russia. Russia is keen to invest and accelerate economic growth in its Far East which
is closer to dynamic Asian economies.
1. India’s Interest in Arctic Region:
○ India looks forward to cooperating with Russia in the Arctic. India has been following the
developments in the Arctic region with interest and is also ready to play a significant role
in the Arctic Council.
○ Given access to the Northern Sea Route or Arctic Sea Route to Europe which will be the
shortest sea route to Northern Europe for India.
2. Russian Far East has a shortage of manpower. India can emerge as an exporter of skilled
manpower in the region.
3. Agriculture and lumbering:
○ Being very sparsely populated and as global warming leads to increasing farming time in
the region, Russia’s Far East can emerge as one of the most promising areas where farming
can be extended in the future.
○ Also, the region has extensive forest resources which can provide softwood for
supplementing India’s timber demands.
4. Diamonds:

pg. 166
 [Link]

○ India is one of the most important diamond processing, cutting and polishing centres in the
world. Russian Far East is one of the main regions where diamonds are mined in the world.
5. Oil and Gas:
○ Russia is a reliable supplier of energy resources to the Indian market. Last year, about 2.3
million tonnes of oil, almost 550,000 tonnes of petroleum products and 4.5 million tonnes
of coal were delivered to India. A substantial part of Russian hydrocarbon exports in sent
to India from Russia’s Far East.
○ Indian partners own 20% in the Sakhalin-1 project. Russia has invited Indian companies to
join other promising projects such as Far Eastern LNG and LNG-2.
6. Mining
○ The region has extensive areas and mineral resources such as Coking Coal which India has
a very limited quantity of.
7. Tourism
○ Several Indian companies have been successfully set up in the Far East region, such as M/s
KGK in Vladivostok in the field of diamond cutting and M/s Tata Power in Krutogorovo
in Kamchatka in coal mining.

Q. Assess the geo economic and geo strategic importance of Russia’s Far East region. How climate
change is impacting the region.

INDIA’S ARCTIC POTENTIAL

Context:
● The Arctic is evolving as the new geopolitical conflict on global scenario. As the Arctic region
witnesses an unprecedented rate of ice-melt because of global warming, new routes are being
opened, paving the way for untapped hydrocarbon and mineral resources to be exploited.
What benefits does it offer to India and where do we stand in the race to Arctic resources?
● While India has been active in the Arctic for over ten years, it has not fully made use of its Observer
status, and it must give new energy to its activities in the region. Unlike the Antarctic, however,
the Arctic is not considered a ‘global commons’ and the principle of sovereignty prevents
external players from exacting significant gains in the region. Arctic contains approximately 13%
of the world’s undiscovered oil resources, 30% of its undiscovered natural gas resources, and 20%
of its undiscovered natural gas. India, being the fourth-largest energy consumer in the world,
can explore the hydrocarbon potential of this region. Tangible efforts have been made by India in
terms of scientific research and other projects and investments.
● India opened Himadri, it's only research station in the region in 2008.
● In July 2018, India displayed an increasing commitment to Arctic research when its National
Centre for Antarctic and Ocean Research was renamed the National Centre for Polar and
Oceanic Research(NCPOR).
● India and Norway’s bilateral research cooperation is realised in the Norwegian Programme for
Research Cooperation with India (INDNOR).
● NCPOR has signed a contract with FESCO Transportation Group for access to the company’s
icebreaker vessel which will be utilised both for general cargo deliveries to Antarctic stations and
scientific activities in the Arctic region.

pg. 167
 [Link]

● Generally, India is seen to have taken the lead among Asian Observer states placing more weight
on environmental and scientific rather than the economic potential of the region. Support for
such focus is certainly strengthened by the fact that the importance of agriculture to the Indian
economy and its dependence on monsoons, along with its long coast-line with a high population
make the country extremely vulnerable to climate change.
● By involvement in the research in the region, countries like India will be able to understand the
dynamics of glaciers melting, which it will be able to use in the regional problem of glaciers
melting in the Himalayas.
● India may extract out of its position at the Arctic Council and existing activities in the region the
ability to strengthen its international presence.
● India’s Oil and Natural Gas Corporation (ONGC) Videsh Ltd. holds a 26-per cent stake in
Russia’s Vankorneft and a 20-per cent stake in the Sakhalin-I project.
●

Challenges:
● In the absence of an official Arctic policy, India’s Arctic research objectives are centred on placing
more weight on environmental and scientific aspects rather than the economic potential of the
region.
● While China, Japan and South Korea may benefit considerably from such connectivity with the
region, and more specifically Russia. India, for its part, is not as strategically located to extract
similar commercial advantages.
● The Arctic has enough hydrocarbons to cater to India’s energy needs, but India does not have
sufficient technical capability to undertake Arctic exploration.
India's Arctic Policy

pg. 168
 [Link]

• Recently, the Ministry of Earth Science has unveiled India's Arctic Policy, titled 'India and the
Arctic: building a partnership for sustainable development'.
• Major Provisions of India's Arctic Policy:
o Six Central Pillars:
▪ Science and research.
▪ Environmental protection.
▪ Economic and human development.
▪ Transportation and connectivity.
▪ Governance and international cooperation.
▪ National capacity building.
• Objectives:
o It aims to strengthen national capabilities and competencies in science and exploration,
climate and environmental protection, maritime and economic cooperation with the Arctic
region.
o It seeks to strengthen institutional and human resource capacities within the
government and academic, research and business institutions through inter-ministerial
coordination in pursuit of India’s interests in the Arctic.
o It seeks to enhance understanding of the impact of climate change in the Arctic
region on India’s climate, economic and energy security.
o It aims to promote better analysis, prediction and coordinated policymaking on the
implications of ice melting in the Arctic on India’s economic, military and strategic
interests related to global shipping routes, energy security and exploitation of mineral
wealth.
o It seeks to study the linkages between polar regions and the Himalayas and deepen the
cooperation between India and the countries of the Arctic region under various Arctic
forums, drawing expertise from scientific and traditional knowledge.
o The policy also seeks to increase India’s participation in the Arctic Council and
improve understanding of the complex governance structures in the Arctic, relevant
international laws and geopolitics of the region.
Way Forward:
● India should remain engaged with the leading organisations like the Arctic Council where many
important decisions on the future of the Arctic region will be taken. Decisions regarding Arctic can
have direct or indirect impact on India.
● Equally, collaboration with Arctic countries outside the Arctic region may also align with
broader Arctic aims as in the case of the Indian Navy.
● India can learn from South Korea’s active Observer participation in working groups and the
encouragement it offers its researchers to participate in such frameworks.
● Today, when the Arctic is growing both in environmental and geopolitical relevance, it would be
unwise for India to ignore the importance of the region. India should utilise the meaningful
platform provided by developments in the Arctic region to display its competence in areas outside
of its immediate neighbourhood.

pg. 169
 [Link]

AFRICA AS NEW GROWTH FRONTIER

Africa First: Global Growth’s New Frontier:
● The African continent is often described as “the new frontier” for global growth.
● Indeed, most of the African countries have experienced high rates of economic growth in the last
decade, and five of the world’s fastest growing countries are in Africa.
● The continent has also made substantial progress in terms of peace and security, and democratic
processes have grown stronger.
● Africa has about 600 million hectares of arable land and the world’s youngest and fastest
growing population— together, these provide an ideal base for sustained, long-term growth.

Factors promoting growth:

● Unlike in the past, African governments now have the agency to chart out their own development
pathways. Agenda 2063, the continental framework for socio-economic transformation, lies at the
heart of Africa’s vision for the future.
● The first ten year implementation plan has identified the following priority areas: continental
free trade area; integrated high-speed rail network; African passport; silencing the guns by
2020; and free movement of people.
● The continental free trade area presents a huge opportunity to alter the current trade paradigms by
allowing African countries to restructure their economies to support industrialisation and value
addition within Africa through regional value chains.

Why is the African Continent Important?

• Natural Resources- The continent is enriched in mines and minerals such as diamonds, gold,
platinum, and a variety of other forestry products abound in the continent, which is vital to the rest
of the globe.
• Human Resources - The continent is endowed with people who can toil under the scorching sun.
This continent has long attracted conquerors due to its natural and human riches.
• Strategic Location - The continent is strategically located between the Indian Ocean and the
Atlantic Ocean.
• Economic Growth- In 2019, the continent’s economic growth is expected to be 3.2 percent.
According to the World Bank, it also has six of the world’s fastest-growing economies.

Challenges
● Although Africa is well-positioned to be the growth pole for the world economy, there is a high
risk that extreme poverty will be concentrated in Africa by 2050.
● Africa will not be able to reap its demographic dividend if it fails to invest in human resources.
This is particularly important in the context of the fourth industrial revolution which requires a
highly skilled workforce.
● Job Creation will be a key challenge for African governments because high growth in the last
decade has largely been led by commodity exports.
● There is a need to de-risk private investment and augment the capacity of the private sector to
invest in Africa.

pg. 170
 [Link]

● Although the pockets of conflicts have reduced remarkably and democracy has taken stronger roots
in Africa, the real challenge lies in converting elections into impactful leaderships. In a nutshell,
long-term peace and accountable governments hold the key to African development.

Measures that can be taken

● First, developed countries will have to meet their aid commitment of 0.7 percent of gross national
income per year.
● Second, African countries must be treated as equal partners in development, and not as mere
recipients of aid.
● Third, new types of development partnerships need to be forged. India and UK’s partnership in
Africa is a good example of triangular cooperation in Africa.

India’s Role:
● India has a longstanding development partnership with Africa but the scale of its operations in the
continent has expanded tremendously since the early 2000s.
● India is helping build critical infrastructure in Africa through the EXIM Bank’s concessional lines
of credit.
● One of the most successful Indian projects is a hydropower project in Rwanda which used to be
highly power-deficient. The hydro project built by India now covers 25 percent of Rwanda’s power
requirements.

pg. 171
 [Link]

● Indian projects are purely demand-driven and capacity building is a key component of India’s
development cooperation.
Opportunities In India-Africa Relations:
▪ Addressing Food security: Agriculture and food security can also be a fulcrum for deepening ties.
o Africa has a major chunk of the world’s arable land but produces a very small percentage
of the global agri-output.
o India has proven expertise in the agriculture sector, being the top producer of much
agricultural produce.
o Thereby, India and Africa both can cooperate in ensuring food and nutritional security for
each other.
▪ Becoming Voice of Developing World: Just as India and Africa fought colonialism together, both
can now collaborate together for a just, representative and democratic global order that has a voice
for around one-third of humanity that lives in Africa and India.
▪ Combating Neo-Colonialism: China has been actively pursuing Chequebook and donation
diplomacy in Africa.
o However, Chinese investment is seen as neo-colonial in nature as it focuses on money,
political influence, hard-infrastructure projects and resource extraction.
o India’s approach, on the other hand, is one that focuses on building local capacities and an
equal partnership with Africans and not merely with African elites concerned.
o In this context, though Africa has been actively engaged with China, it wants India to act
as a balancer and net security provider.
▪ Enabling Strategic Convergence: Under the recent Quad Plus initiative whereby the countries
(US, India, Japan and Australia have recently engaged other countries such as South Korea,
Vietnam, New Zealand, Israel and Brazil) exchanged views and proposed cooperation with select
African countries about the Indian Ocean.
o Both India and Japan share a common interest in forging a partnership for Africa’s
development through the Asia-Africa Growth corridor.
o In this context, India can leverage its global status to establish Africa on the strategic map
of global politics.
▪ Preventing Global Rivalries: In recent years, several global economic players have strengthened
their engagement with African states, with an eye to rising economic opportunities, including in
energy, mining, infrastructure and connectivity.
o As global engagement in Africa increases, India and Africa can ensure that Africa does not
once again turn into a theatre of rival ambitions.
▪ Defence
o Defence is becoming a new area of collaboration
o In February 2020, India hosted the African Defence Ministers’ Conclave
o India has the potential to increase its defence exports to Africa
o African delegations have become more apparent at Indian defence fairs such as Defence
Expo and Aero India in recent years
o At Defence Expo 2020, the defense ministers and representatives of 50 African countries
signed the Lucknow Declaration with the Indian defense minister to recognize similar
security problems such as terrorism, extremism, piracy, and human trafficking.

pg. 172
 [Link]

China Factor
• In Africa, there is a rivalry between India and China. In terms of trade, China and Africa have a
$220 billion trade surplus.
• China’s first overseas military post was in Djibouti.
• There should be more connectivity and face-to-face contact, which is critical for the development
of relationships.
• For example, random attacks against African nationals in India have been a source of worry; such
instances should be treated with zero tolerance in India.
• Ultimately, just as India and Africa collaborated to combat colonialism, both sides should
collaborate to construct a just, representational, and egalitarian world order that grants a voice to
one-third of humanity.

Q. Why has Africa been tipped as the’ next growth frontier’? How does India see its place in the
economic space of rising natural resource rich Africa?

INDIAN DEEP SEA FISHERIES- PROSPECTS, ISSUES & CHALLENGES

Deep Sea Fisheries:
● According to Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), Deep-sea fisheries are those that take
place at great depths and many deep-sea fisheries take place in waters beyond national jurisdiction
(such as the Exclusive Economic Zone [EEZ]), that is in the high seas.
● In recent years, the deep sea fishery resources have become the iconic last frontier for the expansion
and in forefront of marine fisheries.

Fisheries Sector in India:

● Among the total world fish production India contributes more than 4 percent.
● India is the largest country in the Indian Ocean region comprising a coastline of 8129 km.
● India is the world’s second-largest fish producer with exports worth more than Rs 47,000
crore.
● Fisheries are the country’s single-largest agriculture export, with a growth rate of 6 to 10 per
cent in the past five years.
● Its significance is underscored by the fact that the growth rate of the farm sector in the same period
is around 2.5 per cent.
● It has a marine fisher population of 3.5 million; 10.5 million people are engaged in inland fishery
and fish farming.
● Indian marine fish harvest mostly centers around coastal waters up to 100 meters depth and about
90 per cent of the catch comes from up to 50 m.
● The fishery in India is confined to shallow inshore waters.

Prospects of Deep Sea Fishing in India:

● In India the coastal fishery sector is now facing challenges like the sustainability, resources
conservation and management;

pg. 173
 [Link]

● therefore, there is an urgent need for looking forward the unexploited or least exploited resources
so as to meet demand towards the nutritional security of the country
● Moreover, there is an ample scope for increasing production by venturing into deeper waters of the
EEZ, which holds a potential of 1.7 million tonnes of underexploited and unexploited fin fishes and
shellfishes (ICAR,2011).
● This indicates the amount of opportunity available with us for development of this sector is huge.

Issues/ Challenges of deep sea fishing in India:

The following are the issues which require immediate attention while conceiving the idea of developing the
deep-sea fishery sector.
1. Sound and Suitable Deep sea Fishing Policy:
2. Unorganized marketing system: The existing marketing system in India does not have any
forward or backward linkages.
3. Strengthening data on the deep sea the resources : there is no time series data. Few institutes
like FSI and CMLRI which conducts surveys do have scattered data which need to be made
available to the public domain.
4. Higher Capital Investment and Recurring cost: In general terms the deep-sea fishing is
expensive compared to the coastal trawling operations.
5. Non availability of skilled manpower: In India, when the deep sea fishing sector is not organized
this is well known that there will be no or adequate manpower with technical competency. Almost
all the deep sea boat owners who surveyed felt that the longer duration of fishing in this sector is a
major limiting factor for non availability of Skilled man power.
6. Intrinsic life history traits of deep sea fishes: Deep-sea fishes in general have longer life, slower
growth, late maturity and less egg laying capacity. Moreover, large pelagics are migratory in nature
and are not confined to one area. They are prone to Environmental fluctuations. Therefore, the
deep-sea resources demand a precautionary approach to ensure its sustainability before the
resources are commercially exploited.
7. Lack of awareness among the consumers and low market acceptability: Deep sea fishes are of
typical colors due to their habitat which makes them unpopular among the consumers due to lack
of awareness. Moreover the Indian consumers are God believers and they have social stigma.
8. Technology gap for exploitation: The technology includes catch limits determination, minimum
discard oriented gears and suitable utilization and value addition.
9. National security: After the Mumbai terror attack during 2008, the security concerns of the country
have been a million dollar challenge to the security forces and the Union Govt. This issue needs
adequate deliberation and it should be addressed while developing or inducting a deep-sea fishing
fleet.
10. Compliance of International guidelines: International guidelines and codes though are mostly
voluntary and it is more of an instrument of reference to help the states in formulating and also
implementing the appropriate measures for the management of deep-sea fisheries in the high seas.

CONCLUSION

pg. 174
 [Link]

● While there is enormous potential for the exploitation of oceanic larger pelagic from the pelagic
region of deeper waters and non-conventional resources,it is essential to develop value-added
products for domestic and export markets.
● It is also essential to create awareness on the edible qualities and the nutrient values of the non-
conventional resources among the public so as to generate a free market for many such deep sea
resources.
● Research and development programmes should be strengthened through projects on exploratory
deep sea surveys for pelagic, meso-pelagic and bathypelagic resources and their tropic and
population dynamics.

Q. Discuss the potential of Deep Sea fishing India. Why is India lagging in it?

WATER RESOURCES
Water Resources of India:
● Water is a cyclic resource with abundant supplies on the globe.
● Approximately, 71 per cent of the earth’s surface is covered with it but fresh water constitutes only
about 3 percent of the total water. In fact, a very small proportion of fresh water is effectively
available for human use.
● India accounts for about 2.45 percent of the world's surface area, 4 percent of the world’s water
resources and about 16 percent of world’s population.
● The total water available from precipitation in the country in a year is about 4,000 cubic km. The
availability from surface water and replenishable groundwater is 1,869 cubic km. Out of this only
60 per cent can be put to beneficial uses.
Surface Water Resources:
● There are four major sources of surface water. These are rivers, lakes, ponds, and tanks.
● The mean annual flow in all the river basins in India is estimated to be 1,869 cubic km. However,
due to topographical, hydrological and other constraints, only about 32 per cent of the available
surface water can be utilised.

Groundwater Resources:

● The total replenishable groundwater resources in the country are about 432 cubic km.
● Ganga and the Brahmaputra basins, have about 46 per cent of the total replenishable groundwater
resources.
● The level of groundwater utilisation is relatively high in the river basins lying in north-western
region and parts of south India.
● The groundwater utilisation is very high in the states of Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan, and Tamil
Nadu. However, there are States like Chhattisgarh, Odisha, Kerala, etc., which utilise only a small
proportion of their groundwater potentials.

Water Demand and Utilisation:

● India has traditionally been an agrarian economy, and about two-third of its population have been
dependent on agriculture.
● In fact, India’s water demand at present is dominated by irrigational needs.

pg. 175
 [Link]

● Agriculture accounts for most of the surface and ground water utilisation, it accounts for 89 per
cent of the surface water and 92 per cent of the groundwater utilisation.
● The share of the industrial sector is limited to 2 per cent of the surface water utilisation and 5
percent of the ground-water.
● The share of the domestic sector is higher (9 per cent) in surface water utilisation as compared
to groundwater.

Emerging Water Problems / Status of Water Stress in India

● The per capita availability of water is dwindling day by day due to increase in population.
● Deterioration of Water Quality: The available water resources are also getting polluted with
industrial, agricultural and domestic effluents, and this, in turn, is further limiting the availability
of usable water resources.
● Receding water table: Reports from Bihar suggest that the water table there has fallen by several
feet of late. Well, over half of the districts in the state are facing or expected to be facing severe
groundwater over-exploitation.
● Suboptimal utilization of water infrastructure: Given suboptimal command area development
and distribution of water in ill-maintained (and uncovered) canals, leads to the suboptimal
utilization of water infrastructure and often results in heavy soil erosion and siltation.
● Monsoon: A recent report by the Ministry of Earth Sciences (MoES) shows a ‘significant’ drop in
rainfall in Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and West Bengal over the past three decades, and rising variability
in the monsoons nationwide.
○ Geological factors like steep slopes contribute to the lesser usability of the rainwater.

Status of Water Stress in India:

● India is moving towards water crisis fast:
○ Water stress condition: Per capita availability below 1700 Cubic Meters
○ Water Crisis: Below 1000 cubic metre
● According to a recent report by NITI Aayog, about three-fourth of the households in the country
don't have drinking water at their premises.
● With nearly 70% of water being contaminated, India is placed at 120th amongst 122 countries in
the Water Quality Index.
● It's a fact that water is a state subject and its optimal utilization and management lies
predominantly within the domain of the states.
● India tops the list of countries with the most number of people living with water scarcity.
● As many as one billion people in India live in areas with physical water scarcity, of which 600
million are in areas of high to extreme water stress.
● Approximately 330 million people from 302 districts were affected by droughts in 2016.
● Over 21% of the country’s diseases are water related. In 2015, India lost over 1 lakh children
under the age of five to diarrheal diseases.
● By 2030, India’s water demand is projected to be twice the available supply, implying severe
water scarcity for hundreds of millions of people and an eventual ~6% loss in the country’s GDP.
● As per a report by NITI Aayog, Bengaluru will soon be among one of the 11 cities in the world
to run out of ground water.

pg. 176
 [Link]

○ The report also states that the ‘Day Zero’ will hit Bengaluru and 20 other major cities
(including Delhi) in India by the year 2020 affecting an estimated 100 million people.
○ Day Zero is a situation when taps in a region start running dry. It is a situation when there
will be no water in the taps and the use of water will become restricted for vital services
only.
● A recent report by the Ministry of Earth Sciences (MoES) shows a ‘significant’ drop in rainfall
in Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and West Bengal over the past three decades, and rising variability in the
monsoons nationwide.
○ Also, the hydrological conditions vary widely across regions. While some are drought-
prone, others witness recurring floods.

Groundwater Crisis:
● This crisis is also reflected in NITI Aayog’s “Composite Water Management Index” (CWMI),
which held that 21 Indian cities, including Delhi, Chennai and Bengaluru, will run out of
groundwater. It also noted that not only there is a quantitative crunch but 70% of India's water
resources are contaminated.
● India is the world’s largest user of groundwater, where groundwater contributes to more than
60% of the country’s irrigation resources.
● The over-extraction of groundwater is non-renewable since recharge rates are less than
extraction rates and replenishing this resource can take thousands of years. Its over-exploitation
is contributing to “the worst water crisis” in India’s history - as stated by NITI Aayog.

Water Crisis in Himalayan Region:

● Eight towns in the Himalayan region of Bangladesh, Nepal, India and Pakistan were nearly 20%-
70% deficient in their water supply.
○ The places surveyed are extremely dependent on springs (ranging between 50% and
100%) for their water, and three-fourths were in urban areas.
● Although only 3% of the total Hindu Kush Himalayan population lives in larger cities and 8% in
smaller towns, projections show that over 50% of the population will be living in cities by 2050.
Under current trends, the demand-supply gap may double by 2050.
● Factors responsible:
○ Climate change
○ Unplanned urbanisation
○ Encroachment and degradation of natural water bodies (springs, ponds, lakes, canals, and
rivers).

Disappearance of traditional water systems.

Causes of overall water crisis (groundwater + Surface Water):

Demand Side issues: Supply side issues:

● Population Pressure: Evident in declining ● Waste water not reused: India generates
per capita availability (2011- 1543 Cubic 61,948 million litres a day (MLD) sewage

pg. 177
 [Link]

metres). daily, while only 23,277 MLD is treated.

● Water-intensive cropping: Agriculture ● Mismanagement of Water resources:
using greater than 85% of water available. Standard level of water not stored in
E.g. Sugarcane growing in water-stressed reservoirs based on seasons.
areas of Maharashtra ● Over-exploitation of GW Surface water
● Urbanisation, Industrialization: Even being polluted, choked (Mithi river in
though its water use share is low, it has Mumbai) and run-offs to sea without being
been increasing at an unprecedented level. efficiently utilized. In the last four
E.g. Rising water crisis each year in cities decades, about 85% of the total addition to
like Bangalore irrigation has come from groundwater.

Other Causes:

● Policy Issues: Groundwater is used to cultivate water-intensive crops like paddy and sugarcane
(promoted by Green revolution) in rain deficit states like Punjab and Maharashtra respectively.
○ State procurement policy and subsidized electricity in Punjab make it profitable for farmers
to produce rice. Similarly, farmers in Maharashtra cultivate sugarcane because they are
assured procurement.
● No Reliable Data: Water data is often unreliable, and is collected using outdated techniques and
methodologies.
○ There is no single water database for the country. In 2016, the standing committee on water
resources of the Indian parliament finally recommended having a national groundwater
database that could be updated every two years. However, not much has been done in this
regard.
● Climate change induced variability: Increased El-nino events, reduced and unpredictability of
rainfall has complicated water use and management.
● Eutrophication, oil spills impacting water usage in backwaters, lagoons in coastal areas.
● Poor Water Treatment Plants: Barely 2% of our urban areas have both sewerage systems and
sewage treatment plants.
○ India's urban centers produce over 40,000 million litres of sewage daily, but only about a
fifth undergoes treatment.

Steps Taken by The Government

● MGNREGA for water conservation:

○ The huge workforce employed under the MGNREGA(Mahatma Gandhi National Rural
Employment Guarantee Act) has enabled the government to introduce water conservation
as a project under the Act.
○ The government aims to improve groundwater harvesting and build water conservation and
storage mechanisms through MGNREGA.
● Jal Kranti Abhiyan:
○ The Jal Gram Scheme under the Jal Kranti Abhiyan is aimed at developing two model
villages in water-starved areas to lead the other villages towards water conservation and
preservation.
● National Water Mission:

pg. 178
 [Link]

○The Government of India has launched the National Water Mission with the objective of
conservation of water, minimizing wastage and ensuring more equitable distribution both
across and within states through integrated water resources development and management.
○ One of the objectives of the Mission is to increase the water use efficiency by 20%.
● National Rural Drinking Water Programme:
○ It seeks to provide every rural person with adequate safe water for drinking, cooking and
other basic domestic needs on a sustainable basis.
● NITI Aayog Composite Water Management Index:
○ With the objective of achieving effective utilization of water, NITI Aayog has developed
the Composite Water Management Index.
○ The index revolves around issues ranging from water scarcity and related morass like
deaths due to lack of access to safe water, its projected increase in demand over the years
and finding ways for its effective conservation.
● Jal Shakti Ministry and Jal Jeevan Mission:
○ The efforts like the formation of Jal Shakti Ministry (to tackle water issues holistically)
and the goal to provide piped water to all rural households by 2024, under the Jal Jeevan
mission, are steps in the right direction.
● Atal Bhujal Yojana: the Jal Shakti Ministry has recently launched Atal Bhujal Yojana which
aims at improving groundwater management. It is a World Bank-funded, central sector scheme
aimed at improving groundwater management and restoring the health of the country’s aquifers.
○ The scheme will be implemented in seven states — Gujarat, Haryana, Karnataka,
Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh which are over-exploited and
water-stressed areas of the country.
○ The Atal Bhujal Yojana seeks to revive village-level Water User Associations (WUAs).
The scheme will strengthen the financial state of the WUAs, including allowing these
bodies to retain a significant portion of irrigation fees.
Way Forward

● Rational pricing of water can be put to practice, keeping in mind the affordability of the
population in the country. People tend to neglect the importance of water conservation because in
most places it is free of cost or charged nominally.
● Along with this, reuse, reduction and recycling of water should be promoted.
● River rejuvenation ought to be a policy priority of the Centre and state governments.
● There is a need to leverage Information Technology to revamp water-related data systems, which
seem to be sorely lacking in coverage, efficiency or robustness.
● Conservation agriculture i.e. farming practices adapted to the requirements of crops and local
conditions. Cultivation of less water-intensive crops like pulses, millets and oilseeds should be
encouraged in water-stressed regions.
● Decentralised approach, with a key focus on water conservation, source sustainability, storage
and reuse wherever possible. A participatory approach is needed in water governance.
● Rainwater harvesting should be incorporated into urban planning.
● Need to emphasis on behavioural change, differentiating of potable and non-potable water usage
by the citizenry will go a long way in bringing a Jan Andolan

pg. 179
 [Link]

● There is a need to leverage Information Technology and GIS to revamp water-related data
systems.
● Need to emphasis on behavioural change in water usage by the citizenry will go a long way in
bringing a Jan Andolan
Q. India is well endowed with fresh water resources. Critically examine why it still suffers from water
scarcity.

Q. The effective management of land and water resources will drastically reduce the human miseries.
Explain

TRADITIONAL RAINWATER HARVESTING

Water Harvesting in Indian History:

● Kauṭilya’s Arthaśāstra gives an extensive account of dams and bunds that were built for irrigation
during the Mauryan Empire by Chandragupta Maurya.
● Large-scale development of lakes and well irrigation are seen during the time of the Pandya, Chera
and Chola dynasties in South India. Ex. Chola Lakes.
● King Bhoja of Bhopal built the largest artificial lake (65,000 acres) in India, fed by streams and
springs, originally called Bada Talab and now Bhojtal.
● Rajatarangini by Kalhana describes a well- maintained irrigation system in Kashmir.

Examples of Traditional Water Management Techniques Still in Use Today

● Northern India
○ Kuls/Kuhls (Himachal Pradesh):
■ Long channels are mainly found in Himachal Pradesh and in some parts of Jammu
and Kashmir. The kul begins at the glacier and leads into a circular tank from
where, when water is needed to irrigate the fields, a trickle of water is let out. This
distribution is regulated by the villagers (Araghatta).
○ Johads (Rajasthan and Haryana)
■ Johads are small earthen check dams that hold rainwater, aiding groundwater
recharge and slow percolation to the underground aquifer.
● Southern India
○ Kovil Kulam (Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Kerala)
■ The tanks vary in size and shape with corridors and long flights of steps
surrounding them. Intricate inlet channels bring water from a stream or river and
outlets carry away the excess water.
○ Surangas (Western Ghats)
■ These horizontal structures are tunnel-like wells that use gravitational force for
extraction of groundwater and then collect it into a storage tank. This is then used
for irrigation.
○ Eri (Tamil Nadu)
■ One of the oldest water conservation systems in India, it is still widely used across
the state. Eris are fed through channels that divert river water, or rain-fed ones.

pg. 180
 [Link]

They are usually interconnected to balance the water in case of excess or scarce
supply.
● Eastern India
○ Ahar Pynes (South Bihar)
■ Ahar is a catchment basin supported on three sides and built at the end of a canal
or structures called pynes. The process starts from the river, the water then goes to
pynes and eventually lands up in an ahar.
● Western India
○ Virdas (Banni grassland, a part of Great Rann of Kutch, Gujarat)
■ Built by the nomadic Maldhari people. These unique structures are shallow
wells,dug in depressions to collect rainwater, which separate freshwater from
saltwater as groundwater is mostly saline.
■ Kunds/Kundis (Bikaner, Jaisalmer region, West Rajasthan and parts of
Gujarat)
● Normally they are round and have a cover that looks like the lid of a
saucepan. They are built to hold rainwater for drinking and domestic use.
It is lined with lime and ash that act as disinfectants, and a wire mesh is
used at the opening to prevent debris from falling in.
● North-East India: The north-eastern region is one of the most ethnically diverse regions in India.
Diverse indigenous water harvesting systems are prevalent here. Systems are designed with local
materials making it sustainable and easy to maintain.
○ Bamboo drip system (Meghalaya)
■ This two-hundred-year-old ingenious system uses local bamboo pipes of varying
length and diameter to divert perennial spring water. It is still used by the tribal
farmers of Khasi and Jaintia Hills to irrigate black pepper cultivation.
○ Zabo (Nagaland): A centuries-old system that combines forest, land and water
management with agriculture. When rain falls on terraced hill slopes, the run-off collects
in ponds in the middle terrace. The runoff then passes through slopes where cattle is reared
and finally reaches the paddy fields at the foothills
○
Q. Discuss the traditional rainwater harvesting systems in different regions of India

HYDRO POWER POTENTIAL OF NORTH EASTERN REGION

North East Region has huge potential for Hydro Power generation:

● India’s Northeastern states, with their mountainous topography and perennial streams, have the
largest hydropower potential in all of India.
● Together, Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Meghalaya, Manipur, Mizoram, Nagaland and
Tripura account for almost 40 percent of the total hydropower potential of the country.
● The Northeast has frequently been called the “Future Powerhouse” of India.
● In 2001, the Central Electricity Authority (CEA) conducted a preliminary study of the hydroelectric
potential of various river basins in India, ranking the Brahmaputra basin the highest.
Constraints in Hydroelectricity Projects in the Northeast:

pg. 181
 [Link]

● Fund Constraints: Normally, the developers of the Projects prepare the project reports taking
debt-equity ratio as 70:30. Many a time, they are unable to get creditors because of the bad
reputation of the region itself.
● Lack of Clearance: The delays in environmental and forest clearances have been cited as one of
the major reasons for apprehensions and entry barriers.
● Geological Issues: India’s Northeast is one of the six most seismically active regions in the world.
The lack of proper historical cataloguing of earthquakes, poor knowledge of ground motion post-
earthquake, and the variation of spectral acceleration can lead to incorrect assessments.
● Land-Acquisition Issues: Land acquisition for the Projects is a very cumbersome exercise. Many
of the projects become unviable because of the exorbitant land acquisition costs.
● Sediment management: The Brahmaputra and Meghna systems (the main river systems in the
Northeast region), together with the Ganga system, are the largest carriers of sediment in the world.
Sediment accumulation in the reservoirs of large hydroelectric projects can diminish their life
expectancy.
● Transboundary river management: In the case of Northeastern states, the majority of the projects
are being built on basins that are shared between India and Bangladesh. The projects developed by
India (the upstream country) creates panic concerning water scarcity and ecological distress in the
lower riparian Bangladesh, e.g. the hydroelectric projects on Teesta, some rivers in Tripura, or the
proposed Tipaimukh dam

pg. 182
 [Link]

pg. 183
 [Link]

● Law and order issues: The North Eastern Region has a dubious history on the law and order front.
This greatly hampers all kinds of development work. For any Project to go on smoothly, it is very
essential to have a sense of security among the people executing the project.

In the year 2017, a Committee was constituted to deliberate upon and make recommendations for proper
management of water resources in the North Eastern [Link] committee recommended:
1. There should be a realistic assessment of hydropower potential in the region. The huge amount
of water in the Brahmaputra and other rivers should not be the sole parameter for the assessment.
2. The cost-benefit analysis should not avoid taking into account the cost of biodiversity loss, natural
habitat destruction and livelihood loss.
3. Small Hydro-Power Projects need to be preferred over the large ones to ensure minimal damage
to the ecology and the livelihood of the people.
4. While going for Environment Impact Assessment, the rigour demanded of the exercise should
not be compromised with.
5. It has quite often been observed that the compensation given to the landowners is frittered away
on immediate consumption needs. Proper counselling may be carried out to advise how best to
invest/utilize the compensation money for creating assets for sustainable livelihood.
6. Reclaiming of the adjacent land by suitable methods needs to be carried out to ensure the
maintenance of ecological balance.
7. The local traditional economy should be integrated with the economic benefits arising out of the
project.
Q. North East Region has huge potential for Hydro Power generation, however it remains untapped
even after 15 years of ambitious plan to harness it. Discuss the reasons for this state. Also examine
potential of community managed mini hydro projects in the region.

COAL
Distribution of Coal in India

Distribution of Gondwana Coal in India Distribution of Tertiary Coal In India

● Gondwana coal fields (250 million years ● Tertiary coal fields (15 – 60 million years
old). old).
● Found exclusively in Peninsular India. ● Found in the North Eastern Region.
● Gondwana coal makes up to 98 per cent of ● Coal generally has low carbon and high
the total reserves and 99 per cent of the percentage of moisture and Sulphur.
production of coal in India. ● Mainly confined to the extra-Peninsula
● Gondwana coal forms India’s (Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal
metallurgical grade as well as superior Pradesh, Assam, Arunachal Pradesh
quality coal. etc.)
● Coking as well as non-coking and ● Important areas of Tertiary coal include
bituminous as well as sub-bituminous coal parts of Assam, Meghalaya, Arunachal
are obtained from Gondwana coal fields. Pradesh, Nagaland, Himalayan foothills of

pg. 184
 [Link]

● Anthracite is generally not found in the Darjeeling in West Bengal, Jammu and
Gondwana coal fields. Kashmir, Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan,
● Top 5 States in terms of total coal reserves Kerala,(Tertiary Peat).
in India are: Jharkhand > Odisha > ● Tamil Nadu and the union territory of
Chhattisgarh > West Bengal > Madhya Pondicherry also bear tertiary coal
Pradesh. reserves. (Tertiary Lignite).

Coking Coal vs. Non-Coking Coal

Coking Coal or Metallurgical Coal Thermal Coal or Non-Coking Coal or Steaming

coal

● High carbon content, less moisture, less ● Sulphur content is high and hence cannot
sulphur, less ash. be used in iron and steel industry.
● Sulphur is not good for iron and steel ● Creating coke using this coal is not
industry economical.
● Used to create coke. ● Thermal coal is used to generate power.
● Coke is produced by heating bituminous ● Major producers: China, Australia, USA,
coal without air to extremely high Russia.
temperatures. ● Major exporters: Australia, South Africa.
● Coking coal is an essential ingredient in
steel production.
● Major producers: Australia, Canada,
United States.
● Major exporters: Australia, Canada, United
States.
● India also imports coking coal.

Coal Reserves in India by State:

state Reserves in billion tonne % of total reserves

JHARKHAND 80.71 26.76

ODISHA 75.07 24.89
CHHATTISGARH 52.53 17.42
WEST BENGAL 31.31 10.38
MADHYA PRADESH 25.67 8.51

pg. 185
 [Link]

ANDHRA PRADESH 22.48 7.45

MAHARASHTRA 10.98 3.64
OTHERS 2.81 0.95

Problems of Coal Mining in India

● The distribution of coal is uneven.
● High ash content and low caloric value.
● Large percentage of coal is taken out from underground mines. (Very few open cast mines).
Selective mining leading to large scale wastage of raw coal.
● Unscientific method of extraction of coal.
● Heavy losses due to fires in the mines.
● Pilferage at several stages also adds to losses – bad transportation infrastructure.
● Serious problem of environmental pollution. High ash, moisture, more smoke.
● Safety measures against environmental pollution are very costly. Clean coal technology is a
Complex technology.
● Misuse of good quality coal for burning into transport and industries.
● Delayed environment and forest clearances: Environment ministry in past has classified
ecological sensitive areas in ‘Go and No Go areas’ and there was total prohibition on mining in no
go areas.
● Land Acquisition problems.
● Allocation process was arbitrary, discretionary and non-transparent.

pg. 186
 [Link]

● Till now, the PSU, Coal India was the only commercial miner in the country for more than four
decades which has shown monopolistic tendencies in the sector. Monopoly in the mining sector
was incapable of meeting domestic demands.
● Low productivity of Coal India is still a concern.
● Expansion in power generation in India has been largely based on state financing i.e many coal
power plants in India are constructed through massive debt financing from state-owned banks.
○ It shows that international investment in coal generation assets in India has been very less.

Coal Sector Reforms/ What is commercial mining?

● Commercial mining allows the private sector to mine coal commercially without placing any end-
use restrictions. The private firms have the option of either gasification of the coal or exporting it.
● They can also use it in their own end-use plants or sell them in the markets. The government expects
more than Rs 33,000 crore of capital investments over the next five to seven years in the sector.
● Further, with 100 per cent foreign direct investment allowed in the coal sector, global companies
can also participate in the auctions. The complete freedom to decide on sale, pricing, and captive
utilisation is expected to attract many private sector firms to participate in the auction process.
● The government expects these steps will generate employment and reduce India’s import bill.

Why is it a transformative reform?

● Over the years, our coal imports have been steadily rising to meet our domestic demand. In the
wake of recent disruption of global supply chains and India’s call for self-reliance, it is imperative
that we allow our private sector to mine coal in India and for India. With nationalised coal mines
failing to meet our demand, commercial coal mining is the only panacea for India to get rid of coal
imports, achieve energy security and reduce import bills.
● Commercial mining licences with regulatory oversight and monitoring will facilitate employment
opportunities for tribal communities and local populations.
● The revenues of states are bound to receive a substantial jump when commercial mining starts in
these states
● Entry of private sector in the coal sector has immense forward and backward linkages. The
backward linkage of transportation and physical infrastructure is bound to create clusters of growth.
In forward linkage, sectors such as cement, fertilisers, steel, and aluminium will bolster tremendous
growth.
● The entry of the latest global mining technology, management and competition is bound to
revamp the sector from inside.
● For many, the blanket objection is the adverse impact on the environment. They should realise that
India continues to import coal. At least when we are mining coal within the country, we can take
all the necessary precautions.
Q. Discuss the distribution of coal in India. How has this distribution impacted the distribution of
industries in India in the last 100 years? Examine issues related to coal mining in India.

pg. 187
 [Link]

RENEWABLE SOURCES OF ENERGY:

About Renewable Energy:
● India’s renewable power capacity is the fourth largest in the world and is growing at the fastest
speed among all major countries.
● 38% of India’s installed electricity generation is from renewable sources (136 GW out of 373
GW).
● In the Paris agreement India has committed to the Intended Nationally Determined Contribution
target of achieving 40% of its total electricity generation from non-fossil sources by 2030.
● The country is aiming for an even more ambitious target of 57% of the total electricity capacity
from renewable sources by 2027 in the Central Electricity Authority’s strategy blueprint.
● According to the 2027 blueprint, India aims to have 275 GW from renewable energy, 72 GW of
hydroelectricity, 15 GW of nuclear energy and nearly 100 GW from “other zero emission” sources.
● India announced that it will be more than doubling its renewable energy target from 175GW by
2022 to 450GW of renewable energy by the same year

Why Renewable Energy?

● Sustainable Energy: Energy generated from renewable sources will be cleaner and greener and
more sustainable.
● Helps conserve the nation's natural resources.
● Energy Security: Providing 24*7 power supply to 100% of the households, sustainable form of
transports are some of the goals that can only be achieved through sustainable power that comes
from renewables.
● Employment opportunities: Inclusion of a newer technology simply means more employment
opportunities for the working population of the country.
● Market assurance: From the economy point of view, renewable sources provide the market and
revenue assurance which no other resources can provide.

India increasing share of renewable energy:

● India has an installed renewable energy capacity of 89 GW ( Industry Outlook Report 2020). It
included 38.12 GW capacity of wind power, 36.05 GW of solar capacity, 10.31 GW of biopower
and 4.74 GW of small hydro power capacity.
● According to the report, compiled by the Global Wind Energy Council (GWEC), the World
Institute of Sustainable Energy (WISE) and the Indian Wind Turbine Manufacturers Association
(IWTMA), India could see around 5 GW new wind capacity installed every year to 2020,
attracting around $16.5 billion of annual investment.
● Factors responsible:
1. Pradhan Mantri- Kisan Urja Suraksha evam Utthaan Mahabhiyan: PM- KUSUM aims to
provide financial and water security to farmers through harnessing solar energy capacities of
25,750 MW by 2022. Solarisation of water pumps is a step in distributed power providing at the
doorstep of the consumer.
2. PLI Scheme: The Production Linked Incentive Scheme (PLI) scheme proposes a financial
incentive to boost domestic manufacturing and attract large investments in the electronics value
chain including electronic components and semiconductor packaging.

pg. 188
 [Link]

3. The Ministry of New and Renewable Energy on its website also hosts Akshay Urja Portal and
India Renewable Idea Exchange (IRIX) Portal. IRIX is a platform that promotes the exchange
of ideas among energy conscious Indians and the Global community.
4. Waiver of inter-state transmission charges for the sale of solar and wind power, the renewable
purchase obligation (RPO) trajectories for states.
5. Permitting FDI in the renewable sector has accelerated the progress.
6. Most renewable power generation companies in India are committed to selling their power to
consumers—mostly discoms under the long-term Power Purchase Agreements (PPAs).
7. The CERC approved trading of renewable energy contracts under Green Term Ahead Market
(GTAM) on the energy exchange. The green market will ultimately encourage green generators to
adopt multiple models of sale and trading.

Initiatives has India Taken to Facilitate Renewable Energy Transition:

• In 2019 India announced that it would take up its installed capacity of renewable energy to 450
GW by 2030.
o At CoP26, India committed 50% of its total power generation from Renewable Energy.
• The Production Linked Incentive Scheme (PLI) scheme is another initiative of the Government
of India with respect to enhancing the manufacturing sector for the production of raw materials for
renewable energy.
• The Ministry of New and Renewable Energy on its website also hosts Akshay Urja
Portal and India Renewable Idea Exchange (IRIX) Portal.
o IRIX is a platform that promotes the exchange of ideas among energy conscious Indians
and the Global community.
• India’s decision to achieve ‘net zero’ by 2070 has been hailed globally as a game changer. The
country has made reasonable progress by reaching nearly 110 GW of RE by the end of March
2022.
o It has also committed $35 billion of the $122 billion in energy-related funding to
renewables, almost twice the amount allotted to fossil fuels.

Economic Significance of Renewable Energy:

• Renewables form a vital component of green recovery, especially in a fast-developing country
like India.
o The renewable sector is not just competitive economically, but also holds immense
potential for job creation since clean energy technologies such as solar are far more
labour intensive than conventional energy sources.
• It has been estimated that in reaching its goal of 500 GW of non-fossil fuel energy sources by
2030, India could create as many as 3.4 million new clean energy jobs providing employment
to over a million people.
o This is expected to come largely from Distributed RE, which will create opportunities
for local employment.
• Such efforts might also encourage the start of new ventures, and help scale up domestic
businesses.

pg. 189
 [Link]

• India also has the potential to become a manufacturing hub for upcoming technologies like
green hydrogen and energy storage.
• From the economy point of view, renewable sources provide the market and revenue
assurance which no other resources can provide.

Wind power
● The development of wind power in India began in the 1990s, and has significantly increased in
the last few years. Although a relative newcomer to the wind industry compared with Denmark or
the US, domestic policy support for wind power has led India to become the country with the fourth
largest installed wind power capacity in the world.
● The installed capacity of wind power in India is 34,293 MW, mainly spread across Tamil Nadu,
Maharashtra, Gujarat, Rajasthan, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh
● Wind power accounts for 10% of India's total installed power capacity.
● India has set an ambitious target to generate 60,000 MW of electricity from wind power by 2022.
● The Indian Government's Ministry of New and Renewable Energy announced a new wind-solar
hybrid policy in May 2018. This means that the same piece of land will be used to house both
wind farms and solar panels.
● The National Institute of Wind Energy, (NIWE) located at Chennai is an autonomous R&D
institution under the Ministry of New and Renewable Energy established to serve as a technical
focal point for orderly development of Wind Power deployment.
● India has a strong manufacturing base in wind power with 20 manufactures of 53 different wind
turbine models of international quality up to 3 MW in size with exports to Europe, the United States
and other countries.

Key Issues With Renewable Power Generation:

1. Regional Concentration of Renewable Energy Potential: Because Renewable Energy is
location-specific and not evenly distributed, there are problems on scaling up grid connected
renewable power.
2. Insufficiency and High cost of Evacuation Infrastructure: Utilisation of variable Renewable
Energy requires a robust transmission infrastructure from remotely located generating plants to the
load centers. This requires infrastructure such as roads etc as well as land for installation.
3. Financial Barriers: Renewable Energy technologies require large initial capital investment.
These technologies need to be supported until technology breakthroughs and market volumes
generated are able to bring the tariff down at the grid parity level.
4. Low Penetration of Renewables for Urban and Industrial Applications.
5. Policy Interventions to Incentivize Creation of Financeable Business Models for Off-grid
Renewable Sector: Off-grid renewable sector is much more competitive with conventional power
as it avoids investment in transmission to remote locations. E.g. Rice Husk gasifiers based
electricity generation is one such model.

India’s Key Focus for Next Five Years:

1. India has a twin challenge of providing more energy as well as cleaner energy to the masses in
India. It should focus on getting into the manufacturing of the solar panels under the Atma Nirbhar

pg. 190
 [Link]

Bharat initiative as the demand is to create jobs as well as supply decentralised energy to all the
households in India.
2. Hydrogen based Fuel Cell Vehicles: Hydrogen in technology is likely to change the landscape of
renewables, shifting towards Hydrogen Based FCV is another area of focus. These are the most
suitable options when it comes to shifting towards renewable sources of energy, that’s where we
need to work upon.
3. Methanol based economy: Looking for other alternatives such as methanol based economy and
biomass. Bio-CNG vehicles with 20% blending in petrol is also a target the government has been
chasing. Fuels produced from biomass have a high calorific value and are cleaner than traditional
biomass.
4. Grid Integration: It is the practice of developing efficient ways to deliver variable renewable
energy (RE) to the grid.
5. Identifying the demands which are in tune with the characteristics of the renewables, focussing on
characteristics of renewables mainly solar and wind and considering their variability as strength
rather than weakness.

Way Forward:
● A well planned road map is needed, for which NITI Aayog is coming up with Energy Vision 2035
to achieve India's clean energy goals.
● Renewable sources of energy are expected to replace fossil fuels by 2050. India should be working
on areas like investment in infrastructure, capacity building and better integration of renewable
energy.
● Diversified energy mix is what India needs to focus on, no doubt solar and wind have a lot of
potential, Hydrogen would be a game changer in Indian energy transition space.

Q. Discuss the potential of renewable sources of energy, especially wind energy in India.

OFFSHORE WIND ENERGY

Introduction:
• India is blessed with a coastline of about 7600 km surrounded by water on three sides and has
good prospects of harnessing offshore wind energy.
• Considering this, the Government had notified the National offshore wind energy policy
2015. As per the policy, Ministry of New and Renewable Energy will act as the nodal Ministry.
• MNRE will work in close coordination with other government entities for Development and Use
of Maritime Space within the Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) of the country and shall be
responsible for overall monitoring of offshore wind energy development in the country.
• National Institute of Wind Energy (NIWE), Chennai will be the nodal agency to carryout
resource assessment, surveys and studies in EEZ, demarcate blocks and facilitate developers
for setting up offshore wind energy farms.

What is Offshore wind energy-

• Wind energy today typically comes in two different “types”: onshore wind farms which are large
installations of wind turbines located on land, and offshore wind farms which are installations
located in bodies of water.

pg. 191
 [Link]

• Offshore wind energy refers to the deployment of wind farms inside the water bodies. They utilise
the sea winds to generate electricity. These wind farms either use fixed-foundation turbines or
floating wind turbines.
o A fixed-foundation turbine is built in shallow water, whereas a floating wind turbine
is built in deeper waters where its foundation is anchored in the seabed. Floating wind
farms are still in their infancy.
• Offshore wind farms must be at least 200 nautical miles from the shore and 50 feet deep in the
ocean.
• Offshore wind turbines produce electricity which is returned to shore through cables buried in the
ocean floor.

Need for Offshore wind energy-

• The precious land resources required for onshore wind projects are gradually becoming a major
constraint.
• With exhaustion of best windy sites, we expect upward movements of market determined tariffs
for onshore wind energy in future.
• Offshore wind power offers a plausible alternative in such a scenario.
• Absence of any obstruction in the sea offers much better quality of wind and its conversion to
electrical energy.

Status of Wind Energy in India:

• India’s electricity generation from wind reached 39.2 gigawatts (GW) a year in March 2021. An
addition of another 20 GW over the next five years is expected to happen soon.
• The compound annual growth rate for wind generation has been 11.39% between 2010 and
2020, and for installed capacity, it has been 8.78%.

pg. 192
 [Link]

Potential of Offshore wind energy in India-

• Ministry set a target of 5.0 GW of offshore wind installations by 2022 and 30 GW by 2030 which
has been issued to give confidence to the project developers in India market.
• The wind resources assessment carried out by the National Institute of Wind Energy (NIWE)
gives total wind energy potential at 302 GW at 100 meter and 695.50 GW at 120 meter hub
height.
• Out of the total estimated potential more than 95% of commercially exploitable wind resources
are concentrated in seven states viz- Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh,
Maharashtra, Rajasthan and Tamil Nadu.
• Offshore wind turbines are much larger in size (in range of 5 to 10 MW per turbine) as against
2-3 MW of an onshore wind turbine.
• While, the cost per MW for offshore turbines are higher because of stronger structures and
foundations needed in marine environment, the desirable tariffs can be achieved on account of
higher efficiencies of these turbines after development of the ecosystem.

Global scenario-
• Globally offshore wind is about two decades old history with the first offshore wind turbine in
Denmark in 1991 which has been decommissioned in 2017.
• As of now the total installation is about 35.3 GW in 18 different countries of which important
ones are- UK (10428 MW), China (9996 MW), Germany (7689 MW), Denmark (1701 MW),
The Netherlands (2611 MW), Belgium (2261 MW), Sweden (192 MW).
• Capacity additions in last four years stands at 57% of the total capacity out of which 6358 MW
commissioned in 2020, 4679 MW in 2019, 4792 MW in 2018 and 4495 MW in 2017.

Challenges:
o Higher Installation Cost:
▪ Local substructure manufacturers, installations vessels and trained workers are
lacking in India.
▪ Offshore wind turbines require stronger structures and foundations than onshore
wind farms. This can cause higher installation costs.
o Higher Maintenance Cost:

pg. 193
 [Link]

▪ The action of waves and even high winds, particularly during storms or
hurricanes, can damage wind turbines. Eventually, offshore wind farms require
maintenance that is more costly and difficult to perform.
▪ Offshore wind tariffs in India are expected to range between Rs 7-9 per unit,
compared to Rs 2.8-2.9 per unit for onshore wind.

Policies related to Wind Energy:

• National Wind-Solar Hybrid Policy: The main objective of the National Wind-Solar Hybrid
Policy, 2018 is to provide a framework for promotion of large grid connected wind-solar PV
hybrid systems for optimal and efficient utilization of wind and solar resources, transmission
infrastructure and land.
• National Offshore Wind Energy Policy 2015: The National Offshore wind energy policy was
notified in October 2015 with an objective to develop the offshore wind energy in the Indian
Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) along the Indian coastline of 7600 km.

Government initiatives-
• First Offshore Wind Power project in India (FOWPI)
• Is another project getting implemented from December, 2015 by a consortium led by
COWI and supported by European Union with an objective to provide assistance up to
the stage of Pre-Financial-Investment-Decision (Pre-FiT) and provide general assistance
for capacity building of Indian stakeholders within offshore wind sector.

• The first 1.0 GW offshore Wind Energy Project-

• The first offshore wind energy project of 1.0 GW capacity was planned in the identified
zone-B off the coast of Gujarat in order to bring the economy of scale and localization
of necessary ecosystem for offshore wind energy sector.

• Facilitating Offshore Wind Energy in India (FOWIND)-

• Is a project implemented from December 2013 to March 2018 by a consortium led by
Global Wind Energy Council (GWEC) and supported by European Union (EU) to
assist India on its offshore wind power development and in turn contribute to India’s
transition towards use of clean technologies in the power sector.
• The project focused on the States of Gujarat and Tamil Nadu for identification of
potential zones for development through techno-commercial analysis and preliminary
resource assessment.

• Offshore Wind Resource Assessment through LiDAR-

• The offshore wind energy potential estimation carried out through satellite data needs to
be validated through actual ground measurements in order to make the data bankable.
• Ministry has decided to launch a measurement campaign deploying Light Detection
and Ranging (LiDARs) at the identified zones off the coast of Gujarat and Tamil
Nadu.
• One LiDAR was commissioned in November 2017 for Offshore Wind Resource
assessment in identified zone-B off the coast of Gujarat nearly 25 km away from the
port of Pipavav.

pg. 194
 [Link]

• As per the report, the annual average wind speed at the locations is observed to be 7.52
m/s at 100m hub height.

. Way Forward
• Renewable purchase obligation (RPO): Power distribution companies, open access consumers
and captive users can purchase clean energy as part of their total electricity consumption through a
renewable purchase obligation.
• Lower taxes: In India, the GST Law exempts electricity and power sales from GST. In contrast,
wind power generation companies cannot claim input tax credits when they pay GST to
purchase goods and/or services for setting up the project.
• Feed-in tariff: Discoms can adopt feed-in tariff (FiT) regulations and make offshore wind power
procurement mandatory. FiT can be tailored to suit each offshore wind project. FiT can be used to
promote offshore wind power in the early stages of development until it becomes economically
viable.
• Deemed generation provision: Offshore wind projects need to be protected against curtailment
concerns because of the inability of State Load Dispatch Centres (SLDCs) to absorb large
quantities of power that may be generated. For this, the offshore wind can be given a “deemed
generation provision”.

ENERGY CRISIS & RESOURCE USE EFFICIENCY

Context:
● Recently due to high International Crude Oil Prices, Current Account Deficit (CAD) inflated
because of higher cost of oil import, raising concerns about long term economic stability in India,
highlighting importance of energy security. On account of rising CAD, Indian Rupee touched
its lowest.
Energy security:
● It is defined as the uninterrupted availability of energy sources at an affordable price.
● Short-term energy security focuses on the ability of the energy system to respond promptly to
sudden changes in the supply-demand balance.

pg. 195
 [Link]

● Long-term energy security deals with timely investments to supply energy in line with economic
developments and environmental needs.
Significance of Energy security:
● India imports 80 percent of its oil needs and is the third largest oil consumer in the entire world.
● India’s energy consumption is expected to grow 4.5 percent every year for the next 25 years.
● India aims to become a leading global economic power which will fuel energy needs for providing
infrastructure, provisioning of basic necessities, developing human skill, employment generation
and manufacturing abilities.
● India’s economic fortunes continue to be tied to the sharply fluctuating international price of oil.
Challenges for India’s Energy Security Policy Challenges:
● Economic growth: With an aim to become a $5 trillion economy, India’s industry needs more
electricity.
a. As per the estimates of Government of India (GoI), to ensure a sustained 8% growth of the
economy, by 2031-32 India needs to increase its primary energy supply by three to four
times and its electricity generation by five to six times of the 2003-04 levels.
● Accessibility Challenge:
a. Presently, 304 million Indians do not have access to electricity and around 500 million
Indians are dependent on solid biomass for cooking.
b. The household sector is one of the largest consumers of energy in India. It is responsible
for about 45% of the total primary energy use.
c. In rural areas, biomass accounts for 90% of total primary fuel consumption for cooking.
● Economic challenges:
a. Rising fuel subsidies, rising CAD creates difficult conditions for economy.
b. Inadequate domestic supplies of Coal, oil and natural gas forcing the country to increase
its import bill.
● Urbanisation: With increasing urbanisation and government plans to develop smart cities, it
requires more clean energy.
a. Further unplanned urbanisation, urban sprawls reduce efficient energy and water use
leading to water and energy wastage.
b. This is challenge to ensure efficient urban planning securing India’s energy
● Infrastructure: India lacks transportation infrastructure for making energy accessible e.g.
pipelines can be a useful way to boost the total supply of gas in the country. Gas will play a major
role in Indian energy mix because it can be used effectively in several demand sectors.
● Skill related challenges: Lack of skilled manpower and poorly developed infrastructure for
developing conventional and unconventional energy.
● External Challenges:
a. Failure to attract international investment in domestic hydrocarbon exploration e.g.
NELP failed to attract the interest of large international energy corporations.
b. India seeks to achieve its energy security through multiple partners e.g. Indo-US nuclear
deal, Oil import from Middle East etc. However, in recent times due to conflict among
India’s energy partners e.g. USA and Iran; India had to reduce oil import from Iran.
c. China’s One Belt One Road initiative can give China a definitive advantage if any
conflict ensues between countries, by disturbing India’s access to energy.

pg. 196
 [Link]

d. Failure to get onboard all interested parties in IPI (Iran-Pakistan-India) gas pipeline and
TAPI (Turkmenistan, Afghanistan, Pakistan and India) gas pipeline for assured supply
of natural gas.
Measures to enhance energy security:
● Improving electricity plant efficiency and shift toward solar and wind energy. India already has
a robust target that 40 percent of its power supply will come from renewable sources by 2030,
under the Paris Agreement on climate change.
● There is a need to focus on technological options for improving energy efficiency in the industry,
power generation and commercial buildings, and promoting renewable energy technologies in
different end-use sectors.
● A green growth economy is the need of the hour. The Union Cabinet had approved the launch of
Deendayal Upadhyaya Gram Jyoti Yojana (DDUGJY) for ensuring 24×7 power supply.
● Increasing accessibility to clean energy: India has already committed to bring electricity to every
household by 2022. To bring clean fuel in rural areas the Pradhan Mantri Ujjawala Yojana, should
be complemented by: Setting up of biomass pelletising units; and distribution of ‘ efficient biomass
chullahs’.
● The potential non-conventional energy sources must be explored and researched to make them
technologically economical and accessible, like geothermal energy, tidal energy etc.
● A renewable energy capacity of 100 GW should be achieved by 2020-21 so as to contribute to the
achievement of 175 GW target by 2022.
● To enhance vehicle fuel efficiency gains, the auto fuel quality should be upgraded to BS VI norms.
Government’s Initiatives:
● Hydrocarbon Exploration and Licensing Policy (HELP) intends to minimize government's
discretion in decision making, reduce disputes, reduce administrative delays and introduce concept
of revenue sharing, freedom of marketing to stimulate growth in the oil and gas sector in India.
● India has also built its strategic petroleum reserves in order to meet any supply shocks due to any
external exigencies like wars, natural disasters etc. Indian Strategic Petroleum Reserves Ltd, a
special purpose vehicle under the Oil and Gas Ministry, has constructed three strategic petroleum
reserves in huge underground rock caverns at Visakhapatnam on the East Coast, and at
Mangalore and Padur on the West Coast.
● The INDIA ENERGY SECURITY SCENARIOS, 2047(IESS) has been developed as an energy
scenario building tool. The guiding ambition of this is to develop energy pathways leading up to
the year 2047, comprising of likely energy demand and supply scenarios.
● India’s Energy diplomacy:
a. The Indo-US Nuclear deal opened new vistas for India in the field of Nuclear energy
facilitating cutting edge technology and nuclear fuel.
b. India is setting up a web of energy relationships in the extended neighborhood covering
Myanmar, Vietnam in the east, with Central Asian countries like Kazakhstan and Gulf
countries in the west.
Impact of various Energy Efficiency Interventions in India:
● Adoption of energy efficiency schemes/ programmes have led to overall electricity savings to the
tune of 9.39% of the net electricity consumption.
● The PAT scheme contributed to 57.72% of the total energy savings, while UJALA accounted for
36.26% of the total energy saving from all major interventions carried out during the FY18-19.

pg. 197
 [Link]

● Overall, various energy efficiency measures have translated into savings worth INR 89,122 crores
(approximately) and contributed in reducing 151.74 Million Tonnes of CO2 emission.

GLOBAL GRID INITIATIVE- ONE SUN, ONE WORLD, ONE GRID (GGI-OSOWOG)
INITIATIVE:

Introduction:
• GGI-OSOWOG was conceived in 2018 to develop global interconnected solar energy systems.
o Under the International Solar Alliance, India announced the launch of the Green Grids
Initiative — One Sun, One World, One Grid (GGI-OSOWOG) in partnership with the
United Kingdom.
Objectives:
• The vision behind the OSOWOG is ‘The Sun Never Sets’ and is a constant at some geographical
location, globally, at any given point of time.
• The initiative aims to build a framework for global cooperation on the effective utilisation of
renewable resources and to help ensure that clean and efficient energy is a reliable option for all
nations to meet their energy requirements by 2030.
• This project aspires to harness the sun’s energy and build a global interconnected electricity
grid to accelerate the transition to renewable energy.
• The initiative is expected to connect more than 80 countries across a large geographical
area, with varying levels of sunlight. A transitional system will enable countries with low levels of
sunlight to obtain energy from areas with an excess of it.
• Stages of Grid Connection:
o The interconnection of the Indian grids with the Middle East, South Asia and Southeast
Asian (MESASEA) grids.
o MESASEA grids' interconnection with the African power grid.
o Finally, global interconnectivity.

pg. 198
 [Link]

Importance of GGI-OSOWOG:
• It will bring more technical, financial and research cooperation to help facilitate cross-border
renewable energy transfer projects, which will give OSOWOG its global infrastructure.
• It will also create a depth of organizational scale, spanning national governments, international
financial and technical organisations, legislators, power system operators and knowledge
leaders, to accelerate the construction of the new infrastructure needed for a world powered
by clean energy.
• It will enable a faster leap towards a global ecosystem of interconnected renewables that are
shared for mutual benefit and global sustainability.
• It will provide momentum, and a pool of investment towards low-carbon, innovative solar
projects, and bring together skilled workers for a solar-powered economic recovery. It can also
propel investment and create millions of new green jobs.
• It will lead to reduced project costs, higher efficiencies and increased asset utilization for all
the participating entities.
• It will result in economic benefits, positively impact poverty alleviation and support in
mitigating water, sanitation, food and other socio-economic challenges.
• Allow national renewable energy management centres in India to grow as regional and global
management centres.
Challenges:
• Documentation of GGI does not comment on improving the efficiency of the existing solar
energy infrastructure in the country.
• The majority of the solar energy infrastructure is located in desert regions, which brings dust
deposits on panels.
o A layer of dust decreases solar power conversion efficiency by 40%.
• Solar energy technologies such as batteries and panels use energy-intensive raw materials and
several chemicals and heavy metals that need to be handled and disposed of correctly.
• It does not define strategies to recycle and repurpose existing infrastructure, which can be an
exciting avenue to view through the circular economy lens.
• Solar panels generally have a lifespan of 25 years, after which they have to be retired since they
lose their efficiency.

Opportunities:
• Being a thermal energy-dependent country, India faces severe electricity shortages in many
areas due to heatwaves (when demand increases) and coal shortages.
o GGI can transform the traditional energy system by replacing thermal power plants
with solar energy, making India more resilient against extreme weather conditions and
less dependent on fossil fuels.
• Solar energy has been improving the lives of millions of people in rural India, enabling them to
carry out activities and improving their standard of living in an environmentally friendly manner.
o An example of this is the implementation of solar-powered agriculture pumps (PM-
KUSUM) to extract groundwater, which are more environmentally friendly than
traditional diesel ones.
• The number of diesel pumps in India is 10 million.

pg. 199
 [Link]

•It is estimated that the replacement of 1 million diesel pumps with solar-powered
pumps can improve agricultural output by Rs 30,000 crore, while also mitigating
diesel usage.
o The implementation of GGI can enhance the quality of life of rural communities in
many other areas like access to electronic gadgets, clean drinking water, among others.

Way Forward:
• Environmental costs of solar power, efficiency issues, energy losses due to conversion and transfer,
and the problem of waste management are barriers that need to be addressed urgently by the
implementing bodies.
• In India, the implementation of GGI comes at an increased environmental cost due to waste
disposal issues.
o These obstacles need to be worked around by developing specific systems to reuse and
recycle existing infrastructure.
• To make the initiative a success in India, there needs to be a careful consideration of the
initiative's costs and the benefits.
o Its modifications need to be planned in ways that suit the country's requirements and
resource capabilities.
• Institution building is key to fulfilling the ambitions of a multi-country grid project.
o In this context, ISA (International Solar Alliance) can act as an independent
supranational institution to take decisions about how the grid should be run and conflicts
settled.

CRITICAL METALS AND STRATEGIC METALS:

Introduction- Strategic and critical metals are the key to the advancement in next-generation
manufacturing and green energy.

Strategic metals-
• A metal is strategic if it is essential to a State’s economic policy (security, defence, energy policy,
etc.).
• Metal may also be considered strategic for a particular company or industry (e.g. aerospace,
defence, automotive, electronics & ICT, renewable energies, nuclear, etc.).
• For example- Iron is a strategic metal for the Iron and Steel industries, but iron is not a critical
metal, as it is abundantly present in India as well as in the world.

Critical metals-
• Critical minerals are elements that are the building blocks of essential modern-day technologies
and are at risk of supply chain disruptions.
• A metal is deemed critical if difficulties with the metal’s supply could have negative industrial or
economic impacts.
• In most international studies the criticality of metal (as of any mineral) is judged on two criteria:
supply-side risk (geological, technical, geographical, economic, geopolitical), and economic

pg. 200
 [Link]

importance which reflects the vulnerability of the economy to potential shortage or supply
interruption creating a surge in prices.
• According to Raphaël Danino-Perraud - In short, critical metals are metals associated with
supply chain pressures, in terms of both supply and demand.
• For the US National Research Council and the European Commission, metal or mineral is critical
when it is “both essential in use and potentially subject to supply constraints.

Example: The criticality of copper in the energy transition-

• As part of the ANR’s (French National Research Agency) GENERATE project(4), IFPen and
IRIS (French Institute for International and Strategic Relations) have conducted a prospective
study on the criticality of copper to the energy and transport sectors.
• This is designed to assess the impact of the availability of copper in the energy transition, given the
significance of copper content in low-carbon technologies compared with conventional
technologies.
• It was found that whatever the scenario considered (two climate scenarios – one at 2ºC and the
other at 4ºC – and two mobility scenarios), copper production capacity will have to increase
considerably. This is obviously not without consequence.
• So for example Chile – which is one of the biggest producers but also facing severe water stress
– is studying the possibility of using seawater rather than freshwater for its ore concentration
operations.
• While an interesting idea from the perspective of preserving water resources, it is less attractive
in terms of environmental impact.
• This is because it would not only involve transporting seawater to the mine sites – which are often
located at high altitudes – but would additionally entail desalination of the water, resulting in
higher energy consumption and increased brine discharge.
• This example illustrates that in addition to the risks to the supply of a given raw material, and its
economic and technical importance, criticality studies must also consider a third aspect: the
impact of the raw material’s production on health and the environment.
• It makes little sense for energy transition solutions to run counter to the protection of the
environment.

The Indian Scenario-

• The Indian Critical Minerals Strategy has identified 49 minerals that will be vital for India’s
future economic growth.

pg. 201
 [Link]

Presence of critical metals in India-

Type of strategic metal Region

1. Beryllium Jharkhand, Odisha
2. Tin West Bengal
3. Tungsten Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand
4. Cobalt Odisha
5. Gallium Odisha

Recent development-
• Recently, India and Australia decided to strengthen their partnership in the field of projects and
supply chains for critical minerals.
• Australia confirmed that it would commit USD 5.8 million to the three-year India-Australia
Critical Minerals Investment Partnership.

Significance of India Australia Partnership-

• Reduction in Emissions & Essential Demand: Australia has the resources to help India fulfill its
ambitions to lower emissions and meet the growing demand for critical minerals to help India’s
space and defense industries, and the manufacture of solar panels, batteries, and electric vehicles.
• Expanding Global Trade: India’s strong interest and support for a bilateral partnership will help
advance critical minerals projects in Australia while diversifying global supply chains.

pg. 202
 [Link]

• The Path to Achieve Clean Energy: India is among the fastest-growing economies in the world
and there is huge scope for collaboration in the mineral sector. Technology transfer, knowledge-
sharing, and investment in critical minerals like lithium and cobalt are strategic to achieving clean
energy ambitions.

China’s Monopoly:
o China has over time acquired global domination of critical metals, even at one point, it
produced 90% of the critical metals the world needs.
o Today, however, it has come down to around 60%, and the remaining is produced by
other countries, including the Quad (Australia, India, Japan, and United States).
o Since 2010, when China curbed shipments of critical metals to Japan, the US, and Europe,
production units have come up in Australia, and the US along with smaller units in Asia,
Africa, and Latin America.
o Even so, the dominant share of processed critical metals lies with China.

• Heavy dependence on China (India and the World):

o India has the world’s fifth-largest reserves of rare earth elements, nearly twice as much
as Australia, but it imports most of its rare earth needs in finished form from China.
o In 2019, the US imported 80% of its rare earth minerals from China while the European
Union gets 98% of its supply from China.

Why are these Metals Considered a Critical Source?

• Increased Dependency:
o As countries around the world scale up their transition toward clean energy and a digital
economy, these critical resources are key to the ecosystem that fuels this change.
▪ Any supply shock can severely imperil the economy and strategic autonomy of a
country over-dependent on others to procure critical minerals.
• Low Availability:
o These supply risks exist due to rare availability, growing demand and complex processing
value chain. Many times, the complex supply chain can be disrupted by hostile regimes, or
due to politically unstable regions.

pg. 203
 [Link]

• Increasing Demand:
o According to the United States (US) Government, as the world transitions to a clean energy
economy, global demand for these critical minerals is set to rapidly increase by 400-600%
over the next several decades, and, for minerals such as lithium and graphite used in EV
batteries, demand will increase by even more as much as 4,000%.
▪ They are critical as the world is fast shifting from a fossil fuel-intensive to a
mineral-intensive energy system.

SIGNIFICANCE OF STRATEGIC AND CRITICAL METALS-

• As countries around the world scale up their transition toward clean energy and a digital economy,
these critical resources are key to the ecosystem that fuels this change.
• Any supply shock can severely imperil the economy and strategic autonomy of a country over-
dependent on others to procure critical minerals.

SIGNIFICANCE FOR INDIA-

• The industrial and manufacturing industry plays an indispensable role; moreover, minerals play a
vital role in sustaining this strategic industry.
• Metals and minerals such as uranium, tin, cobalt, lithium, germanium, gallium, and tungsten are
considered strategic because their substitutes are limited in India.
• Twelve critical metals could play an important role in the success of the ‘Make in India’
program for use in aerospace, automobiles, cameras, defense, entertainment systems, laptops,
medical imaging, nuclear energy, and smartphones.
• These critical minerals would also play a role in nurturing the domestic manufacturing capacity
to support the government’s low-carbon plans, such as the 100GW solar target, faster adoption
and manufacturing of hybrid and electric vehicles, and the national domestic efficient lighting
program.
• India has set up KABIL or the Khanij Bidesh India Limited to ensure the mineral security of the
nation.
• They have distinctive electrical, metallurgical, catalytic, nuclear, magnetic, and luminescent
properties.
• Its usage range from daily use (e.g., lighter flints, glass polishing mediums, car alternators) to high-
end technology (lasers, magnets, batteries, fiber-optic telecommunication cables).

pg. 204
 [Link]

• Even futuristic technologies need these critical and strategic metals. For example high-
temperature superconductivity, safe storage and transport of hydrogen for a post-hydrocarbon
economy, environmental global warming, and energy efficiency issues.
• Due to their unique magnetic, luminescent, and electrochemical properties, they help
technologies perform with reduced weight, reduced emissions, and energy consumption;
therefore giving them greater efficiency, performance, miniaturization, speed, durability, and
thermal stability.

Way Forward-
• India needs to create a new Department for Strategic and critical minerals (DSCM), which
would play the role of a regulator and enabler for businesses in this space.
o Currently, the mining and processing of critical metals have been largely concentrated in
the hands of IREL (India) Limited, a PSU under the department of atomic energy.
o Its progress and capacity to produce critical metals, while growing slowly, is nowhere
close to international critical and rare earth minerals conglomerates.
• Indian companies can be encouraged to form such junior exploration businesses in the Indian
Ocean Region to prospect for strategic and critical metals and feed value-added products into
the Indian market.
o Most governments in this region have mining and exploration-friendly policies and
welcome investment. India has strong historical, cultural, business, and Diaspora links in
this region that has developed over centuries of trade and migration.
• India can also coordinate with other agencies to partner directly with groupings such as the Quad,
building up a strategic reserve as a buffer against global supply crises.

Agriculture

INDIAN AGRICULTURE

Agriculture is defined as the art, science and business of producing crops and livestock for economic
purpose.

Importance of Agriculture in India:

pg. 205
 [Link]

● Around Two third of the livelihood of the Indian population is directly or indirectly dependent on
Agriculture.
● Agricultural sector accounts for 15% of the export earnings and 14%-17% of India’s GDP.
● Agricultural sector provides raw material for various industries such as textiles, sugar mills, Jute,
Apparel and other agro based industries etc.
● Sustainable Agricultural production is important for the food security of the large Indian
population.
● Allied sectors in agriculture involve- horticulture, animal husbandry, dairy, fishing etc. Agriculture
and allied sector plays vital role in providing nutrition and livelihood to the huge population in
India.

Salient features of Indian Agriculture

● Subsistence agriculture: The type of agriculture in India is mostly Subsistence agriculture. In
Subsistence agriculture the agricultural produce is for self-consumption only.
● Commercial agriculture: Large-scale commercial agriculture is also practiced in India, such as
tea plantations in Assam, coffee in Karnataka, coconut in Kerala, etc. where large agricultural
produce is sold in the market by the firms for making profits.
● Monsoon dependent: Due to lack of irrigation facilities Two-third of Indian agriculture is
dependent on monsoon rains.
● Predominance of food crops: In order to feed a large population and predominance of subsistence
agriculture, food crops are mainly grown in order to keep with the food security demands of the
huge Indian population.
● Mechanization: After the Green Revolution, there has been an increasing trend in the use of
machines in farm operations. Punjab, Haryana, Western Uttar Pradesh, River valleys of Andhra,
and Tamil Nadu are major agriculturally mechanized areas in India.
● Variety of crops: India is blessed with the production of different varieties of crops in different
regions. For eg., hilly areas are suitable for tea cultivation, plains for rice cultivation
● Since the land resource in India is limited the pressure of increasing population on agriculture is
increasing day by day.

Cropping Seasons in India

● There are three distinct crop seasons in the country, namely Kharif, rabi, and Zaid.

pg. 206
 [Link]

SLASH & BURN FARMING/ JHUM CULTIVATION

Shifting Cultivation
● Shifting cultivation, locally called 'Jhum', is a widely practiced system of crop cultivation among
the indigenous communities of Northeast India. The practice, also known as slash-and-burn
agriculture, is when farmers clear land by slashing vegetation and burning forests and woodlands
to create clear land for agricultural purposes.
● Shifting cultivation is practiced in northeastern states of India, Chotanagpur plateau of
Jharkhand, M.P., and in Hilly areas of the Himalayas, the Western Ghats, and the Eastern
Ghats.
● This provides a very easy and very fast method of the preparation of the land for agriculture.
● The bush and the weeds can be removed easily. The burning of waste materials provide needed
nutrients for the cultivation.
● Because of cutting of forests and trees, this practice leads to soil erosion and may also affect the
course of rivers.
● It is known by different names in different parts of the country.
● It is jhumming in north-eastern states like Assam, Meghalaya, Mizoram and Nagaland; Pamlou
in Manipur, Dipa in Bastar district of Chhattisgarh, and in Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
● Jhumming: The ‘slash and burn’ agriculture is known as ‘Milpa’ in Mexico and Central America,
‘Conuco’ in Venezuela, ‘Roca’ in Brazil, ‘Masole’ in Central Africa, ‘Ladang’ in Indonesia,
‘Ray’ in Vietnam.
● In India, this primitive form of cultivation is called ‘Bewar’ or ‘Dahiya’ in Madhya Pradesh,
‘Podu’ or ‘Penda’ in Andhra Pradesh, ‘Pama Dabi’ or ‘Koman’ or Bringa’ in Odisha, ‘Kumari’
in Western Ghats, ‘Valre’ or ‘Waltre’ in South-eastern Rajasthan, ‘Khil’ in the Himalayan
belt, ‘Kuruwa’ in Jharkhand.
Ecological Problems due to shifting cultivation:
● Jhum is the most serious problem leading to degradation of forests.
● Damage to the soil level and fauna.
● The continuous process of forest degradation in the hilly parts of the north eastern states may result
in the less average rainfall.
● Increase in temperature is affecting human life and ecology.
● The destruction of forest for jhum cultivation is leading to scanty rainfall and uncertainty in the
monsoon rainfall.
● Jhum may lead to climate change and the problem of water crisis.

Why the Need to Manage Shifting Cultivation?

● Managing shifting cultivation areas is fundamental to agricultural development in northeast (NE)
India and an important element of the Act East Policy.
● The Forest Survey of India’s (FSI, 2015) reports over the years continue to attribute large scale
deforestation and loss of forest cover in NE India to shifting cultivation.
○ There is an urgent need to update data on the area under shifting cultivation as well as
the total population still involved with the practice.
● There is a need to blend traditional knowledge on resource use and management with modern
scientific approaches to improve the productivity of existing practices through locally acceptable
technological interventions.

pg. 207
 [Link]

● Access to credit for shifting cultivators is denied because they are unable to offer shifting
cultivation land as collateral for loans in the absence of land titles. Credit guidelines should be
amended to allow group guarantee for loans instead of land title deeds in these areas.
● State agencies like agricultural marketing, forest development corporations of concerned states
should take steps to formalize, promote and organize marketing of products from shifting
cultivation.
● Shifting cultivation lands fall under the purview of agriculture during the cultivation phase, but
come under Forests during the fallow phase – the same piece of land under two subjects at
different time periods. This ambiguity needs to be addressed.
○ All government departments should consider jhum land as a distinct land use, with an
exceptionally long fallow phase.
○ Shifting cultivation fallows must be legally perceived and categorized as ‘regenerating
fallows’, which may, if given sufficient time, regenerate into secondary forests.

Government Initiatives:
● A recent NITI Aayog publication on shifting cultivation has recommended that the Ministry of
Agriculture should take up a “mission on shifting cultivation” to ensure inter-ministerial
convergence.
● The report titled "Shifting Cultivation: Towards a Transformational Approach" is prepared
by one of the five thematic working groups set up by NITI Aayog in 2017 which aims to encourage
well-being of the people in the Indian Himalayan Region (IHR).

Alternative to Jhum Cultivation:

● The SALT approach (Sloping Agriculture Land Technology) when suitably adapted to the local
conditions has the potential to offer the hill tribes with an alternative method of agriculture, which
while being climate smart, will also provide the farmers with a means of sustainable livelihoods.
● A pilot SALT project has been initiated in village Aben of Manipur state during the 2017 monsoon
season.

Q. What do you understand about jhum cultivation?

Q. What is slash and burn farming? Discuss its geographical distribution in India. What impacts it
has on the ecology .Critically examine.

DRYLAND AGRICULTURE

Dryland Farming:
● It is practiced in regions receiving low rainfall, like Rajasthan, some parts of Gujarat and
Maharashtra, etc.
● Dry land agriculture is the agriculture which limits the crop growth to a part of the year due to lack
of sufficient moisture.
● 68 per cent of the cultivated area in Indian agriculture comes under dryland, which contributes
about 44 per cent of the total food production and plays a critical role in India’s food security. A
vast majority of the small scale farmers depend on the dry regions for their livelihood.

pg. 208
 [Link]

● Dry regions are economically fragile regions which are highly vulnerable to environmental stress
and shocks. Degraded soils with low water holding capacities along with multiple nutrient
deficiencies and depleting ground water table contributes to low crop yields and further leading to
land degradation.
● Crops like Peas, millets, grams, and other drought-resistant crops or varieties can be grown.

Regions of Dryland Farming and the crop grown in those areas-

Characteristics of dryland agriculture in India:

● Rainfall: The most important contributing character in the drylands is low rainfall which is
unevenly distributed, highly erratic and uncertain. The crop production in drylands is mainly
dependent on the frequency and intensity of rainfall making it less productive.
● Soil: The major causes for land degradation include the chemical degradation of soil, loss of soil
structure and texture, loss of natural vegetation leading to soil erosion. .
● Occurrence of drought: The extensive climatic hazards are seen in drylands as the soils are weak
and can be subjected to environmental stress to a higher level, leading to further land degradation.
Drought is a common scenario in drylands as water availability is less further leading to low
productivity.
● Extensive agriculture: Prevalence of monocropping extensively makes farm lands lack nutrients
and result in reduction of yield.
● Crops grown: The crops grown in a particular region will be similar and are not much remunerative
compared to the major crops like rice and wheat. When similar crops are grown, all mature at the
same time and a large quantity of produce will reach the market leading to glut in the markets. This
situation is severely exploited by the traders and the middlemen in the markets. The issue of
marketing turns out to be a big problem in dryland agriculture.
● Poor economy of farmers: Economic status and living of farmers is low in drylands, due to the
less choice of the crops that are grown in these areas.

pg. 209
 [Link]

Need for Dryland Agriculture in India

• India has 1/3rd of its geographical area is under humid conditions, while 2/3rd is subhumid
or arid conditions. Thus, dryland agriculture occupies larger land than the wet agriculture.
• It supports 40% of the population and occupies 66% of land. The ratio needs to be rectified, by
increasing the productivity of these region
• For the balanced development of country, dryland agriculture must be emphasized.
• Dryland agriculture is based on the industrial crops e.g. cotton, groundnut, oilseeds, pulses,
tobacco. For development of agro processing industries and to make Indian agriculture more
export- oriented greater emphasis on dryland agriculture is inevitable.
• Agriculture has forwarded and backward linkages with industry and thus, if industrial crops are
produced in greater quantum, meso-scale, household, cottage industries could be developed in rural
areas and rural dev processes can be propelled. It will also result in industrialisation and bring about
economic growth in the country.
• Dryland agriculture mostly produces hardy and nutritious crops eg. Jowar, bajra, ragi, pulses,
oilseeds, cottonseeds, sunflower, safflower. Thus, the nutrition / malnutrition problems in poor
areas can be fought with the help of dryland agriculture.
• Dryland agriculture involves cash cropping, E.g. Jatropha cultivation can reduce the magnitude
of petroleum crisis since liquid produced by it can be added to petroleum products without
reducing the efficiency.
• Dryland agriculture has the potential to produce fodder and cattle feed. Thus, it can help in white
revolution. Also, here the pasture lands are more extensive and cattle breeds have greater per-
capital yield.
• Sheep-raising has greater prospect in semi-arid areas.

pg. 210
 [Link]

Problems of dryland farming :

● Soil and moisture problems : Soils are highly diverse in the drylands of India. In semiarid regions,
the alfisols and vertisols predominate, whereas in river basins inceptisols and entisols(alluvial soils)
are seen and in desert regions, aridisols. Crops grown in alfisols are subjected to severe drought
stress, whereas those grown in vertisols have less severity to drought, due to its better water holding
capacity.
● Environmental changes of water logging and salinity: Soil degradation has a close link with
water logging and salinity problems. Irrigation salinity has a major impact on dryland crops. Over
irrigation, poor drainage, improper irrigation for damaged soils etc. are the major causes for water
logging and [Link] environmental changes result in reduction of yields and abandonment
of lands.
● Dietary habits and nutritional characteristics of crops grown : The choices of the crops that are
to be grown in drylands are very limited. Oilseeds pulses and coarse grains like bajra are grown in
drylands. Since the dryland crops are not very remunerative leading to an economic imbalance.

Probable solutions :
● Agronomic approaches : The primary objective to dryland farming is to preserve the soil and
water, in order to achieve maximum productivity. Agronomic approaches are developed based on
the land terrain concerned. Management of such areas can be achieved by stabilizing the soils by
forestry and pasture, with regulated grazing. The land can be further developed by contour bunding
and terracing.
● Engineering approaches : Various engineering approaches are utilized for conservation of soil
and water by the collection of excess rainwater, regulation of runoff, managing evaporation and
seepage losses.
● Breeding aspects : The new plant types are to be developed which possess all the necessary
characters for the drylands. The particular ideotype should have short duration of growth, extensive
root growth, basic modifications necessary for growing in drylands and drought tolerance,
moderate tillering to reduce competition, resistance to pests and diseases, efficient photosynthetic
machinery to convert more inputs into yields
● Innovation in technology transfer : The technologies developed must be on a watershed basis
with people’s participation. Methodologies should be developed to initiate and encourage farmers’
participation in dryland agriculture. Grass root level extension is to be the prime criteria.

Conclusion : There is no one solution for dryland farming to make it more productive. Dryland farming
must be an integrated approach of all the systems. Each dry environment is distinct in its own; solutions
developed should be based on the basic needs of the local conditions prevailing in that [Link], water
and all the natural resources are never taken for granted, these resources when utilized in a judicious manner
gives maximum output.

[Link] is dryland agriculture? Discuss the ecological and economic challenges of dry land
agriculture.

pg. 211
 [Link]

PULSES PRODUCTION IN INDIA

About Pulses:
● Pulses are consumed as Dal, which is a cheap source of plant protein.
● These are consumed because of body building properties having presence of various amino acids.
● These also have medicinal properties.
● A number of pulse crops are grown in India and world. Among the crops, major ones are Gram,
Pigeonpea, Lentil, Field Peas etc.

Important Major Pulses Growing Zones / States in India

● The major contributors of pulses production are Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Uttar Pradesh,
Rajasthan and Andhra Pradesh.

Climatic Requirement:
● Pulse crops are cultivated in Kharif, Rabi and Zaid seasons of the Agricultural year.
● Rabi crops require mild cold climate during sowing period, during vegetative to pod development
cold climate and during maturity / harvesting warm climate. Eg. Black gram.
● Similarly, Kharif pulse crops require a warm climate throughout their life from sowing to
harvesting. E.g. Green gram.

pg. 212
 [Link]

Despite being a leader in pulse production India imports pulses:

● Global production of pulses in 2014 was around 80 million tonnes. India is the world leader, with
25% share of world production in pulses. Since, pulse is a rich source of protein and main protein
source for the poor section of society in India, demand overshoots the supply of pulses.
● Primary reason for less supply is the low productivity of pulses. Average farm yield of pulses in
India (800 kg/ ha) is 3 times less than the US average (2000 kg/ ha).
● Following are the main reasons for low productivity:
○ Subsistence farming in India
○ More focus on cereal crops e.g. wheat, rice
○ Pulses are mainly grown on drylands and rainfed area without any irrigation support.
○ Pulses do not have MSP support as provided to crops such as wheat, rice etc.
○ Low level of mechanization and technology support.
○ Smaller size of farms
○ Less investment in irrigation facilities (only 15% for pulses as against 80%-90% for wheat/
rice) and HYV of seeds
○ Heavy weed infestation, blue bull and pod borers cause substantial damage (30%) to
standing crop
○ Pulses are grown by resource poor farmers and treated as secondary crops with finest
productivity to staple cereals and other cash crops. As a consequence, pulses are generally
deprived of essential inputs, due care and latest technologies.

Government initiatives:
● Rashtriya Krishi Vikas Yojna was launched under which states can undertake Pulses
Development Programmes
● Integrated scheme of Oilseeds, Pulses, Oil Palm and Maize (ISOPOM) in 14 major pulses
growing states
● Pulses were brought under the ambit of the Technology Mission of the Ministry’s Department of
Agriculture & Cooperation.
● Programmes like Accelerated Pulses Production Programme and Pulses and Oilseeds villages.
● PM-AASHA for the procurement of pulses and oilseeds.
● Pradhan Mantri Fasal Bima Yojana' promises security of income to farmers despite natural
vagaries at a very nominal premium.
● Similarly, e-NAM, a pan India electronic trading platform assures high income to farmers through
a transparent process.
● 'Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchai Yojana' is continuously expanding irrigation facilities to newer
areas and also helping increase irrigation efficiency by introduction of micro-irrigation techniques.
● A comprehensive and nation-wide soil health card scheme is helping farmers to increase land
fertility and productivity.
● All these schemes, initiatives, programmes and activities are helping India more towards self
sufficiency in pulses and oilseeds.
● To attain self-sufficiency in the production of pulses, the Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers
Welfare has formulated a special Kharif strategy for implementation in the ensuing Kharif 2021
season. A detailed plan for both area expansion and productivity enhancement for Tur, Moong
and Urad has been formulated.

pg. 213
 [Link]

Q. Discuss the geographical distribution of pulses in India.

Q. Despite being a leader in pulse production India imports pulses. Discuss the reasons for this
anomaly. How can India become self-sufficient in pulses?

PLANTATION AGRICULTURE
Plantation Agriculture:
● It is a type of agriculture which involves growing and processing of a single cash crop purely
meant for sale.
● Rubber, tea, coffee, spices, coconut and fruits are some of the important crops which come under
the category of plantation agriculture.
● It is capital intensive and demands good managerial ability, technical know-how,
sophisticated machinery, fertilizers, irrigation, and transport facilities. Plantation agriculture
is export-oriented agriculture.

Features :
● It is a single crop farming practised on a large area.
● Crops are mainly grown for the market
● It is both labour intensive and capital intensive.
● It needs vast estates, managerial ability, technical know-how, sophisticated machinery, fertilisers,
good transport facilities and a factory for processing.
● It has an interface of agriculture and Industry.
● This type of agriculture has developed in areas of north-eastern India, Sub-Himalayan region,
West Bengal and Nilgiri.
● Developed networks of transport and communi-cation connecting the plantation processing
industries and markets play an important role in the development of plantations.

Why the current model of Plantation is unsustainable?

Plantation agriculture is characterised by features like large estates or plantations, high capital investment,
single crop specialisation, labour intensive etc., but it adversely affects the environment. For example:
• The biggest negative impact is due to the change in land use.

o Over the 150-200 years, the forest was cleared to develop commercial crops, and that too
dominated by mono-cropping.
o This has lead to the loss of productivity and biodiversity of the region.
o Further, the plantations are converted into resorts, health cities or housing complexes.
• The plantation is India is motivated by the Green Revolution, which heavily relies on the use of
inorganic fertilizers.
o This leads to problems like deterioration of soil fertility, water pollution due to run-off etc.
• These negative effects further get aggravated due to heavy rains, floods and landslides- fallouts of
climate change.

How to make plantations sustainable?

pg. 214
 [Link]

• For environmentally sustainable agriculture in India, a new approach based on the prudent
application of inputs and optimal use of Nitrate Reductase can be utilized.
• Rather than planting community selling land to real estate developers, the plantation sector can take
up pisciculture.
o For Pisciculture, mini earthen dams can be created. These earthen dams can be a source of
additional income to the planters.
o Since the regions in India dominated by plantations are located in the seismologically
disturbed area.
o So for the construction of permission from the India Meteorological Department (IMD)
has to be taken.
• Precision Farming techniques like drip irrigation and fertigation, along with the use of technologies
like artificial intelligence should be used in plantation.

Q. What is plantation agriculture? What are its salient features? Discuss with example from India.

Palm Oil Plantations:

● Palm Oil Cultivation:
○ Oil palm crop is one of the highest oil yielding crops among all perennial crops.
○ This oil palm is considered as golden palm due to its high yielding capacity. In India, oil
palm crop provides the excellent substitute for importing the oil.
○ Major Oil Palm Production States in India:- Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Assam, Kerala,
Gujarat, Goa, Tamilnadu, Maharashtra, Tripura, West Bengal and some areas of Andaman.
○ Indonesia and Malaysia are the two major palm oil producers globally, producing nearly
85 per cent of the global output.
● Advantages of Oil Palm Cultivation:
○ Oil palm yields highest edible oil among the other oil crops.
○ Farmers can expect high returns which results in an uplift of economic status.
○ Palm oil substitutes import of edible oil by saving valuable foreign exchange.
○ Palm is generally the cheapest commodity vegetable oil and also the cheapest oil to produce
and refine globally.
○ Oil palm is among the most productive and profitable of tropical crops for biofuel
production.
● India's Scenario
○ India spends over $10 billion on imports of edible oil every year, and this bill is only next
to the one incurred on crude oil and gold imports.
○ Palm oil imports constitute nearly 75 percent of the total edible oil imports.
○ The Government of India has been trying to reduce its dependence on imported edible oils,
by encouraging farmers to take up palm cultivation.
○ In 1992, the Oil Palm Development Programme (OPDP) was launched. This was followed
by an “Oil Palm Area Expansion” (OPAE) programme in 2011-12
○ The government also allowed 100 per cent FDI in palm oil plantations
○ Top 5 Palm Oil Producer states in India 2022- Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Kerala,
Karnataka, Tamil Nadu.
○ Oil palm in India’s northeast

pg. 215
 [Link]

■ India is pushing for palm cultivation in the north-eastern states of Assam, Mizoram
and Arunachal Pradesh to increase production of oil, a commodity that costs the
country millions in imports annually.
■ While expanding oil palm in India’s northeast will serve the larger purpose of oil
security, experts fear that organised plantations may harm biodiversity in the
region.
○ Ecology at stake
■ Oil palm is a long-term monoculture crop, replacing shifting cultivation landscapes
with oil palm will definitely be detrimental to biodiversity.
■ oil palm requires major chemical inputs, that will increase pollution, especially
water pollution
■ oil palm will destroy forests, and is likely to alter social structure and dynamics on
tribal communities, enhancing socio-economic inequalities

National Edible Oil Mission – Oil Palm (NMEO-OP):

GOI launched a ₹11,000 crore National Edible Oil Mission – Oil Palm (NMEO-OP) on 9th August
2021.
Aim: To bring down India’s dependence on imported edible oils.
National Edible Oil Mission – Oil Palm (NMEO-OP)
• This is a long-waited step for oil palm growth in India and towards the fulfilment of the
‘Atmanirbhar Bharat’ vision in edible oil.
• The government of India launched a ₹11,000 crore National Edible Oil Mission-Oil
Palm (NMEO-OP) to achieve self-reliance in edible oils.
• The NMEO-OP aims are:
o to reduce India’s edible oil import dependence from 60% to 45% by 2024-25, by
focusing on domestic edible oil production.
o The target is to scale up production of Palm oil from the current 10.5 million tonnes to 18
million tonnes, a 70% growth target.
o The special focus under it will be given to India’s north-eastern states and also
the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, due to their conducive weather conditions for the
growth of Palm.
o Oil palm farmers will be given financial assistance and will also
receive remuneration under a price and viability formula.
o this mission will also focus on expanding the cultivation of our other traditional oilseed
crops

● Impacts of the palm oil industry

○ Impact on Environment:
■ More and more environmentalists are opposing the rapid expansion of palm
plantations at the cost of rainforests.
■ Deforestation for palm oil production also contributes significantly to climate
change.

pg. 216
 [Link]

■ The removal of the native forests often involves the burning of invaluable timber
and remaining forest undergrowth, emitting immense quantities of smoke into the
atmosphere.
■ Large areas of tropical forests and other ecosystems have been cleared to make
room for vast monoculture oil palm plantations – destroying critical habitat for
many endangered species, including rhinos, elephants and tigers
○ Social impacts
■ Displacement of rural farmers can lead them to move on to new areas of untouched
forest to clear land for farming.
■ Deforestation destroys essential ecosystem services like the provision of clean
water and fertile soils, leading to the loss of farming and other livelihood
opportunities, such as fishing and hunting for food.
■ Uncontrolled burning for plantation expansion can have widespread health and
socio-economic impacts.
■ The expansion of plantations has lead to the eviction of forest-dwelling peoples.

Q. What do you understand about plantation agriculture? Explain with a case study of palm oil.

TEA PLANTATION:
Conditions Required for Tea Plantation:
● moderately hot and humid climate
● Moderate to high rainfall.
● temperature within 13°C and 28-32°C is conducive for the growth of tea. Temperature above 32°C
is unfavourable for optimum photosynthesis.
● Acidic Soil with around 4.5-5.5 pH is most suitable for Tea.
● In India, the temperature in winters is around or below 12°C and there is hardly any growth during
this period. This is called Winter Dormancy.

Tea Production in India:

● India is the world's second largest tea producer after China.
● India’s estimated tea production was 900 million kilograms, which accounts for around 23-24% of
global tea production.

Important Tea Producing Areas of India:

● India is the largest producer and consumer of black tea in the world. Tea is grown in 16 states in
India. Assam, West Bengal, Tamil Nadu, and Kerala account for about 95 per cent of total tea
production.
● The Largest state with area under Tea Plantations in India is Assam.
● India’s major Tea Producing Districts/ Areas are as follows:
○ Assam: Darrang, Goalpara, Kamrup, Lakhimpur , Dibrugarh, Nowgong, Sibsagar, Cachar
, Karbi Anglong , North Cachar
○ West Bengal : Darjeeling, Terai (west Dinajpur), Doors (Cooch Bihar) .
○ Tamil Nadu: Kanyakumari, Tirunelveli, Madurai, Coimbatore , Nilgiris

pg. 217
 [Link]

○ Kerala: Cannanore, Palghat, Kozhikode, Malappuram, Trichur, Trivandrum, Quilon,

Kottayam, Ernakulam, Idukki, Wynaad
○ Karnataka: Chikmagalur, Coorg, Hassan

Why the tea gardens did not succeed beyond the Darjeeling area in Shiwaliks:
● The British planters had developed tea gardens all along the Shivaliks and Lesser Himalayas from
Assam to Himachal Pradesh, in effect they did not succeed beyond the Darjeeling area.
● The areas where tea plantation succeeded included the regions located in monsoon belt – Assam,
West Bengal and the foot hills of the Himalayas in the North and the moist slopes and the plateaus
of the Western Ghats in the south. Not much success was received in other areas such as Himachal
Pradesh, Ranchi, Doon valley etc.
● The geographical factors which favoured tea cultivation in Darjeeling are- cool climate,deep clayey
soil permitting terrace farming,year round rains,low gradient,etc .
● While cool climate and low gradient were also available in some areas of western Shivaliks but
absence of deep clayey soil and lack of year round rains led to the failure of tea plantations there.
● The rainfall, temperature and humidity needed by tea were not available in Himachal Pradesh
and Dehradun although soil in Dehradun is equivalent to that of Assam.
● Tea needs relatively low temperature for its growth, but not very low, that can adversely affect
cultivation of tea. For example, the Kangra valley lies in the foothills of the Himalayas and the
climate here is too cold.
● Additionally, tea requires high rainfall of around 150-250 cm along with well drained slopes.
● The combination of all these factors exists in the areas of North East, Assam and areas near
Darjeeling; as well as in Nilgiri hills.

pg. 218
 [Link]

● Moreover economic factors like presence of cheap labour through bonded labourers permitted
by Plantation Act which brought labourers to work on plantations from Bihar and Bengal
also favoured the spread of tea cultivation in Darjeeling.
● Also relatively better transport facilities and proximity to ports in Bengal also favoured tea
plantations in Darjeeling .
Reasons of Decline of Tea Export:
● US Sanctions on Iran:
○ Exports to Iran, which was once a big buyer of Indian tea, was lower due to the sanctions
by the U.S.
● Non-Availability of Containers:
○ The other prime reason is non-availability of shipping containers which have become
very expensive during the Covid times.
● Availability of Low-Cost Varieties:
○ Due to the availability of low-cost varieties in the global market and amid trade
restrictions in countries that have traditionally been strong importers.
● Low Prices of Other Tea:
○ Indian exports have suffered in the last two-three years due to very low prices of Kenyan
and Sri Lankan tea.
○ Kenyan tea auction price average is much less than the Indian auction average.
● Domestic Consumption:
○ About 80% of it produced in India is sold for domestic consumption, as per a 2018
'Executive Summary of Study on Domestic Consumption of Tea' published by the Tea
Board.
● Stopping Exports to Pakistan:
○ Exports to Pakistan, a major market for Indian tea, have also stopped since the last three
years following escalation of tension between the two countries.
● Pandemic-Induced Economy:
○ The corona virus-induced economy has resulted in several commodities’ low production
and imbalance mechanisms of the Indian economy. This has impacted exports of India’s
tea along with other significant reasons.

Q. Discuss the condition required for tea plantation. On a map of India elaborate the areas under
Tea Plantation. The British planters had developed tea gardens all along the Shivaliks and Lesser
Himalayas from Assam to Himachal Pradesh, in effect they did not succeed beyond the Darjeeling
area. Explain.

COFFEE PLANTATION:
Conditions for Growth:
● hot and humid climate with temperature varying between 15°C and 28 °C.
● rainfall from 150 to 250 cm.
● It does not tolerate frost, snowfall, high temperature above 30°C and strong sun shine and is
generally grown under shady trees.
● Prolonged drought is also injurious to coffee.
● Dry weather is necessary at the time of ripening of the berries.

pg. 219
 [Link]

● Stagnant water is harmful and this crop is grown on hill slopes at elevations from 600 to 1,600
metres above sea level.
● Northern and eastern aspects of slopes are preferred as they are less exposed to strong afternoon
sun and the south- west monsoon winds.
● Well drained, rich friable loams containing a good deal of humus and minerals like iron and
calcium are ideal for coffee cultivation.
● Coffee cultivation requires plenty of cheap and skilled labour for various operations including
sowing, transplanting, pruning, plucking, drying, grading and packing of coffee.
Production and Distribution:
● India produces about 2.5 percent of the world's coffee on almost the same percentage of coffee
plantations.
● Thus India is an insignificant producer of coffee and stands nowhere when compared with Brazil
(25%), Columbia (15%) and Indonesia (7%).
● Coffee Arabica and Coffee Robusta are the two main varieties of coffee grown in India
accounting for 49 per cent and 51 per cent of area respectively under coffee.
● The restricted agro-climatic conditions have forced the coffee plantations to confine themselves to
small areas in south India comprising hill areas around Nilgiris.
● Almost the entire production is shared by three states namely Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil
Nadu.
● Karnataka is the largest producer accounting for about 70 per cent of total coffee production and
60 percent of the area under coffee in India.

Q. What are the geographical conditions required for plantation of coffee in India? Discuss the
distribution of coffee plantations in India.

COTTON

Conditions of Growth:
● Cotton is the crop of tropical and subtropical areas and requires uniformly high temperatures
varying between 21°C and 30°C.
● Frost is enemy number one of the cotton plant and it is grown in areas having at least 210 frost
free days in a year.
● The modest requirement of water can be met by an average annual rainfall of 50- 100 cm.
● About 80 per cent of the total irrigated area under cotton is in Punjab, Haryana, Gujarat and
Rajasthan.
● Moist weather and heavy rainfall at the time of boll-opening and picking are detrimental to cotton
as the plant becomes vulnerable to pests and diseases.
● High amounts of rainfall in the beginning and sunny and dry weather at ripening time are very
useful for a good crop.
● Cotton is a kharif crop which requires 6 to 8 months to mature.
● In the peninsular part of India, it is sown upto October and harvested between January and May
because there is no danger of winter frost in these areas. In Tamil Nadu, it is grown both as a kharif
and as a rabi crop.

pg. 220
 [Link]

● Cotton cultivation is closely related to deep black soils (regur) of the Deccan and the Malwa
Plateaus and those of Gujarat. It also grows well in alluvial soils of the Satluj-Ganga Plain and
red and laterite soils of the peninsular regions.
● Cotton quickly exhausts the fertility of soil. Therefore, regular application of manures and
fertilizers to the soils is very necessary.
● Black Lava Soil: The parent rock (volcanic rock) is ideal for growing cotton because:
○ It has the capacity to hold moisture.
○ They are rich in calcium carbonate, magnesium, potash and lime.
○ This soil is also known as black cotton soil (or Regur soil),
○ They develop deep cracks during hot weather, which help in the proper aeration of the soil.
Production:
● India has the largest area under cotton cultivation in the world though it is the world’s third largest
producer of cotton after China and the USA.
● Currently it is grown over 6 per cent of the net sown area.

Distribution:
● In India, cotton is grown in three distinct agro-ecological zones, viz.,
○ Northern (Punjab, Haryana and Rajasthan),
○ Central (Gujarat, Maharashtra and Madhya Pradesh) and
○ Southern zone (Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka).
● Maharashtra is the largest producer and produces 29.78 per cent of the total cotton production
of India. Maharashtra is a traditional producer of cotton. Over 80 per cent of the production comes
from Khandesh, Vidarbha and Marathwada regions.

pg. 221
 [Link]

Locational Factors of Cotton Industry: The following are the favorable location factors of the cotton
industry:
● Availability of Raw Cotton
● Market
● Transport facilities
● Accessibility of Port
● Labour
● Moist Climate
● Skilled and semi-skilled labor

The cotton industry is not a weight losing industry hence cotton industries are seen in the other part of India
also. At present, the High concentration of the cotton textile industry belt is seen in Maharashtra, Gujarat,
and Tamil Nadu because of the above favorable factors.

The cotton textile industry can be divided into three sub-sectors:

● Handloom
○ It is labor-intensive, providing employment to semi-skilled workers.
○ Need small capital
○ The process involves Spinning, weaving, and finishing fabrics.

pg. 222
 [Link]

● Powerloom
○ Introduced machine and require less labor
○ The volume of production increase
● Mill station
○ Highly capital Intensive and produce fine quality of cloth.

Current challenges:
● We have world-class production of spinning but do not have a high quality of fabric production
● The power supply is erratic
● Machinery needs to be upgrade
● Low labour to output ratio
● Stiff competition with synthetic fiber like rayon, nylon etc.

BT- COTTON-
• The pest-resistant Genetically Modified (GM) Bt cotton hybrids have captured the Indian market
(covering over 95% of the area under cotton) since their introduction in 2002.
• Their role in increasing India’s cotton production has been instrumental, however, at the same time,
it is argued that Bt cotton hybrids have negatively impacted the livelihoods of the farmers
(especially the resource-poor farmers) and has contributed to the agrarian distress.

Hybrid Cotton versus Varieties Cotton

Sr. Parameter Hybrid Cotton Varieties Cotton

No.

1. Formation ▪ Made by crossing two ▪ Seeds for this type of

Technology parent strains having cotton are produced
different genetic by self-fertilization.
characters.

2. Sowing Area ▪ Hybrids in India are ▪ High-Density

planted at ten- Planting
fold lower plantation (HDP): These plants
density (0.5 kg are planted at high
seeds/acre). density (5 kg
seeds/acre).

pg. 223
 [Link]

3. Reusability ▪ Hybrid seeds have to ▪ Varieties can

be remade for each be propagated over
planting season by successive
crossing the parents. generations by
Hence, farmers collecting seeds from
must purchase seeds one planting and
for each planting. using them for the
next planting season.

4. Productivity ▪ These plants ▪ Using HDP

have more technique, compact
biomass than both varieties have been
parents and hence have found to outperform
the capacity for hybrids at the field
greater yields. But level.
their plantation in per ▪ Their productivity
acre area is less (due to is more than
its size) as compared to twice the productivity
the Varieties Cotton. of hybrid cotton.
▪ The lower boll
production by
compact varieties (5-10
bolls per plant) as
compared to hybrids
(20-100 bolls/plant) is
compensated by their
ten-fold greater
planting density.

5. Production ▪ Bushy and long ▪ Compact and short

Duration duration (i.e. take duration.
more time to grow).

6. Manufacturi ▪ Hybrids give pricing ▪ There lies no concept

ng Unit & control to the seed of pricing control by
Price Control company thereby any seed company.
ensuring a continuous
market. These seeds
are produced
entirely by the private
sector.

pg. 224
 [Link]

7. Irrigation/W ▪ They require more ▪ Less

ater water. As cotton is a water requirement.
requirement dryland crop, around
65% of the area under
cotton in India is rain-
fed.

8. Fertilizer ▪ They require more ▪ They require half the

requirement fertilizers. fertilizer as
compared to
hybrids.

9. Risks Farmers with insufficient ▪ Their shorter

Involved access to groundwater in the duration reduces
growing areas are entirely dependence on
dependent on the rain. Also, irrigation (particularly
its longer duration makes late in the growing
it more prone to pest season when soil
attacks and thus involves high moisture drops
risks. following
the monsoon’s
withdrawal, as this is
the period when bolls
develop and water
requirement is the
highest).
▪ Also, it faces less
vulnerability to
damage from insect
pests due to a shorter
field duration.
Hence, low risks are
there.

10. Economic ▪ Expensive, requiring ▪ Low-cost solution.

Cost manual crossing. In
India, low cost of
manual labour makes it
economically
sustainable.
▪ Also, increased yield
from a hybrid is
supposed to justify the

pg. 225
 [Link]

high cost of hybrid

seeds in India.

Q. Discuss the geographical factors responsible for cotton cultivation in India

AGROFORESTRY
Agroforestry

● Agroforestry is defined as a land use system which integrates trees and shrubs on farmlands
and rural landscapes to enhance productivity, profitability, diversity and ecosystem sustainability.
● It is a dynamic, ecologically based, natural resource management system that, through integration
of woody perennials on farms and in the agricultural landscape, diversifies and sustains production
and builds social institutions.
● In agroforestry trees are considered a crop and become a part of crop combinations.
Significance of Agro-Forestry:
● Litter contributes to the organic-matter content of the soil after it decomposes thus is also more
resistant to erosion.
● A good cover of litter or mulch can also be very effective in suppressing weeds.
● Increase nutrient content of soil: Tree roots normally penetrate deeper into the soil than the roots
of crops and Uptake nutrients from deeper layers of soil.
● Nutrients from the atmosphere: The presence of a tree reduces the wind speed and creates good
conditions for the deposition of dust.
● Nitrogen Fixation: Many leguminous trees and a few non-leguminous ones have the ability to fix
atmospheric nitrogen through symbiosis with bacteria or fungi in root nodules.
● Protection from soil erosion: Tree roots and stems reduce surface run-off, nutrient leaching and
soil erosion.
Other Benefits of Agroforestry:
1. Environmental Benefits:
a. Reduction of pressure on natural forests. It is also recognized that Agroforestry is the only
alternative to meeting the target of increasing forest or tree cover to 33 percent as envisaged
in the National Forest Policy (1988).
b. Agroforestry is known to have the potential to mitigate the climate change effects through:
i. microclimate moderation and natural resources conservation
ii. carbon sequestration in the long run.
c. When strategically applied on a large scale, with an appropriate mix of species, agro-
forestry enables agricultural land to withstand extreme weather events, such as floods and
droughts, and climate change.
2. Economic benefits:
a. Greater output of food, fuel wood, fodder and timber.
b. Increase in levels of farm income due to improved and sustained productivity.

pg. 226
 [Link]

c. Agroforestry leads to a reduction in the incidence of total crop failure, which is common
to single cropping or monoculture systems. This is because such systems are structurally
and functionally more complex than monoculture.
d. Agroforestry has significant potential to provide employment to the rural and urban
population through production, industrial application and value addition ventures. Current
estimates show that about 65 % of the country’s timber requirement is met from the trees
grown on farms.
3. Social benefits :
a. Improvement in rural living standards from sustained employment and higher income.
b. Makes the villagers self-dependent at the village-level.

National Agroforestry Policy 2014:

The Policy aims to improve coordination, convergence and synergy between various elements of
agroforestry, scattered across various existing missions, programmes and schemes under different
ministries—agriculture, rural development and environment.
Objectives of the National Agroforestry Policy 2014:
1. Promote agroforestry to increase farm income and livelihoods of rural households, especially the
small and marginal farmers.
2. Protect and stabilise ecosystems, and promote resilient cropping and farming systems to minimise
the risk during extreme climatic events.
3. Simultaneously provide raw material to wood based industries. Thus create new avenues for rural
employment, and reduce pressure on the forests.
4. To develop capacity and strengthen research in agroforestry and create a massive people’s
movement for achieving these objectives.

Issues in Adopting Agro-forestry:

pg. 227
 [Link]

• Lack of Information among Farmers: Although agroforestry is not unknown in India, many
farmers are not keen to take it up because of a lack of information on tree rotation and also
the legal aspects involved in the trade of matured trees.
• Ambiguous Categorisation of Agroforestry: Agroforestry has not become the movement it
should have. For a long time the subject fell between the cracks of “agriculture” and
“forestry” with no ownership by either sector.
o The value and position of agroforestry in the national system remains ambiguous and
undervalued.
o It has been disadvantaged by adverse policies and legal bottlenecks and its adoption by
tenant-farmers is constrained due to insecurity of tenure.
• Financial Constraints: Inadequate investment in the sector is also a cause for neglect. Unlike
the credit and insurance products available for the crop sector, the provisions for growing trees-
on-farms are minimal.
o Weak marketing infrastructure, absence of price discovery mechanisms and lack of post-
harvest processing technologies further compound the situation.
• Small and Marginal Fields: Most of the farmers are small and marginal having small fields(less
than 2Ha). In this area it is economically and spatially agroforestry is unviable.

Suggestions to Promote Agroforestry-

• The sector needs to be institutionally bolstered and profiled from the perspective of its utility
spectrum that knits farm-forestry, environmental protection, and sustainable development.
• Financial support should be provided to all small landholders, rather than only Scheduled Caste
and Scheduled Tribe farmers.
o Protocols need to be developed where smallholders can earn income through carbon
trading.
o Institutional credit with longer funding cycles, a moratorium on interests, and insurance
products suitable for agroforestry must also be designed.
o The private sector too should invest in agroforestry both as a commercial enterprise as
well as through the route of Corporate Social Responsibility.
• Farmer collectives — cooperatives, self-help groups, Farmer -Producer Organisations
(FPOs) — must be promoted for building capacities to foster the expansion of tree-based farming
and value chain development.
o It is possible to target at least 10% of farmland to be covered by trees.
• The current situation of agroforestry calls for amending unfavourable legislation and simplifying
regulations related to forestry and agriculture.
o Policymakers should incorporate agroforestry in all policies relating to land
use and natural resource management, and encourage government investments
in agroforestry-related infrastructure and in the establishment of sustainable
enterprises.
• Scientists and researchers can develop location-specific tree-based technologies that
complement the crop and livestock systems for sustainable livelihoods, factor in gender
concerns, and incorporate the feedback from local communities.

pg. 228
 [Link]

Q. Why do you understand agroforestry? Discuss its significance. Analyze National Agroforestry
policy 2014.

SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE

Sustainable Agriculture/Eco-Farming:
● It is a system of agriculture which produces sufficient food to meet the needs of the present
generation without eroding the ecological assets and productivity of life supporting systems of the
future generation.
● Sustainable agriculture is a system of cultivation with the use of manures, Crop rotation, and
minimal tillage.
● Sustainable agriculture also involves agroforestry (growing trees near the crops), multi-level
cultivation (growing trees of different heights in sequence), and integrated animal husbandry
(growing crops with animal rearing practices).
● The concept of sustainable agriculture has come up because yields from modern farming techniques
are reaching a plateau and the environmental problems due to excessive use of chemicals and
fertilizers and pesticide residue in the food chain. The high use of modern farming techniques has
led to the degradation of land and has led to various ecological problems like eutrophication,
land degradation, etc., which has depleted the quality of land as a sustainable resource.

Principles of Sustainable Agriculture:

The three main principles of sustainable agriculture are:
1. Environmental sustainability: through e.g. protecting, recycling, replacing and maintaining the
natural resources base such as land (soil), water and wildlife
2. Economic sustainability: through e.g. improving soil management and crop rotation which raise
yields
3. Social sustainability: through upholding social justice and cultural cohesion

Different Methods of Sustainable Agriculture:

1. Crop Rotation: It involves the systematic planting of different crops in a particular order over
several years in the same growing space. It helps in maintaining nutrients in the soil, reducing soil
erosion, and preventing plant diseases and pests.

pg. 229
 [Link]

2. Planting cover crops: Cover crops are planted during lean season times when soils might
otherwise be left bare. These crops protect and build soil health by preventing erosion, replenishing
soil nutrients, and keeping weeds in check, reducing the need for herbicides.
3. Biointensive Integrated Pest Management (IPM): It emphasizes the prevention of pest problems
with crop rotation; the reintroduction of natural, disease-fighting microbes into plants/soil, and
release of beneficial organisms that prey on the pests. Chemical pesticides are not used.
4. Agroforestry: It involves the growth of trees and shrubs amongst crops or grazing land.
Agroforestry systems can combine both agriculture and forestry practices for long-lasting,
productive, and diverse land use.
5. Permaculture: The concept of permaculture was developed by Bill Mollison and David
Holmgren in the 70s and early 80s. It is the design and maintenance of agriculturally productive
ecosystems which have the diversity, stability, and resilience of natural ecosystems.
6. Organic Farming: It is a type of farming which avoids or largely excludes the use of synthetic
inputs (such as fertilizers, pesticides, etc.) and to the maximum extent feasible rely upon crop
rotations, crop residues, animal manures, off-farm organic waste, mineral grade rock additives and
biological system of nutrient mobilization and plant protection.
7. LEISA (Low External Input sustainable Agriculture): It uses low synthetic fertilizers or
pesticides. Yields are maintained through greater emphasis on cultural practices, IPM, and
utilization of on-farm resources and management.
8. Zero Budget Natural farming: The phrase ‘Zero Budget’ means without using any credit, and
without spending any money on purchased inputs. ‘Natural farming’ means farming with Nature
and without chemicals (FAO). It is a set of farming methods first introduced in Andhra Pradesh.
9. Biodynamic agriculture: It considers farm as a living system. The system puts great emphasis on
the integration of animals to create a closed nutrient cycle, effect of crop planting dates in relation
to the calendar, and awareness of spiritual forces in nature.
10. Conservation Agriculture: Conservation agriculture is a farming method that largely forgoes
tillage and involves permanent organic mulch cover and extended crop rotation.
Benefits of Sustainable Agriculture:
1. Environmental Protection: Sustainable Agriculture emphasizes on methods and processes that
improve soil productivity while minimizing harmful effects on the climate, soil, water, air,
biodiversity and human health.
2. Saving Energy: It emphasizes to minimize the use of inputs from nonrenewable sources and
petroleum-based products and replace them with those from renewable resources
3. Food security: It seeks to ensure that the basic nutritional requirements of current and future
generations are met in both quantity and quality terms.
4. Economic profitability: It not only ensures sustainable increase in agricultural production but also
reduces the agricultural sector’s vulnerability to adverse natural conditions (e.g. climate),
socioeconomic factors (e.g. strong price fluctuations) and other risks.
5. Economic and social equity:
• It seeks to ensure long-term employment, an adequate income and dignified and equal working and
living conditions to people involved in agriculture value chain
• It also focuses on local people and their needs, knowledge, skills, socio-cultural values and
institutional structures.

pg. 230
 [Link]

Issues with sustainable agriculture:

1. Organic farming and food security: Switching to organic farming typically leads to a sharp drop
in yields compared with intensive farming with rising world population; there is a growing debate
over our ability to sustain the population. Therefore, organic farming alone will not be able to feed
the world in its present form but will instead have to be combined with other sustainable production
methods.
2. Feasibility of conservation agriculture for soil management: The absence of ploughing as in
case of conservation agriculture requires changes to weed management, use of herbicides and also
special machinery for sowing. Smallholders in developing countries face a challenge to adopt
conservation agriculture. Thus such practice has been concentrated predominantly in North
America, Europe and Australia.
3. Issue with small land holdings: Many scholars, environmentalists advocate that cultivation based
on small holdings is more sustainable and less polluting than intensive, industry-based production
models. However, environmentally harmful farming methods are not only characteristic of
industrial or intensive large agricultural businesses; smallholders can also damage the soil and the
environment due to lack of knowledge and access to modern sustainable techniques.
4. The debate on use of HYV seeds: High yielding hybrid seeds have been known to pose threat to
not only human and environmental health but are also economically unsustainable for farmers.
However, given the growing concern over food security, these seeds are crucial to enhance
productivity.
5. Use of chemical pesticides: To completely do away with chemical pesticides may not be a feasible
idea given the growing incidences of pest attacks and consequent loss of crop. The amount of
chemical pesticide used should be kept to a minimum, and less harmful agents should be used.
Sustainable Agriculture in India:
Government Initiatives:
1. National Mission on Sustainable Agriculture: It is one of the 8 missions outlined under National
Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC). It aims at enhancing agriculture productivity
especially in rainfed areas focusing on integrated farming, soil health management, and synergizing
resource conservation.
2. Paramparagat Krishi Vikas Yojana (PKVY): The scheme aims at promotion of commercial
organic production through certified organic farming y involving group of farmers (cluster farming)
3. Network Project on Organic Farming of ICAR: It aims at evaluating the relative performance
of location-specific, important cropping systems under organic and conventional farming, and
assesses agronomic efficiency of different production systems.
• Other Initiatives:
o Sustainable Sugarcane Initiative: It is a method of sugarcane production using less seeds,
less water and optimum utilization of fertilizers and land to achieve more yields.
o System of Rice Intensification (SRI): It is an agro-ecological methodology for increasing
the productivity of irrigated rice by changing the management of plants, soil, water and
nutrients. It is a low water, labor-intensive, method that uses younger seedlings singly
spaced. Kadiramangalam System of Rice Intensification, a variant of SRI, is practiced in
Cauvery delta region in India.
Zero Tillage farming/No-Till Farming

pg. 231
 [Link]

● Tillage is an agricultural land preparation through mechanical agitation which includes digging,
stirring, and overturning.
● Zero tillage is the process where the crop seed will be sown through drillers without prior
land preparation and disturbing the soil where previous crop stubbles are present.
● Zero tillage not only reduces the cost of cultivation it also reduces the soil erosion, crop duration,
and irrigation requirement, and weed effect which is better than tillage.
● No-till farming decreases the amount of soil erosion tillage causes in certain soils, especially in
sandy and dry soils on sloping terrain.

Advantages of zero tillage

● Reduction in the crop duration and thereby early cropping can be obtained to get higher yields.
● Reduction in the cost of inputs for land preparation and therefore a saving of around 80%.
● Residual moisture can be effectively utilized and the number of irrigations can be reduced.
● Dry matter and organic matter get added to the soil.
● Environmentally safe – Greenhouse effect will get reduced due to carbon sequestration.
● No-tillage reduces the compaction of the soil and reduces the water loss by runoff and prevents
soil erosion.
● As the soil is intact and no disturbance is done, No-Till lands have more useful flora and fauna.
● This practice has carbon-sequestration potential. Apart from reducing carbon emission, the no-
tilling practice can also reduce nitrous oxide emissions by 40 to 70%.
Disadvantages of Zero Tillage Farming:
● the initial cost of zero tillage equipment (the upfront costs can be high, but they should be
recouped through higher crop yields and fuel and labor savings)
● gullies can form in the fields (low-pressure tires and changing traffic patterns across the field can
help prevent these)
● increased use of herbicides
● the learning curve for zero tillage farming

ZERO BUDGET NATURAL FARMING:

Zero Budget Natural Farming:
● Zero budget natural farming is a method of chemical-free agriculture drawing from traditional
Indian practices.
● It was originally promoted by agriculturist Subhash Palekar, who developed it in the mid-1990s
as an alternative to the Green Revolution’s methods that are driven by chemical fertilizers and
pesticides and intensive irrigation.
● It is a unique model that relies on Agro-ecology. Climate Resilient, Zero Budget Natural Farming,
or ZBNF, is a farming approach that believes in growing crops in harmony with nature.
● It aims to bring down the cost of production to nearly zero and return to a pre-green revolution style
of farming. That is how the word ‘Zero Budget’ is suffixed to Natural farming.
● It claims that there is no need for expensive inputs such as fertilisers, pesticides and intensive
irrigation.

pg. 232
 [Link]

ZBNF is based on 4 pillars:

● Bijamrita: It is a concoction of neem leaves & pulp, tobacco and green chilies prepared for insect
and pest management, that can be used to treat seeds.
● Jeevamrutha: It is a mixture of fresh cow dung and aged cow urine (both from India's indigenous
cow breed), jaggery, pulse flour, water and soil; to be applied on farmland.
● Acchadana (Mulching): It protects topsoil during cultivation and does not destroy it by tilling.
● Whapasa: It is the condition where there are both air molecules and water molecules present in the
soil. Thereby helping in reducing irrigation requirements.

Benefits of ZBNF:
● ZBNF is a holistic alternative to the present paradigm of high-cost chemical inputs-based
agriculture.
● At a time when chemical-intensive farming is resulting in soil and environmental degradation, a
zero-cost environmentally-friendly farming method is definitely a timely initiative.
● Since in ZBNF there is no need to spend money or take loans for external inputs, the cost of
production could be reduced and farming made into a “zero budget” exercise. This would break
the debt cycle for many small farmers and help to envisage the doubling of farmer's income by
2022.
● The unique innovation of the ZBNF programme is the farmer-to-farmer knowledge
dissemination.
● The ZBNF method promotes soil aeration, minimal watering, intercropping, bunds and topsoil
mulching and discourages intensive irrigation and deep ploughing.
● It suits all crops in all agro-climatic zones.
● Citing the benefits of ZBNF, in June 2018, Andhra Pradesh rolled out an ambitious plan to become
India’s first State to practise 100% natural farming by 2024.
Issues Related to ZBNF:

pg. 233
 [Link]

● Sikkim (India's first organic state), has seen some decline in yields following conversion to organic
farming.
● Many farmers have reverted to conventional farming after seeing their ZBNF returns drop after
a few years.
● There are no independent studies to validate the claims that ZBNF plots have a higher yield than
non-ZBNF plots.
● ZBNF advocates the need of an Indian breed of cow, whose numbers are declining at a fast pace.
○ According to Livestock Census 2019, the country’s total population of indigenous and
nondescript cattle has dropped by 8.1%.
● Low expenditure by the government: Last year, the government launched Rashtriya Krishi
Vikas Yojana, a flagship Green Revolution scheme with an allocation of Rs 3,745 crore for the
financial year 2019-20.
○ Whereas the Paramparagat Krishi Vikas Yojana, which was meant to promote organic
farming and soil health has been allocated Rs 325 crore only.
● ZBNF insists on one blanket solution for all the problems of Indian soils. This cannot solve region
specific soil problems.
Way Forward:
● There is a host of structural marketing issues which needs to be addressed first before aiming to
achieve the ambitious goal of ZBNF. For example:
○ ‘Soil health card’ scheme to improve the health of soil and thereby sustainably improve
fertility and production.
○ Need of location-specific interventions towards balanced fertilisation and integrated
nutrient management.
○ Strengthening of agricultural market infrastructure.
○ MGNREGS must also be linked with farm work in order to reduce the cost of cultivation
which has escalated at a faster pace over the past few years.
○ Fixing minimum support prices (MSP) in consonance with the cost of cultivation.
Enacting legislation on ‘right to sell at MSP’ needs immediate attention.

POPULATION & SETTLEMENT GEOGRAPHY

MIGRATION
Migration:

● Migration is the movement of people away from their usual place of residence, across either
internal (within country) or international (across countries) borders.
● As per the Census 2011, India had 45.6 crore migrants (38% of the population) compared to 31.5
crore migrants in 2001 (31% of the population).
● According to the International Migrant Stock 2019 report (released by the Population Division
of the United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs), India with 5 million
international migrants has emerged as the top source of international migrants, constituting 6.4%
of world’s total migrant population.

pg. 234
 [Link]

1.2. Causes for Migration:

PUSH FACTORS PULL FACTORS

1. Demographic ● Population growth, young age ● Population decline,

and social structure, marriage demographic ageing.
factors ● Inadequate educational ● Social security
institutions, medicare and social
security.

2. Economic ● Unemployment, low wages, ● High wages, demand,

Factors poverty, poor living standards high living standards,
welfare schemes.

3. Political ● Bad governance, political ● Political stability,

factors upheaval, dictatorship, conflicts, democracy, rule of law,
war, terrorism, human rights Pluralism,Peace, Security,
violation, oppression of Protection of human
minorities. rights & minorities.

4. Ecological ● Lack of natural resources, water ● Protection of natural

Factors shortage, desertification, soil resources and
erosion, lack of environmental environmental protection.
policy.

5. Migrant stock ● Information flow, media, family ● Diaspora, ethnic

decisions. community. Information
flow.

Q. Discuss the push and pull factors of migration.

Types of Migration:

● One kind of classification is: i) rural-rural, ii) rural-urban, iii) urban-rural and iv) urban-urban.
● As per the 2011 census, there were 21 crore rural-rural migrants which formed 54% of classifiable
internal migration.
● Rural-urban and urban-urban movement accounted for around 8 crore migrants each.
● There were around 3 crore urban-rural migrants (7% of classifiable internal migration).
● Another way to classify migration is: (i) intra-state, and (ii) inter-state.
● In 2011, intra-state movement accounted for almost 88% of all internal migration (39.6 crore
persons).
● According to the 2011 Census, there were 5.4 crore inter-state migrants.
● As of 2011, Uttar Pradesh and Bihar were the largest source of inter-state migrants while
Maharashtra and Delhi were the largest receiver states.

Q. Discuss different types of migration in India.

Interstate Migration/ Internal Migration

pg. 235
 [Link]

● The number of internal migrants in India Was 450 million as per the most recent 2011 census.
Internal migrants as a percentage of population increased from 30% in 2001 to 37% in 2011.
● Female Migration: Out of the total internal migrants, 7 percent are women (Census of India 2001)
and marriage is one of the major reasons for female migration in both the rural and urban areas.
● Male Migration: Migration for employment-related reasons is one of the prominent reasons for
male migration in both rural and urban areas.

Impact of Internal Migration:

POSITIVE IMPACT: NEGATIVE IMPACT:

● Labour Demand and Supply: Migration ● Demographic Profile: Emigration in large

fills gaps in demand for and supply of labor, numbers can alter demographic profiles
efficiently allocates skilled labor, unskilled of communities, as most of the young men
labor, and cheap labor. move out, leaving only the women and
● Economic Remittances: Economic elderly to work on the land.
wellbeing of migrants provides insurance ● Political Exclusion: Migrant workers are
against risks to households in the areas of deprived of many opportunities to exercise
origin. their political rights like the right to vote.
● Skill Development: Migration enhances ● Population Explosion and the Influx of
the knowledge and skills of migrants workers in the place of destination
through exposure and interaction with the increases competition.
outside world. ● Brain Drain: Source state suffers from the
● Quality of Life: Migration enhances loss of human capital.
chances of employment and economic ● Increased Slum proliferation: Mass
prosperity which in turn improves quality Migration results into an increase in slum
of life. areas, compromising quality of
● Social Remittances: Migration helps to infrastructure and life at the destination,
improve the social life of migrants, as they which further translates into many other
learn about new cultures, customs, and problems such as unhygienic conditions,
languages which helps to improve crime, pollution, etc.
brotherhood among people and ensures
greater equality and tolerance.
● Food and Nutrition Security: According
to the 2018 State of Food and Agriculture
report by Food and Agriculture
Organization (FAO), outmigration often
leads to improved food and nutrition
security for migrants.
● Demographic Advantage: As a result of
outmigration, the population density of the
place of origin is reduced and the birth rate
decreases.
● Climate Change Adaptive Mechanism:
Migration has also emerged as a possible
adaptive mechanism in the context of
climate change and the occurrence of
extreme weather events like floods,
droughts, and cyclones.

pg. 236
 [Link]

Challenges faced by migrant workers:

● No collection of data of intra-state migrants: The scope of the database needs to be expanded to
include both sets of migrants.
● Employment in informal economy: Migrants dominate the urban informal economy which is
marked by high poverty and vulnerabilities. The common issues they face are non-payment of
wages, physical abuse, accidents and even death at work.
● Issue of Identification documents: Proving their identity is one of the core issues faced by poor
migrant labourers at destination areas. The basic problem of establishing identity results in a loss
of access to entitlements and social services, such as subsidized food, fuel, health services, or
education that are meant for the economically vulnerable sections of the population.
● Housing: Lack of affordable housing in Indian cities force migrants to live in slums.
● Financial Access: Migrant workers have limited access to formal financial services and remain
unbanked.
● Access to healthcare: Migrant workers have poor access to health services, which results in very
poor occupational health.
● Education of children: UNESCO’s 2019 Global Education Monitoring Report (GEM Report)
shows that children left behind by migrating parents and seasonal migrants face fewer educational
opportunities overall. According to the report, 80% of migrant children across seven Indian cities
did not have access to education near worksites.
● Social exclusion: There is growing hostility of urban governments, as well as middle-class citizens,
towards the urban poor, especially migrants to the cities.
● Political exclusion: Migrant workers are deprived of many opportunities to exercise their political
rights. A 2011 study pointed out that 22% of seasonal migrant workers in India did not possess
voter IDs or have their names in the voter list.

Government Initiatives:

● Inter-State Migrant Workmen (Regulation of Employment and Conditions of Service) Act of

1979: It seeks to address the unjust working conditions of migrant workers, including the necessity
of gaining employment through middlemen contractors or agents who promise a monthly
settlement of wages but do not pay when the time comes.
● Enhancing livelihood opportunities for rural population: The government from time-to-time
has taken various initiatives to combat farmers’ distress and enhance livelihood opportunities in
rural areas. Examples: Deendayal Antyodaya Yojana-National Rural Livelihoods Mission (DAY-
NRLM), Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act, Attracting and Retaining
of Youth in Agriculture (ARYA).
● Infrastructure development in rural areas:
○ RURBAN Mission: It seeks to stimulate local economic development, enhance basic
services, and create well planned Rurban clusters (cluster villages). One of the main
objectives is to reduce the rural-urban divide-viz: economic, technological and those
related to facilities and service

pg. 237
 [Link]

○ PURA (Providing Urban Amenities to Rural Areas): It seeks to tackle the problem of
migration of people from rural to urban areas for employment. It seeks to develop
technology in villages, provide better connectivity, enhance livelihood opportunities etc.
Q. Analyze the trend of interstate migration in India in the last two decades. What factors affect this
trend?

COVID-19 crisis and internal Migrants/ Reverse Migration:

● According to the World bank report ‘COVID-19 Crisis Through a Migration Lens’,
nationwide lockdown in India due to COVID-19 has impacted nearly 40 million internal migrants.
● Around 60,000 moved from urban centers to rural areas of origin in the span of a few days.
● The magnitude of internal migration is about two-and-a-half times that of international migration.
● Internal migrants have faced issues in health services, food, cash transfer and other social
programmes.
● They are vulnerable to the loss of employment and wages during an economic crisis.
● Lockdowns in labour camps and dormitories would increase the risk of contagion among migrant
workers.
● The state boundaries became the sites of violent migrant-police encounters, as police resorted to
beating migrants for having violated the lockdown orders.
● Thousands of them, without any means of transport left to their villages back on foot, dying of
starvation, fatigue, and road accidents.

Q. What is reverse migration? Discuss factors leading to reverse migration.

POTENTIAL OF RELIGIOUS TOURISM IN INDIA

Religious Tourism is regarded as planning visits to other towns, cities or countries for religious purposes.

● Religious Tourism has exponential growth in the modern years in India.

● According to the World Economic Forum, Travel and Tourism accounts for 5% of India’s
employment.

pg. 238
 [Link]

● Religious tourism has been one of the reasons for developing India. Many places like Kedarnath,
Mahakaleshwar, Jagannath puri, Tirupati, Gangotri, Yamunotri, Badrinath, Omkareshwar, Kashi
Vishwanath, etc are most visited religious places in India.
● Religious Tourism plays a very significant role in the socio-economic development of a State.
● It promotes cultural diversity, spirituality; bringing foreign exchange provides employment
opportunities and encourages masses to mutually exchange their values, cultures, traditions and
way of living. Further it helps in managing the soft power of the countries in maintaining foreign
relationships.

Opportunities of Religious Tourism in India:

2.4. Religious Tourism is divided into the following major categories:

• Pilgrimages
• Missionary travel
• Leisure (fellowship) vacations
• Faith-based cruising Crusades,
• conventions and rallies
• Retreats
• Monastery visits and guest-stays
• Faith-based camps
• Religious tourist attractions

2.5. Issues being faced in the development of Religious Tourism in the Country:

pg. 239
 [Link]

• Tourism acts as a crucial enabler in facilitating development of basic infrastructural facilities,

generates income for the local community as well as the government, balances regional
development strategies through 'umbrella' effect, and fosters peace and socio-cultural harmony.
However, tourism development in any region needs to be regulated to prevent the negative impacts.
• Major problems include:
1. Infringement of Carrying Capacity: Most religious centres in the country, major or
minor, suffer from short but intense seasons that alter the dynamics of the region for the
rest of the year. The Char Dham Yatra in Uttarakhand is one such example. Lasting from
May till about November, it puts a serious pressure upon the transport infrastructure of the
Garhwal region, which coupled with the monsoons and a lot of road construction still under
progress imply landslides, meaning frequent road blocks, accidents and loss of life.
2. Waste Management: In part a derivative of the problem of carrying capacity, the waste
management problem has aggravated as science and technology grew to usher us into the
'era of plastic'.
3. Air Pollution: The sheer volume of travel in this niche makes the figures mind boggling.
While trains still manage to absorb a majority of the travel volume, quite a substantial
number of major religious tourism sites in India are still only accessible by road or foot, or
a combination of the two (take the case of hilly regions).
4. Monetizing Religion: In the race for developing as many niches as possible, there is often
the issue of religion being 'monetized', as the host community gets increasingly driven by
the 'profit motive'.
5. Lack of scrutiny of religious trusts: There is a need to put forward regulations which
governs the financial status and regulation of religious trusts as it looks to allay global
concerns about money laundering and terrorist financing activities. Such a law will also
pave the way to make public names of organizations that claim tax exemption to ensure
greater transparency. This is especially crucial in a scenario when some of India's religious
trusts are among the richest in the world.

pg. 240
 [Link]

2.6. The following ten point roadmap can pave the way for initiation of a progressive phase in the
development of religious tourism in the country:
1. Developing Religious Tourism Circuits through a Hub and Spoke Model: One of the first steps
in this aspect is to create nodes near religious centers, where there is already a basic infrastructure
present and plan day trips from there. For example, Chennai in South India can be a node for
excursions to Madurai, Thanjavur, Trichnapalli and Pondicherry. Madurai is the home of the
exquisite Meenakshi Temple, which is regarded as the holiest temple in India by many people. As
the influx of crowd is already sizeable in famous spots, a hub and spoke model will ensure tourist
spread to all the nearby attractions.
2. Providing the tourists with a holistic tourism experience: Attracting the tourist segments that
are not attracted to religious sites, needs a holistic package around the religious spots. Tourists may
not find it worthwhile to come all the way just for a pilgrimage. An innovative mechanism to
streamline this development can be to market a religious tourism destination as an alternative
tourism destination. For example, Rishikesh is marketed as both a religious and an adventure
tourism destination.
3. Marketing religious tourism destinations needs special training as quite a major part of the visitors
are attracted to these destinations due to reasons like studying old culture, evolution of practices
and research
4. Developing integrated infrastructure for religious tourism development: Infrastructure
development requires that religious tourism circuits be identified and State Government is required
to streamline the development of the entire religious tourism circuit existing in a given region/area.
5. Enhanced emphasis of minimizing the impact on the environment and maintaining the
ecological balance: Appropriate checks and balances need to be put in place to ensure that the
negative impact of tourism on environment is minimized. These checks and balances can be in the
form of fines. Religious Tourism is endemic to a given geography and in this scenario training of

pg. 241
 [Link]

the local population deriving its source of livelihood from tourism in the field of environment
management can be the model approach.
6. Scrutiny of religious trusts: There needs to be a practice for reviewing the financial status and
regulation of religious trusts as it will allay global concerns about money laundering and terrorist
financing activities. Such a law will also pave the way to make public names of organizations that
claim tax exemption to ensure greater transparency. This is especially crucial in a scenario when
some of India's religious trusts are among the richest in the world.
7. Developing appropriate Institutional Framework to stimulate the growth of Religious
Tourism: The Department of Tourism of the respective state governments should institute a
separate board to prepare and implement plans to provide necessary facilities to the devotees and
also ensure conservation of cultural atmosphere consistent with sentiments of visiting devotees.
The religious aspect of tourism is a crucial enabler in economic development of the local region.
The nature of economic development relies heavily on the institutional mechanisms of any region
and the infrastructural development undertaken to stimulate the development of that particular
region. Hence in the above scenario, it is extremely crucial that appropriate institutional
mechanisms be put suitably in place to streamline the spill off effects occurring as a result of
religious tourism.
8. Pricing of religious tourism products: In India, the prices paid are only for the tertiary services
provided and not for the actual services of the religious flavors one intends to experience. Hence,
attempts need to be taken to ensure that the pricing of the tourism product is such that it
compensates for educational and cultural services provided to those interested. But extreme caution
must be exerted while attempting the pricing of these products. As we know that majority of
pilgrims are either from middle or budget classes, therefore, pricing of products needs to be done
to suit their budgets.
9. Limiting the impact of globalization on places with an endemic flavor of being a distinct
religious tourism attraction: Since religious tourism is based on the values, customs, practices,
traditions and beliefs of a particular region, the same need to be maintained. It is only by preserving
these local values and customs that one can provide a genuine and original religious tourism
product.
10. Improving connectivity to specific religious tourism circuits to promote them: The Ministry
of Civil Aviation, Government of India has developed specialized infrastructure for the
development of Buddhist Tourism Circuit by developing an international airport near Gaya and
provided a strong impetus to the development of Buddhist Tourism Circuit. The airport operates
flights directly from key SAARC countries such as China, Japan, Thailand, Myanmar, Sri Lanka,
etc

2.4. Government Intervention towards promotion of Religious Tourism in India:

● PRASAD: Pilgrimage tourism is a matter of trust, beliefs, and devotion. PRASAD (Pilgrimage
Rejuvenation and spiritual Augmentation Drive) Scheme’s missions to pilgrimage tourism,
generate employment, economic development, provide facilities & good services to tourist and
developed infrastructure
● SWADESH: This Scheme is based on the development of circuits in the country. The Ministry of
Tourism (MOT) launched the Swadesh Darshan Scheme for integrated development of theme
based tourist circuits in the country in 20014-15.

pg. 242
 [Link]

● Adopt a Heritage Scheme: The “Adopt a Heritage: Apni Dharohar, Apni Pehchan Scheme''
is a step of the ministry of tourism. The main objectives of this scheme is to develop the tourist
sites, maintaining basic facilities, like drinking water, cleanliness, travel information and guidance,
proper sanitation etc.

Q. Discuss the potential of religious tourism in India.

DEMOGRAPHIC DIVIDEND IN INDIA:

India’s Demographic Dividend:
● According to United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA), demographic dividend means, "the
economic growth potential that can result from shifts in a population’s age structure, mainly
when the share of the working-age population (15 to 64) is larger than the non-working-age
share of the population (14 and younger, and 65 and older)".
● India has 62.5% of its population in the age group of 15-59 years which is ever increasing and
will be at the peak around 2036 when it will reach approximately 65%.
● According to Economic Survey 2018-19, India’s Demographic Dividend will peak around 2041,
when the share of working-age,i.e. 20-59 years, population is expected to hit 59%.

Advantages Associated with Demographic Dividend

● Labour supply: The first benefit of the young population is the increased labour supply, as more
people reach working age. Increased Labour Force that enhances the productivity of the economy.
● Female Human capital: Rise in women’s workforce that naturally accompanies a decline in
fertility, and which can be a new source of growth.
● Economic growth: Another opportunity is produced by increased domestic demand brought about
by the increasing GDP per capita and the decreasing dependency ratio. This leads to demand-driven
economic growth. Growth, education, better economic security, and a desire for more durable
goods are the cause and consequence of young demographics.
● Infrastructure: Increased fiscal space created by the demographic dividend enables the
government to divert resources from spending on children to investing in physical and human
infrastructure.
● Skilled workforce: Most sectors of the Indian economy would require a more skilled workforce
than the present. It would be both a challenge and an opportunity for India to provide its workforce

pg. 243
 [Link]

with the required skill sets and knowledge to enable them to contribute substantially to its economic
growth.
● Migration:It presents some opportunities that can arise from having demographic changes,
particularly the demographic dividend and interstate migration to overcome labor shortage in some
parts.
● Capital formation: As the number of dependents decreases individuals save more. This increase
in national savings rates increases the stock of capital in developing countries and provides an
opportunity to create the country’s capital through investment.
● A massive shift towards a middle-class society, that is, the rise of the aspirational class.

Challenges Associated with Demographic Dividend

● Asymmetric demography: The growth in the working-age ratio is likely to be concentrated in

some of India’s poorest states and the demographic dividend will be fully realized only if India is
able to create gainful employment opportunities for this working-age population.
● Lack of skills: Most of the new jobs that will be created in the future will be highly skilled and
lack of skill in Indian workforce is a major challenge. India may not be able to take advantage of
the opportunities, due to a low human capital base and lack of skills.
● Low human development parameters: India ranks 130 out of 189 countries in UNDP’s Human
Development Index, which is [Link], health and education parameters need to be
improved substantially to make the Indian workforce efficient and skilled.
● Informal nature of the economy in India is another hurdle in reaping the benefits of demographic
transition in India.
● Jobless growth: There is mounting concern that future growth could turn out to be jobless due to
de-industrialization, de-globalization, the fourth industrial revolution and technological progress.
As per the NSSO Periodic Labour Force Survey 2017-18, India’s labour force participation rate for
the age-group 15-59 years is around 53%, that is, around half of the working age population is
jobless.
● Regional variations in the degrees and timings of fertility decline: Reports also highlight that
demographic dividend is not available in all the states at the same time because Northern states
are predominantly youthful whereas southern and western states are maturing.

What needs to be done?

● UNFPA backs a differential approach in forward-looking policymaking and program planning
to join the demographic dividend opportunity in those states where the windows for opportunity
are closing soon.e.g. Southern states of india.
● The focus in the states where the demographic dividend window is yet to open will have to be
threefold such as addressing harmful practices such as child marriage, access to quality sexual and
reproductive health services and family planning services to all, and provisioning of health,
education, life, and vocational skills to all the young people.
● Good governance: Effective avenues for citizen input, well-functioning institutions, respect for
the rule of law, low level of corruption, respect for property rights, the sanctity of contracts, etc.
are important aspects of good governance that enable the equal opportunity to all.

pg. 244
 [Link]

● Building human capital: Investing in people through healthcare, quality education, jobs, and skills
helps build human capital, which is key to supporting economic growth, ending extreme poverty,
and creating a more inclusive society.
● Skilling: India’s labour force needs to be empowered with the right skills for the modern economy.
Government has established the National Skill Development Corporation (NSDC) with the overall
target of skilling/ up-skilling 500 million people in India by 2022.
● Academic-industry collaboration: Will help to synchronize modern industry demands and
learning levels in academics.
● Education: Enhancing educational levels by properly investing in primary, secondary, and higher
education. India, which has almost 41% of the population below the age of 20 years, can reap the
demographic dividend only if with a better education system.
● Health: Improvement in healthcare infrastructure would ensure a higher number of productive days
for the young labor-force, thus increasing the productivity of the economy. The success of schemes
like Ayushman Bharat and the National Health Protection Scheme (NHPS) is necessary. Also, the
nutrition level in women and children needs special care with effective implementation of the
Integrated Child Development (ICDS) program.
● Job Creation: The nation needs to create ten million jobs per year to absorb the addition of young
people into the workforce. Promoting businesses’ interests and entrepreneurship would help in job
creation to provide employment to the large labor force.

COUNTER URBANISATION-
• Counter urbanization is a demographic and social process whereby people move from urban
areas to rural areas.
• It first took place as a reaction to inner-city deprivation and overcrowding.
• Off- late urbanization process in India is witnessing counter – urbanization in its life cycle.
4.1. Causes-
• The causes of counter-urbanisation are linked to push and pull factors of migration.
• Push factors-
o Overpopulation or dense populations in urban areas.
o Overcrowding in communities.
o Rising real estate and residential costs in urban areas.
o Deeply congested and traffic ridden in urban areas.
o Industrial meltdowns or shifts.
o Case Study- It first took place because of flight from the inner cities in Britain, often as a
result of economic problems in those areas. The collapse of inner city industries resulted
in large scale unemployment and a cycle of decline and deprivation in those areas.
Newcastle-upon time is no stranger to this process, as its heavy industries of armaments
and ship building led to dereliction of inner city communities along the river side. Poor
quality housing and low environmental quality can also force people away from the inner
city.
• Pull factors-

pg. 245
 [Link]

o People want a better quality of life and they want to be able to live in a clean and quiet
area.
o An area without air and noise pollution from heavy industries, the crime of urban
environments and the lack of opportunities found in some parts of cities.
o They also aspire to having larger houses with more land for cheaper prices compared to
the large towns and cities.
o Opportunities for people to work from home.
o Urban amenities being available in these areas such as through online shopping.
o Greater peace and safety in these areas.
o Case study- The Government of UK promoted this movement through its green belt and
new Towns policy (New Towns Act 1946). The green belt policy restricted growth within
the city boundaries, and forced developers to look just outside of the city boundaries for
other villages to develop. These new towns develop into commuter towns or suburbanised
villages, also known as dormitory towns as people sleep and live in those towns but work
elsewhere. Milton Keynes is a good example next to London, whilst Cramlington and
Washington act as new towns for Newcastle.
Situation in India-
• The urbanisation in India is about 31.1% as per Census 2011. It is expected by 2030 nearly 40%
of the population will migrate to the cities.
• Cities like New Delhi, Mumbai, and Bangalore are over-populated beyond their carrying
capacities.
• The movement of more and more people into less resilient areas like coastal regions, flood plains
and earthquake-prone zones has been cited as one of the factors responsible for more natural
disasters.
• Degradation of natural environment is another reason for increasing calamities. Unplanned
expansion and development in disaster-prone areas as another reason for increased disasters and
mentions recent flood fury in Uttarakhand in India as an example.
Way forward-
• Several reforms are implemented by the government in India to improve the standard of living of
people in rural areas like Sansand Adarsh Gram Yojana, MGNREGA, Rashtriya Kishore
Swasthya Karyakram (RKSK) etc.
• Developing cluster of 15-20 villeges having about 30 to 40 lakh population into Rurban cluster.
Counter urbanization is not without negative effects, a move towards counter urbanisation, if not
to degrading to rural lifestyles and environments might be a great boon to overall rural
development.

PREVALENCE OF MENTAL DISORDER IN SOUTH INDIA

● Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Telangana, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh account for a higher
prevalence of mental disorders that manifest primarily during adulthood in depression and
anxiety, according to the first comprehensive estimates of disease burden attributable to mental
health from 1990 prepared by the India State-Level Disease Burden Initiative and published in the
Lancet Psychiatry.

pg. 246
 [Link]

● The study finds that roughly one in seven Indians, or 197 million persons, suffered from mental
disorders of varying severity in 2017. These include depression, anxiety disorders, schizophrenia,
bipolar disorders, idiopathic developmental intellectual disability, conduct disorders, and autism.

● Why is depression and anxiety high in South India?

○ The higher prevalence of depressive and anxiety disorders in southern States could be
related to the higher levels of modernisation and urbanisation in these States and to
many other factors that are not yet well understood.
○ The study found positive relationship between depression and suicide death rates at the
State level, with suicide death rates also being higher in the southern States than in the
northern ones.

Q. Why are mental disorders prevalent in southern parts of India?

INDUSTRIAL LOCATIONS

LOCATIONAL FACTORS OF INDUSTRIES IN INDIA & THE WORLD

Location of industries is determined by various factors. It varies with time, space as well as development
priorities. Broadly the factors influencing the location of industry can be divided into:

pg. 247
 [Link]

I. GEOGRAPHICAL FACTORS: LL. NON GEOGRAPHICAL FACTORS:

1. Raw materials: The location of industrial 1. Capital: Big cities like Mumbai, Kolkata
enterprises is determined by the location of etc are big industrial centres because the
the raw materials. Industries which use big capitalists live in these cities.
heavy and bulky raw materials in their 2. Governmental policies: Government
primary stage in large quantities are activity in planning the future distribution
usually located near the supply of the raw of industries plays a very important role in
materials. the location of industries. Location of oil
➢ Jute Mills: West Bengal refinery at Mathura, coach factory at
➢ Sugar Mills: UP, MH Kapurthala, pharmaceutical industries at
➢ Cotton textile mills: MH-GJ uttarakhand etc are some of the results of
the governmental policies.
➢ Iron & steel: Near Iron ore
3. Industrial inertia: Industries tend to
2. Power: Regular supply of power is a
develop at the place of their original
prerequisite for the localisation of
establishment though the original cause
industries. Mineral oil, Hydroelectricity &
may have disappeared. This phenomenon
coal are conventional sources of power.
is called Industrial inertia.
E.g. Fertilizer plant at Nangal (PN).
4. Efficient organisation: To run modern
3. Labour: Labour supply is important in
industry efficient organisation and
two aspects:
management is needed.
➢ Workers in large numbers are
5. Banking & finance: Establishment of
often required
industries involves daily exchange of cores
➢ People with skill and technical of rupees which is possible through
expertise are needed. banking facilities only.
4. Transport: Transport is necessary for the 6. Insurance: There is a constant fear of
assembly of raw materials and for the damage to machines and man in industries
marketing of finished products. E.g. Port for which insurance facilities are badly
towns Mumbai, Kolkata. needed.
5. Market: Nearness to market is essential
for quick disposal of manufactured goods
especially perishables. Also based on
purchasing power & demand.
6. Site: Sites generally should be flat and well
served by transport facilities and low cost
of land is preferred.
7. Climate: Harsh climate is not suitable for
many industries. E.g. In dry climates, the
cotton-threads will break quickly during
spinning.

The world’s major industries are:

1. Iron and steel industry – Germany, USA, China, Japan and Russia.
2. Textile industry – India, Hong Kong, South Korea, Japan and Taiwan.

pg. 248
 [Link]

3. Information technology industry – Silicon Valley of Central California and the Bangalore region
of India.

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN RAW MATERIAL & INDUSTRIES: HOW GLOBALISATION &

TECHNOLOGICAL ADVANCEMENT IS CHANGING THIS RELATIONSHIP:
Industrial Locations:
● Industrial locations are primarily driven by costs.
● Influence by factors like:
○ Access to raw material
○ Power
○ Market
○ Capital
○ Transport
○ Labour
● The economic location is where the cost of production and delivery cost is least(Weber least cost
principle).
Relationship between raw material and location of industries:
1. Industries which use heavy & bulky raw material in their primary stage. E.g. Iron and steel
industry.
2. Industries which use weight losing raw material. E.g. Sugar mills.
3. Industries which use perishable raw materials. E.g. Agro processing, Dairy products.
4. Finished products of one industry used as raw material of another. E.g. Pig iron by smelting industry
serves as raw material for Steel industry.
5. Industries using raw material which cannot bear very high transportation costs. E.g Cotton
textiles.
Changing trends due to globalization & technological advancements:
1. Reduced transportation cost due to technological advancements.
2. Market & profit orientation: Industries are set up near market due to increased demand and
customization of products.
3. Improved backward linkages & cold chain infrastructure: Increase shelf life of the perishables.
4. State policies and incentives: FDI, FTA’s, Tax exemptions, custom duties etc.
5. Creation of artificial environment: e.g. Humid conditions required for cotton textiles are
artificially created.
6. Expansion of Industries: branches and subsidiaries.
Globalization is dismantling the trade barriers between nations. Industries are becoming footloose i.e. losing
their locational dependence on raw materials.

FOOD PROCESSING INDUSTRY:

India has more than 35000 registered units. But majorities of the food processing factories are concentrated
in the coastal states (one reason being, accessibility to marine food processing)
Major coastal states include Andhra, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Kerala, Gujarat, Punjab and WB. Non-
coastal states include UP, Punjab etc.
There are two types of processes in the food processing industry:

pg. 249
 [Link]

1. Manufacturing: Raw materials → Food.

2. Value Addition: Increase shelf life and value of manufactured food.

UPSTREAM REQUIREMENTS: DOWNSTREAM REQUIREMENTS:

1. Agricultural raw material: Before an 1. Market: Consideration of the marketing

agro-industrial firm is located and factor is vital to management analysis of
investments are made for a processing the Agri-food industry, because it provides
plant, procurement of raw agricultural the market information to assess an agri-
material inputs must be studied as food plant’s viability. Firms take into
carefully. consideration the market location and the
2. Infrastructure: Experts in this field have availability of raw material with the
recommended that a plant should examine highest priority.
a location for the basic infrastructural 2. State: The convenience (tax discount,
aspects such as water, electricity, existing investment opportunities etc.) offered by
food processing facilities etc. the state affects the location decisions.
3. Good linkages with farmers: Contract 3. Organized retail stores for faster
farming, which has increased during recent distribution.
years, is another important factor affecting 4. Latest processing techniques and
the location decisions especially in terms of Latest processing machinery.
5. Transport facilities.
having quality raw material.
6. Environmental factors: Environmental
4. Storage facilities for raw materials like factors were found to be less important
Grains, Meat, Fish etc. compared to other factors affecting
5. Modern extraction techniques and Quality location decisions in many less developed
testing facilities. and developing countries
6. Workforce: Adequate Labour is needed.

Various Policy Measures taken by the Government-

pg. 250
 [Link]

• Inclusion of food & agro-based processing units and cold chain as an agricultural activity
under Priority Sector Lending (PSL) norms in April 2015.
• As a measure toward ease of doing business, the Food Safety and Standards Authority of India
(FSSAI) through notifications in 2016 has shifted from product-by-product approval to an
ingredient and additive-based approval process.
• 100% Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) approval under automatic route has been permitted for
the food processing sector
• A Special Food Processing Fund of Rs. 2000 crore was set up with National Bank for Agriculture
and Rural Development (NABARD) to provide affordable credit for investments in setting
up Mega Food Parks (MFP) as well as processing units in the MFPs.
o In 2019, the coverage of the fund was extended to the setting up of Agro-Processing
Clusters along with setting up of individual manufacturing units.
o Also, a Designated Food Parks (DFPs) scheme would be introduced in different states
for the purpose of availing affordable credit from the special funds with NABARD.

SUGAR INDUSTRY:
● India is the second largest producer of sugar in the world after brazil.
● Sugarcane industry is the second largest agro based industry after cotton textiles.

Localisation of sugar mills near sugar growing areas because:

1. It is raw material based industry: Heavy , weight losing, perishable raw material used.
2. Once you cut the sugarcane, the sucrose content starts to decline. Hence raw material cannot be
transported to long distances.
3. Low rate of recovery: 100 tonne of sugarcane => 10-12 tonne sugar.

pg. 251
 [Link]

Distribution:
North India (MH-KN-TN-AP Belt) South India (UP-BH-HR-PN Belt)

1. E.g. Gorakhpur- Basti-Gonda-Meerut- 1. E.g. Ahmednagar- Pune-Nasik-Kolhapur-

Saharanpur-Muzaffarnagar. Solapur.
2. Low yield. 2. Tropical Climate: Higher yield.
3. Low sucrose content. 3. High sucrose content.
4. Short crushing season- 4 months. 4. Longer crushing season- 7-8 months.
5. Small Size mills. 5. Cooperative sugar mills.
6. Old traditional Machines. 6. Large mills & New modern machinery.
7. Proximity to the Ports ex. Mumbai port to
export the sugar produced.

Problems of sugar industry:

1. Low yield of sugarcane per hectare.
2. Short crushing seasons. Mills remain idle for remaining duration.
3. Fluctuating production trends: severe shortfall to bumper harvest.
4. Low recovery rate (<10 percent).
5. Small size mills do not create economies of scale.
6. Competition with gur and khandsari.
7. Low per capita consumption and low market demand.
8. Regional imbalances in distribution.
9. Policy issues: Mills pay FRP to farmers but themselves are left to markets for recovery.
Market dynamics are ignored.

Measures:
1. High yielding , early maturing , frost resistant, high sucrose content, pest resistant variety of
sugarcane required.
2. Increase crushing season by sowing and harvesting at regular intervals.
3. Reduce production cost by Proper utilization of by products.
a. Bagasse: paper pulp, plastic, insulating boards.
b. Molasses: alcohol, DDT, Rayon, Rubber, convert to edible molasses & use as feedstock.
c. Pressmud: Wax.

COTTON TEXTILES:
Cotton textile industry has three sectors:
1. Mill sector
2. Handloom
3. Powerloom
● It is the largest agro based industry in India which absorbs one-fifth of the total indian labour.
● In India 80% of the industry is concentrated in the cotton growing areas. Some of the centres like
Ahmedabad, Sholapur are located in areas of large scale cultivation. Black soil of Maharashtra
good for cotton (short, medium staple)

pg. 252
 [Link]

Why majority of the cotton textile mills located in the cotton growing areas of Great Plains &
Peninsular India?
● In the early years, the cotton textile industry was concentrated in the cotton growing belt of
Maharashtra and Gujarat ( Black Cotton soil).
● Availability of raw cotton, market, transport including accessible port facilities, labour, moist
climate, etc. contributed towards its localisation.
● Humid Climate is ideal for spinning, weaving and cotton processing.
● Availability of cheap & sufficient power. E.g. Coimbatore has Piker Hydel project
● This industry has close links with agriculture and provides a living to farmers, cotton ball pickers
and workers engaged in ginning, spinning, weaving, dyeing, designing, packaging, tailoring and
sewing.
● Port location so easy to import long-staple cotton from Egypt, foreign textile machinery.
● The industry by creating demands supports many other industries, such as, chemicals and dyes,
mill stores, packaging materials and engineering works.

Why Mumbai emerged as the textile industry hub-

• The first successful mechanized textile mill was established in Mumbai in 1854.
• The warm, moist climate, a port for importing machinery, availability of raw material and skilled
labour resulted in rapid expansion of the industry in the region.
• Initially this industry flourished in the states of Maharashtra and Gujarat because of favourable
humid climate.
• But today, humidity can be created artificially, and raw cotton is a pure and not weight losing raw
material, so this industry has spread to other parts of India.
• Coimbatore, Kanpur, Chennai, Ahmadabad, Mumbai, Kolkata, Ludhiana, Puducherry and Panipat
are some of the other important centres.

5.4. Why Ahmedabad emerged as textile industry hub-

• It is located in Gujarat on the banks of the Sabarmati River.
• The first mill was established in 1859.
• It soon became the second largest textile city of India, after Mumbai.
• Ahmedabad was therefore often referred to as the ‘Manchester of India’.
• Favourable locational factors were responsible for the development of the textile industry in
Ahmadabad.
• Ahmedabad is situated very close to cotton growing area.
• This ensures easy availability of raw material.
• The climate is ideal for spinning and weaving.
• The flat terrain and easy availability of land is suitable for the establishment of the mills.
• The densely populated states of Gujarat and Maharashtra provide both skilled and semi-skilled
labour.
• Well-developed road and railway network permits easy transportation of textiles to different parts
of the country, thus providing easy access to the market.
• Mumbai port nearby facilitates import of machinery and export of cotton textiles.
• But in the recent years, Ahmedabad textile mills have been having some problems.

pg. 253
 [Link]

• Several textile mills have closed down.

• This is primarily due to the emergence of new textile centres in the country as well as non-
upgradation of machines and technology in the mills of Ahmedabad.
Present scenario:
● At present, the trend is to locate at or close to markets. This is because it is the market which decides
what kind of cloth is to be produced.
● Also, the market for the finished product is extremely variable; therefore it becomes important to
locate the mills close to the market.

JUTE TEXTILES:
Locational requirements for jute production?
1. Tropical climate with adequate moisture and heavy rainfall.
2. River alluvium, especially where annual floods renew the fertility of the soil.
3. Jute is often grown as a cash crop in paddy-growing areas under flood conditions.
4. Labour intensive, grown in densely populated areas.

Distribution of Jute Industry in India:

● Jute industry is highly concentrated in West Bengal which contains about 80 % of the jute milIs in
India in the linear jute belt stretches along the Hooghly river
● In Bihar the jute industries are located at Katihar and Samastipur.
● The industry has also flourished in Uttar Pradesh at Gorakhpur and Kanpur.
● In Madhya Pradesh at Raigar.
● In Andhra Pradesh at Chitwalsah and Nellimalli in Visakhapatnam district.
Factors that facilitated the development of jute industry in West Bengal
● The Ganga Brahmaputra delta grows about 90% percent of India’s Jute and provides raw material
to jute mills here.
● Jute industry continues to be localised in West Bengal along the river HooghIy even though the
raw material base has expanded to include Bihar and Assam due to industrial inertia.
● Coal available from Raniganj fields
● Cheap water transportation
● Humid climate is very convenient for spinning and weaving.
● Proximity to Kolkata port
● Abundant cheap labour especially from the states of West Bengal and Bihar.
● Easy flow of capital is available especially from Kolkata.
● Kolkata already enjoys the advantage of an early start as it got impetus already from British time.

PHARMACEUTICAL INDUSTRY:
India is called the Pharmacy to the world. India is the largest generic drugs provider globally. It supplies
50% global demand for various vaccines.

pg. 254
 [Link]

Distribution of pharmaceuticals industry:

TRADITIONAL CLUSTERS: UPCOMING CLUSTERS:

1. West coast of India. GJ-MH-KN-Goa-TN- 1. Himachal Pradesh & Uttarakhand.

AP. 2. Fiscal incentives by the government. E.g.
2. Proximity to ports. Easy exports to Africa FDI, tax incentives.
& Europe. 3. Natural flora & fauna.
3. Import of Raw materials ( Active 4. Favorable Climate.
Pharmaceutical Ingredients’). 5. Skilled manpower & good governance.
4. Favorable policies. E.g. Ease of doing
business in GJ-MH.
5. Proximity to petrochemical hub (Bombay
high, Gujarat coast).
6. Easy capital availability.

Advantages in India:
1. Cost Efficiency: Low cost production (50% cheaper than west) and increasing expenditures on
R&D has led to competitive pharma exports reaching $ 17.15 billion in 2019.
2. Economic Drivers: High Economic growth along with increasing penetration of health insurance
push expenditures on healthcare and medicine in India.
3. Policy Support: The Indian Government’s ‘Pharma Vision 2020’ aims to make India a global
leader in end to end drug manufacturing.
4. Increasing Investments: Increasing private sector investments in R&D and acquisitions are
driving the sectors growth. In 2018, the Indian Pharma Companies invested 8.8% of their sales in
R&D.
5. Speedy clinical trials: Large patients base.

Challenges:
1. Low R&D budget.

pg. 255
 [Link]

2. Over dependence on China for APIs (Active Pharmaceutical Ingredients) even for essential
medicines like paracetamol, aspirin.
3. Inadequate Infrastructure: Labs, Drug Testing facilities.
4. Poor Industry-Academia linkage.
5. Limitations of domestic market:
➢ Low medical & healthcare expenditure.
➢ Low healthcare insurance penetration.
6. Lack of regulatory infrastructure:
➢ Delay in clearances of new drugs.
➢ IPR issues (evergreening of patents & compulsory licensing).

Government Initiatives:
• Strengthening of Pharmaceutical Industry Scheme:
o A total financial outlay of Rs. 500 crore (USD 665.5 million) for the period FY 21-22 to
FY 25-26 were announced under the Scheme.
• First Global Innovation Summit of the pharmaceuticals sector:
o In November 2021, Indian PM inaugurated the first Global Innovation Summit of the
pharmaceutical sector, where national and international speakers deliberated on a range of
subjects including regulatory environment, funding for innovation, industry-academia
collaboration and innovation infrastructure.
• Production Linked Incentive (PLI) Scheme:
o The PLI scheme aims to promote domestic manufacturing of critical Key Starting Materials
(KSMs)/Drug Intermediates and Active Pharmaceutical Ingredients (APIs) in the country.
• Promotion of Bulk Drug Parks Scheme:
o The government aims to develop 3 mega Bulk Drug parks in India in partnership with
States to reduce manufacturing cost of bulk drugs in the country and dependency on other
countries for bulk drugs.

IRON AND STEEL INDUSTRY:

Iron & Steel industry capital goods industry which is the base of all other industries.

Locational factors of Iron and steel industry are based on raw materials mainly:
● Iron and steel industry uses large quantities of heavy and weight losing raw materials and its
localisation is primarily controlled by the availability of raw materials.
● Coal and iron ore are the two basic raw materials used by iron and steel industry and on the basis
of minimum transportation cost most of the steel plants are located at three distinct places viz. (i)
near coal fields, (ii) near iron ore mining centres and (iii) at places between areas of coal and iron
ore production.
● Iron ore based location: e.g. Lorraine (France), Duluth (USA), Visakhapatnam (India).
● Coal based locations: e.g. Ruhr valley (Germany), New Castle (UK), Pittsburgh (USA), Bokaro
(India).
● Iron ore and coal producing regions have bidirectional relationships. E.g. Pittsburg-Lake
Superior(USA), Bokaro-Rourkela (India). For instance Ural-Kuznetsk combine, the Ural

pg. 256
 [Link]

Mountains are rich in iron ore deposits and the Kuznetsk Basin in Western Siberia is rich in coal
deposits and sent to the Ural region by Railways. The returning wagons after emptying coal bring
iron ore from the Ural region. So iron-steel industry developed at both places. This is called Empty
wagon concept.
● Most of the iron and steel plants of India such as Jamshedpur, Bumpur, Durgapur, Rourkela, Bhilai
and Bokaro are located in Jharkhand, West Bengal, Orissa and Chhattisgarh. These states are very
rich in coal and iron ore deposits.

Why Jamshedpur emerged as Iron and Steel industry hub?

• Before 1947, there was only one iron and steel plant in the country – Tata Iron and Steel
Company Limited (TISCO).
• It was privately owned. After Independence, the government took the initiative and set up several
iron and steel plants.
• TISCO was started in 1907 at Sakchi, near the confluence of the rivers Subarnarekha and
Kharkai in Jharkhand.
• Later on Sakchi was renamed as Jamshedpur.
• Geographically, Jamshedpur is the most conveniently situated iron and steel centre in the country.
• Sakchi was chosen to set up the steel plant for several reasons-
o This place was only 32 km away from Kalimati station on the Bengal-Nagpur railway
line.
o It was close to the iron ore, coal and manganese deposits as well as to Kolkata, which
provided a large market.
o TISCO gets coal from Jharia coalfields, and iron ore, limestone, dolomite and
manganese from Odisha and Chhattisgarh.

pg. 257
 [Link]

o The Kharkai and Subarnarekha rivers ensured sufficient water supply.

o Government initiatives provided adequate capital for its later development.
o The development of the iron and steel industry opened the doors to rapid industrial
development in India.
o Almost all sectors of the Indian industry depend heavily on the iron and steel industry for
their basic infrastructure.

Changing trends with examples from India and the world:

● Traditionally these industries were located at the raw materials site slowly and other factors are
also contributing.
● Visvesvaraya Iron and Steel Works at Bhadravati is a major exception which is located far away
from the main coal producing areas of the country. Earlier, this centre depended upon charcoal
which was available locally. Now it uses hydroelectricity from the Sharavathi Power Project. The
other raw materials are manganese, limestone, dolomite, silica, etc. used in small quantities and
can be transported without much difficulty.
● Another important factor influencing the localisation of the iron and steel industry is the
availability of markets. Thus, following the least cost principle many centres of iron and steel
production tend to be attracted by market.
● Moreover, recent technological developments in transport, the use of scrap as raw material and
the agglomeration economics have made market oriented location more advantageous than ever
before.
● Near Coastal region:
○ Japan's Iron steel industry is developed at coastal areas/port locations because they rely
on imported coal and iron-ore.
○ E.g. from India include steel industry in Osaka-Kobe India Steel plants at
Visakhapatnam, Ratnagiri, Mangalore
○ USA In the coastal cities of Cleveland, Detroit, Chicago (using imported ores from
Canada).
● Political Considerations:
○ Steel industry was set up specifically at Bhilai to reduce the regional Backwardness.
○ Location of Salem plant in TN was due to political considerations.
○ In China, “Backyard steel furnaces” were set up in every commune under the “great leap
forward” policy of Mao.

PETROLEUM REFINING:
Refineries can be set up
○ near the raw material or
○ near the market or
○ At an intermediate break of the bulk location (ports/coastal locations) because for
Petroleum refineries, the raw material sources were less decisive factors for industrial
location.
Locational factors:

pg. 258
 [Link]

1. Raw material site: Oil refining close to production site represents a weightloss of 10-11 % only
so there is not much cost saving in transport even if located near raw material site. Refinery will
become useless after oil is exhausted from oil well. But experts say refined products have higher
rate of evaporation, therefore it is better to set up the refinery near the source.
➢ Example: Assam: Digboi, Guwahati and Bongaigaon;
➢ Gujarat: Koyali
Unrest/Instability as a location factor: Because of this Multinational companies do not feel
confident to set up refineries in the middle-east or South America.
Ports: Many petrochemical complexes are located on the coast to facilitate export.
➢ Examples: Ras Tanura, Mina-Al-Ahmedi in Kuwait.
➢ Refineries on East Coast of USA get crude oil from Venezuela and West Asia then
transport the final products via pipelines and tankers to markets of Philadelphia, Chicago
and Great Lakes region.
➢ Reliance refinery (Jamnagar, Gujarat) near Sikka port. Refinery clusters are found near
port locations at Rotterdam and Thames: making it easier to transport the final products via
pipelines, river-barges and railroads.
Markets: In Europe, manufacturing industries also consume a large portion of petroleum products
therefore refineries are also located in major manufacturing centres, where petroleum products are
demanded for instance Antwerp, Rotterdam and Southampton.
➢ New refineries were constructed near the markets / consumption centres
Barauni at Bihar
Mathura at UP
Panipat at Haryana

pg. 259
 [Link]

FERTILIZER INDUSTRY-
Introduction-
• The Indian fertilizer industry has made good progress in the case of Nitrogen-based fertilizers. India
is the 2nd largest consumer of Urea fertilizers after China.
• India also ranks 2nd in the production of nitrogenous fertilizers and 3rd in phosphatic
fertilizers.
• Potash requirement is met through imports since we have limited reserves of potash.
• Productions are largely state-controlled. Popular PSUs are The Fertilizer Corporation of India
Ltd, National fertilizers Limited, Hindustan Fertilizer Corporation Ltd., etc.

Importance of fertilizer industry in Indian agricultural system-

• Fertilizer provided the cradle in which the HYV seeds and assured irrigation flourished in the form
of the green revolution, mitigating the ever-multiplying problem of food security in India.
• Its importance can be gauged from the fact that the regions with high use of fertilizers are now
known as ‘granaries of India.’ The fertilizers industry is the second most important industry in
India after iron and steel.
• Decreasing fertility of the land and increasing population have raised the importance of this
industry manifold.

pg. 260
 [Link]

• The fertilizer industry provides vital forward-backward linkages with other industries.
• Forward linkages are with agriculture and backward linkages are with petrochemical industries.
• The by-products of the petrochemical industry are used as raw materials in the fertilizers
industry.
• General productivity of the fertilizers industry is low. India is still not self-reliant in fertilizer
production (about 50% of fertilizers are imported).
• Further, there is a high Spatio-temporal variation in consumption. Fertilizer can most effectively
be used with ample water.
• So rainfed areas (deprived of irrigation) constitute 70 % of agricultural land and still, they use
only 20% of national Fertilizers consumption.
• On other hand Rabi crops are dominantly produced in Irrigated areas, so they consume about 66%
of fertilizers while their share of total agriculture output is 33%.
• India meets 85 percent its urea requirement through indigenous production but depends heavily
on imports for its phosphate and potash (P & K) fertilizer requirements.

Location factors-
• Raw Materials: Most of the industries are raw material oriented i.e. located where raw material
is available.
o Naphtha is the most important and preferred feedstock accounting for over 70% of the
installed capacity of nitrogen production.
o Naphtha is a by product of petroleum industry i.e. why many fertilizer industries near
oil refineries. Most of the Napatha required by the industry is imported.
o Coal is another important constituent of the location factors.
o It is used both as fuel and raw material.
o Ammonia is required for nitrogenous fertilizer. The coal based fertilizer units are
located at Ramagundem and Korba.
o The only lignite based unit in the country is located at Neyveli.
o Coke oven gas (COG), a by-product of iron & steel plants is also used as raw materials.
This is the reason for many fertilizers plants located near Iron & Steel plants e.g. in
Bhilai, Durgapur, Jamshedpur and Rourkela etc.
o Other important raw material includes Rock Phosphate used in the manufacture of
phosphoric fertilizers.
o About 90% of the requirement of phosphates is imported.
o The small phosphate deposits of commercial importance are confined to Singhbhum
(Jharkhand), Vishakhapatnam (A.P.), and in some parts of Rajasthan.
o Sulphur is also an important raw material. There are no known large reserves of
elemental sulphur in the country.
o However, some of the reserves of Sulphur is available in Tamil Nadu.
o Hydro-grade gypsum is used in large quantities for the manufacture of ammonium
sulphate.
• Energy: It is another important determining factor, since the fertilizer industry is highly energy-
intensive so many plants are located in areas where cheap energy is available i.e. Nangal Plant.

pg. 261
 [Link]

• Transportation: Since many raw materials needed by this industry have to be transported to the
plant location and finished goods are to be transported to the consumption center and both of them
are bulky so efficient transportation make the backbone of this industry.
• Ports offer an attractive location for the fertilizers industry that is why there are many port-based
fertilizers plants.
• Gas pipelines e.g. HBJ has correspondence with fertilizer plants.
• Many fertilizer industries are located where there is a very high density of rail networks.
• Market: Apart from raw material, the market is also an important factor to be accounted in the
location of these industries i.e. in Punjab and Uttar Pradesh the location of this industry is
guided by market pull.
• Technology: Involvement of various chemical processes makes up gradation of technology
imperative. Besides, fuel efficiency is very important owning to energy intensive nature of this
industry.
• Government policy: It is the major factor deciding the localization of fertilizer industry
besides the raw material vicinity.
• Location of Sindri fertilizer plant was a part of government policy. Further, Administered Price
Mechanism earlier determined the prospects of this industry in India.
• International agreements in the form of increase or subsides regulate the consumption and in turn
the growth of this industry.
• Fertilizer consumption has gone down in past few years because of abolishment of subsides.
• Capital: fertilizer industry involves huge capital viz-a-viz new materials, heavy machinery,
transportation and new techniques. This factor has facilitated the location of industry in
Gujarat-Maharashtra region.

pg. 262
 [Link]

Distribution of fertilizer industry-

• Fertilizer industry in India is concentrated in certain major regions of the country. This industry is
mainly spread over 5 regions.
o Gujarat region
o Chhottanagpur region
o Tamil Nadu region
o North West region
o Uttar Pradesh region
• Gujarat Region:
o It includes Gujarat and Maharashtra and is the largest producer of fertilizer in the
country.
o Petrochemical industries and oil refineries of this region produce Naphtha which is a
basic raw material for nitrogenous fertilizer. Important centers are Vadodara, Kalol,
Ahmedabad, Kandla and Trombay.
• Chotanagpur plateau region and other Iron and Steel locations
o Here the fertilizer industries have cropped up due to proximity to Iron and Steel
industries.
o The fertilizer industry of this region use byproducts of Iron and Steel industry as raw
material that is Steel slug, coke, and lignite.

pg. 263
 [Link]

o Important centers are Jamshedpur, Rourkela, Durgapur, Burnpur, Sindri, Bhilai, etc
o Bhilai, Vizag, Mettur are other centers having fertilizer industry due to the presence of
the Iron and Steel industry.
• Tamil Nadu Region
o It is the availability of Sulphur in the Tamil Nadu region that has propelled the growth
of the industry in this region. Dispersal of fertilizer industry to South was important for its
localization in this area.
o Important centers are Coimbatore, Neyveli, Alwaye (Kerala), Kochi (Kerala),
Tuticorin, Ennore.
• North West region:
o This location has the advantage of huge market as it is the agriculturally most advanced
region and market driven demand fuelled the growth of fertilizer industry in this region.
o Important centres are Bhatinda, Nangal (Punjab), Panipat (Haryana) and Delhi.
• Uttar Pradesh region
o This region became the hub of the fertilizer industry due to the availability of the
mineral Phosphate.
o Phosphatic fertilizer plants are located here i.e. Jagdishpur, Gorakhpur, Aonla,
Shahjahanpur, Babrala etc.
• HBJ Pipeline
o This pipeline has been constructed by the Gas Authority of India Limited (GAIL) to
transport gas and Neptha through the pipeline. It is 1,750 km long and connects Hazira
in Maharashtra to Bijapur in M.P. and Jagdishpur in U.P.
o It carries 18 million cubic meters of gas every day to three powerhouses at Kawas
(Gujarat), Anta (Rajasthan), and Auraiya (U.P.) and to six fertilizer plants at Bijapur,
Sawai Madhopur,. Jagdishpur, Shahjahanpur, Aonla, and Babrala.

pg. 264
 [Link]

• Coal based Plants

o These plants are located in the close proximity of coal producing regions. Some of the
plants are located in Korba, Talcher, Ramagundam and Neyveli.

New development in fertilizer industry-

• The Government is planning to liberalise Market Development Assistance (MDA) policy to
promote the use of alternative fertilisers.
• Neem Coating of Urea:
o The Department of Fertilizers (DoF) has made it mandatory for all the domestic
producers to produce 100% urea as Neem Coated Urea (NCU).
• New Urea Policy (NUP) 2015:
• Objectives of the policy are-
o To maximize indigenous urea production.
o To promote energy efficiency in the urea units.
o To rationalize the subsidy burden on the Government of India.
• New Investment Policy- 2012:
o The Government announced New Investment Policy (NIP)-2012 in January, 2013 and
made amendments in 2014 to facilitate fresh investment in the urea sector and to make
India self-sufficient in the urea sector.
• Use of Space Technology in Fertilizer Sector:
o DoF commissioned a three year Pilot Study on “Resource Mapping of Rock Phosphate
using Reflectance Spectroscopy and Earth Observations Data” by National Remote
Sensing Centre under ISRO, in collaboration with Geological Survey of India (GSI)
and the Atomic Mineral Directorate (AMD).
• Recently, the Indian Farmers Fertiliser Cooperative Limited (IFFCO) introduced the world's
first Nano Urea Liquid for farmers across the world.
o It is a nutrient (liquid) to provide nitrogen to plants as an alternative to the conventional
urea.
o It is developed to replace conventional urea and it can curtail the requirement of the same
by at least 50%.

Trends of growth of fertilizer industry in India

pg. 265
 [Link]

FOREST BASED INDUSTRY: TIMBER, PAPER AND PULP INDUSTRY:

Lumbering:
● Lumbering is defined as cutting down trees and turning them into pieces of wood used for building.
● It is defined as the felling of economic trees in the forest, which can be used for domestic, industrial
or commercial purposes.
Why is Lumbering a large scale organised activity in Canada?
1. Raw material: Canada’s forests are mostly softwood so it’s easy to chop. In coniferous forests,
trees of same species are concentrated in one particular area so mass exploitation is easier compared
to tropical areas.
2. Transport: During winter, the Jungle surface is covered with snow which has a slippery surface
so it is easier to move logs to rivers.
a. The forests are comparatively less dense than in tropical areas and easy to access.
b. Areas are also well connected by railroads
3. Labour: The winter season in Canada is long so agricultural activities are limited. Farmers have
plenty of leisure time and there is no work in the field during winter. So they migrate to northern
(coniferous) forests along with their families so there is easy availability of lumberjacks.
a. Lumbering is highly mechanized with the help of chainsaws; bulldozers etc so low
population-density doesn’t create much problem.
4. Market: These forests are close to economically developed regions, where demand for wood is
higher e.g. USA for newsprint paper.
Canada’s paper and Pulp industry:
● Forest area is large enough to supply timber on a constant basis.
● Ideal location for mill is riverside. It minimizes transportation problems.
● Canada has mountainous terrain and fast flowing rivers with cheap hydroelectric Power available.
Paper and pulp mills are highly mechanized and require little manpower which helps less
population of Canada as well. They can be located in remote regions without experiencing labour
shortage.
● USA has highest paper consumption in the world, provides a ready-made market for the paper pulp
industry of Canada.

pg. 266
 [Link]

Why are tropics a bad destination?

1. In temperate forests trees of same species are concentrated in a particular area so easy to exploit
on a commercial scale. However in tropical forests some tree-species are extremely valuable, but
they are scattered.
2. Frozen ground helps transporting logs from jungle/hills up to rivers in temperate areas .In tropical
areas valuable trees are scattered throughout the jungle, there is need for some land transport before
logs reach the rivers. But road construction is difficult due to rain, dense vegetation.
3. Temperate regions have softwood which is easy to float down the river streams which is not the
case in the tropical regions. In the Amazon and Zaire Basin, some trees are so heavy; it is difficult
to float logs as extraction cost is very high.
4. In temperate areas major industrial/urban areas are near the market. In tropical areas settlement is
sparse; economies are non-industrialized, away from demand areas.
5. In temperate areas government assistance is there with replantation programs, Silviculture, strict
government regulation on lumbering .In tropical areas there are lax regulations, slash-n-burn type
agriculture, jungles are permanently destroyed.

Indian timber industry:

1. Raw material: Dependent on bamboo, softwood. For instance, regions like South Gujarat, Odisha,
MP.
2. Near market: For Kolkata raw materials are brought from North Eastern States.
3. Also cheap labour, coal, water is readily available.

ELECTRONIC AND IT INDUSTRY:

The Electronics Industry is one of the fastest growing industries in the world. The electronics industry is
made up of companies that manufacture, design, assemble and service electronic products.

Locational Factors necessary are:

1. In this industry the traditional locational factors like raw materials do not influence much.
2. Skilled force: In Japan ‘s Kumamoto Prefecture, the centre of Kyushu’s Silicon Island the strengths
include the region’s wealth of well-educated and talented engineers.
3. Electronics Industry is driven by tough competition to innovate ideas and introduce the newest
technology in the market first.
4. Market: Proximity to the rapidly growing greater Asian market in the case of Kumamoto as it can
capitalize on this by developing transportation systems to support global business.
5. Government policies: China has lured several multinational chipmakers to build new fabs inside
its borders. In fact, starting in the 1980s, China introduced several initiatives to modernize its IC
industry. And over the years, China has launched several domestic foundry vendors and a plethora
of fabulous design houses.
6. Research and development and specialized production have maintained the Valley’s position as
a primary hi-tech centre in the USA.
7. Technology: There are high technological barriers to entry in this industry. Without a high level
of technological sophistication, which often takes years to develop, new entrants find it challenging
to establish a foothold in the industry.

pg. 267
 [Link]

8. Capital barriers as this industry processes are really expensive.

INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY AND START UP’S:

Bangalore case: (Silicon valley of India)
● Early starter :
○ Bangalore has seen start-ups like Infosys, Mindtree transforming into multinationals. Since
1980's, with the telecom revolution in India, Bangalore seized the opportunity.
○ The city is home to billion-dollarIndian start-ups like Flipkart, InMobi and Mu Sigma.
● Government Initiatives:
○ Karnataka was the first state to have an IT policy in 1992 itself.
○ Promoting SEZ and inviting global giants to do business by providing them land at
subsidized rates.
● Capital:
○ Many Venture capital funds are located in the town. Business funding fairs are organised
almost regularly where they meet technocrats with their fresh and innovative ideas.
● Business parks :
○ SEZs in service sector fuel this growth as units located inside are away from Bureaucratic
interference.
● Investment:
○ It is the 3rd largest hub for high net worth individuals: There are nearly 10,000 millionaires
with an investable surplus of USD1.15 mn.
● Infrastructure:
○ Infrastructure of Bangalore like many Incubation centres help start-ups flourish in their
initial stage.
○ Largely English speaking population of India and growth of service sector have their own
advantages in making Bangalore a preferred destination for Innovation and start-ups.
● Weather:
○ Mild weather throughout the year makes it an easy place for even foreigners to work in a
tropical country like India.
● Availability of manpower:
○ With a large number of engineering colleges, cheap and talented manpower is available.
● Education: The city has few top-class global research institutes like Indian Institute of Science,
and also houses many state-owned research organizations

SOLAR INDUSTRY:
Factors responsible for the location of solar industry:
1. Availability of sunlight: Availability of abundant sunlight is the most important factor for setting
up a solar plant.
2. Latitude: Due to Earth's spherical shape, the solar rays have more intensity around the equatorial
regions. Thus, it's a definite advantage to be close to the equator for the solar plants.
3. Duration of sunlight: Fluctuations in climatic conditions hamper the functioning of solar plants.
4. Cloud cover: Clouds have a big impact on the amount of solar radiation reaching the surface of
Earth.

pg. 268
 [Link]

5. Aerosols: By absorbing solar radiation, they can decrease the level of solar radiation reaching the
surface. While aerosols degrade the performance of photovoltaic systems, their impact is more
severe on the performance of concentrating solar applications and solar thermal systems.
6. Shading: The immediate surroundings of the solar project site also have a big impact on the level
of solar radiation reaching solar energy systems. Vegetation, buildings, even certain landscape
features such as hills can block incoming radiation and cast a shadow, drastically reducing the
usable solar radiation.
7. Transmission and Distribution facilities: Efficient Transmission and Distribution systems are
crucial in the operation of a solar plant.
8. Local Legislation: Local laws and regulations often play a key role in plant location.
Reasons for India lagging behind in solar industry:
Solar’s Share in India’s Total Installed Capacity Rises to 7.9% at the End of 2018. India has a target of
installing 100 GW of solar capacity by 2022 and is still 72 GW short of it. To achieve this ambitious goal,
a ramping up of the yearly targets is the need of the hour. However, there exist a lot of challenges which
obstruct the growth of solar industry in India:
1. To achieve the 100 GW target, India needs to invest $65 billion in the next four years. A major part
of it has to be raised within the country, as the renewable sector could so far attract a foreign direct
investment (FDI) worth only $7.5 billion in the last 18 years (2000-2018), according to a report
by the India Brand Equity Foundation.
2. Indian cities lag far behind in installing rooftop solar installations. This is despite policies and
net metering guidelines in several states; a subsidy of 30 percent offered by the MNRE, the
installation of solar rooftop systems has been dismal in leading metros in the country.
3. On the domestic manufacturing front, India fares worse. Various efforts by the Solar Energy
Corporation of India (SECI) to attract bids for the development of the Inter-state Transmission
System (ISTS) connected Solar Photovoltaic (PV) Power Plant since May 2018 has been in vain.
4. Almost 95 per cent of the solar cells and modules currently being used by Indian solar developers
are imported. Even domestic solar manufacturers import solar wafers.
5. Solar panels require inverters and storage batteries to convert direct electricity to alternating
electricity so as to generate electricity. While installing a solar panel is cheap, installing other
equipment becomes expensive.
6. Absence of Proper Financing Mechanism is a major issue. Commercial banks constitute a major
source for financing infrastructure projects including renewable energy systems in India. But these
national banks provide debt at a rate much higher than what is available in the developed nations.
7. Availability of Land and Possession is another issue. Finding suitable land which must be non-
agricultural and unused land with good solar irradiance is challenging. Also the land must be free
of undulations and trees. Once a suitable land is identified, its acquisition becomes the next
challenge.
8. Funding of initiatives like the National Solar Mission is a constraint given India's inadequate
financing capabilities.
9. Dust, high temperatures and the dearth of water are contributing to a significant increase in the
cost of operating solar power plants in the country.
10. The existing power grids are very old in India and are not equipped to handle renewable energy
very efficiently.
11. India is facing challenge to balance Prioritising domestic goals and WTO commitments.

pg. 269
 [Link]

India needs a more comprehensive approach in order to achieve the targets of 2022 and beyond. Some of
the initiatives in this direction include:
● The Union Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE) has announced a scheme to develop
at least 25 solar parks, each with a capacity of 500 MW and above targeting over 20 GW solar
powers.
● Charanka Solar Park in Gujarat is the first-of-its-kind large scale solar park in India with
contiguous developed land, transmission connectivity and provision of other amenities and
infrastructure.

FISHING INDUSTRY:
Fisheries are the industry of fish catching. Over 80 % of the world fisheries are in coastal environments and
20 % in inland fresh water. Commercial fishing is developed in middle to higher latitudes of the Northern
hemisphere.

Factors responsible for this development are:

1. Plankton Availability: Plankton is the basic food of fish. The Dogger Bank in Northern Sea and
Grand Bank in North Eastern USA are the shallower continental shelves with large scale planktons.
2. Broken Coastal Lines: It is observed that near the broken coastal lines, the speed of the water is
slow which in turn reduces the speed of a fish, thus near the broken coastal lines, fish catching can
be quite easy.
3. Cold & Warm Currents: Meeting of ocean currents for instance meeting of Gulf Stream and
Labrador Grand banks and New Found land in North America is one of the best fishing grounds in
the world. Similarly congruence of Kuroshio and Oyashio in Japan .
4. Climate: In tropical areas fish cannot be stored for long whereas in cool temperate climate large
scale commercial fishing, preservation and storage of fish can be done.
5. Labour:In higher latitudes of northern hemisphere there are long winters which are unsuitable for
cultivation so many people switch to fishing so labour is easily available especially in the countries
like Iceland, Japan, Norway Etc.
6. Fishing equipment : In medieval times temperate forests provided both soft and hard wood for
construction of fishing boats. Today, commercial fishing vessels does not need this, but steel and
heavy engineering industry also developed in surrounding coastal regions leading to enormous
shipbuilding industries.
7. Fishing market: In the higher and mountainous regions of Asia and Europe especially Japan and
Norway as agricultural production is also quite low people rely on fish as a source of protein. Also
in many Asian countries Fish is a staple diet.
8. Economic factors:
a. Availability of fast and modern transport facilities.
b. Availability of cold storage for preservation of fish.
c. Good communication system among consumers and sellers.
d. Excellent & quick banking system for transfer of payments.

Why commercial fishing more developed in Europe and North America compared to Asia (except
Japan)?
1. Climate in most of the Asian countries is tropical so fish cannot be stored for long.

pg. 270
 [Link]

2. The coastline of Asia is relatively smooth unlike indented coastlines in countries of North America.
Also, continental shelves are narrower than Europe.
3. Commercial fishing requires huge ships and also high technology equipment for scanning fishing
waters to find the optimal location. These are readily available in Europe and America and much
less in Asia.
4. In tropical regions of Asia multiple varieties of fishes occur but in smaller groups which is not very
profitable for commercial fishing.
5. The tropical fishes have higher oil content which is less desirable for eating.
.Why is Fishing more developed along the western coast than the Eastern coast?
1. Continental shelf in the western coast is wider with more plankton so more fish is present.
2. Commercial varieties like Prawns and Mackerel are mostly confined along western coast.

Why is India not a major player in fishing industry despite huge coastline?
With 5.6% of the total world fish production, India has one of the largest fishery sectors in the world.
However It has an unrealised deep water potential. The challenges include:
1. Lack of a reliable database relating to aquatic and fisheries resources.
2. Limited number of species grown / cultured, mainly due to weak linkages between research and
development and fish farmers community.
3. Inadequate HRD and specialized manpower in different disciplines.
4. Poor yield optimization, problems in harvest and post-harvest operations, landing and berthing
facilities for fishing vessels and issues in welfare of fishermen. Poor quality of fish feed remains a
challenge.
5. Decline in fish catch and depletion of natural resources due to over exploitation of coastal fisheries.
6. Water pollution; unscientific management of aquaculture and contamination of indigenous
germplasm resources.
7. Marine fishing has declined due to depleting resources, energy crisis and resultant high cost of
fishing.
8. Large % of this sector continues to remain structured on unorganised and traditional lines with
little proliferation of technological improvements.
9. India has yet to realise the potential of deep-sea fishing.
10. Poor infrastructure especially in relation to marine fishing results in significant post harvest
losses. Weak marketing and extension network.
11. Security of fishermen especially along the maritime boundaries with Sri Lanka and Pakistan
remains a concern.

FOOTLOOSE INDUSTRIES
Footloose industries can be located in a wide variety of places. They are independent of any specific raw
material. They largely depend on component parts which can be obtained anywhere, in other words they
are not dependent upon proximity of raw materials. These are called footloose as these types of
industries are prone to relocation.
Examples--
1. computer chips manufacturing
2. Diamond manufacturing

pg. 271
 [Link]

3. Smartphones assembling
4. cotton textile industry
What are the important characteristics of footloose industries?

1. Location: Footloose industries can be established at any place. These industries are affected by
component parts and they are available at all places.
2. Small plant size: These industries require small plant size compared to heavy and small industries.
3. Less transport cost: Their products are having very high value addition and smaller in size and so
transportation cost is only a small fraction of total cost.
4. Less labour force: These industries produce their products in small numbers and they do not
require a large labour force.
5. Eco-friendly: These are environment-friendly industries as the process involved in these industries
have a negligible carbon footprint. These industries emit less or no pollution.
6. Skilled workers: It needs skilled workers as the industrial process is advanced and major work
needs high-quality precision.
7. Less raw material dependence: These are less dependent on specific raw material, especially
weight losing ones. Most of the raw materials are small and light and can be transported easily.
What are the factors responsible for the location of footloose industries?
1. Connectivity: Location with a good connectivity of roads, railways, telecommunication, airways
etc. are preferred to facilitate quick movement of skilled workers and high-value outputs.
2. Accessibility: The important factor in their location is accessibility by transportation network
enabling the workers commute hassle free. The extensive network of metro, railway and road in
NCR helped service industry in Gurugram and Noida.
3. Cheap land: They are located on the edge of cities because the land is often cheaper than in the
center. The out of town surroundings and easy access to workers in the suburbs provides an ideal
location.
4. Close to similar industries: They are also located close to similar industries to facilitate exchange
of ideas and knowledge.
5. Raw material independent: The computing and information technology industry are not tied to
raw materials and can choose their own location. The mega cyber cities like Bangalore and
Hyderabad are the best examples.

pg. 272
 [Link]

6. Close to research centres: The Hi-tech industries have to locate close to research centres like
universities. Development in the hi-tech industry happens so fast that companies need to stay up to
date to survive. For e.g. software technology parks in India.
Footloose industries are crucial for the development of areas which lack locational advantages with respect
to port facilities, availability of raw materials, etc. With technological advancements traditional industries
are increasingly becoming footloose.

NASHIK AS WINE CAPITAL OF INDIA

● Nashik has long been known as one of the three locations for Kumbh Mela, a religious event that
witnesses the largest congregation of Hindus. However, over the past decade or so, the city of 1.4
million, which is located 190 km north of Mumbai, has earned a new distinction of being the wine
capital of India.
● That’s because almost half of India’s wineries are located in Nashik.
● The reason why Nashik has attracted so many wine entrepreneurs is because it has a favourable
climate for growing grapes. Located at an altitude of 700 metres above the sea level, Nashik
has an ideal temperature variation, particularly in winters, that helps grapes retain acidity
and optimal sugar levels.
● Sula stands out for not only pioneering the wine industry in Nashik but also in India. Currently, it
is India’s largest winery producing up to 1 million cases of wine every year. Currently, it has 65
per cent share in the premium wine segment.
● Sula exports between 10 to 15 percent of its wine to 27 markets all over the world.
● Despite the impressive growth of the wine industry in India over the past decade, wine consumption
in India continues to remain low.
● Keeping in mind this trend, some of the wineries in Nashik have adopted the strategy of focusing
on exports. One such brand is Soul Tree which produces 150,000 bottles of wine every year, all of
which is sold in the overseas market.

Q. Discuss the location factor responsible for making Nashik as wine capital of India.

MEDIA AND ENTERTAINMENT INDUSTRY

The Indian Media and Entertainment (M&E) industry is a sunrise sector for the economy and is making
significant strides.

pg. 273
 [Link]

18.2. Mumbai- The Hub of Indian Cinema:

● Mumbai is home to the Bollywood film industry. Over 70% of Indian motion pictures, television
serials and commercials are produced in Mumbai itself.
● The term Bollywood is imbibed from the merger of the term Bombay (now Mumbai) and
Hollywood, depicting the significance of the city on its film industry.
● Initiatives to promote films in Mumbai
○ Mumbai has been on the forefront of promoting the dynamic film industry by continuously
taking measures such as easing filming process, offering information on location and
location promotion, incentivizing the regional film production and hosting National and
International events.
● Incentive & Support:
○ Financial Assistance: Maharashtra Cultural Affairs Department offers Film finance
assistance scheme, under the name “Darjedar Marathi Chitrapat Arthsahaya Yojna to
Marathi films.
○ Tax Exemption and Concession: Marathi films also get 100% entertainment tax
exemption on theatrical release in Maharashtra State.
○ Location Compendium & Database: Location Compendium plays a key role in
promoting the film shooting locations in the state and offers sneak peek into the state
offerings in terms of locations. Maharashtra has its own location compendium named
“Spotlight” which highlights top 100 scenic locales in Maharashtra where majority of the
film shooting takes place.
○ Single Window Facilitation: Maharashtra Film Cell (MFC) is a unique initiative by the
state government which serves as a one stop solution for obtaining film shooting
permissions in the state. MFC works to enable international as well as domestic producers,
filmmakers to seek filming/ shooting permissions for multiple locations through the single
window system.

pg. 274
 [Link]

○ Events & Film Festivals: Mumbai city is known for its vibrant colors, festivals, events
and trade meets. City is a host prestigious Mumbai Film Festival, Mumbai International
Film Festival and Kala Ghoda Arts Festival among others, which offers a clear glimpse of
the city's lively spirit and culture.

Q. Discuss the factors responsible for making Mumbai as the film industry hub of India.

INDUSTRIAL CORRIDORS:
Context-
• Government has approved the development of the five industrial corridor projects which will be
implemented through National Industrial Corridor Development and Implementation Trust
(NICDIT).
o NICDIT is an apex body under the administrative control of the Department for
Promotion of Industry and Internal Trade (DPIIT), Ministry of Commerce and Industry
for coordinated and unified development of the 5 Industrial Corridors in India.
o In 2017, Delhi Mumbai Industrial Corridor Project Implementation Trust Fund (DMIC-
PITF) was re-designated as National Industrial Corridor Development and
Implementation Trust (NICDIT).
o NICDIT supports project development activities and appraisal, approval and sanction of
projects. It also coordinates and monitors all central efforts for the development of
Industrial Corridor projects.

The Five Industrial Corridors:

[Link]. Industrial Corridor States

1. Delhi Mumbai Industrial Corridor Uttar Pradesh, Haryana, Rajasthan,

(DMIC) Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, Maharashtra

2. Amritsar Kolkata Industrial Corridor Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh,

(AKIC) Uttarakhand, Bihar, Jharkhand, West
Bengal

3. Chennai Bengaluru Industrial Corridor Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu,

(CBIC) Kerala

4. East Coast Economic Corridor (ECEC) West Bengal, Odisha, Andhra Pradesh,
with Vizag Chennai Industrial Corridor Tamil Nadu
(VCIC) as Phase-1

pg. 275
 [Link]

5. Bengaluru Mumbai Industrial Corridor Karnataka, Maharashtra

(BMIC)

Features of Industrial Corridors:

• Industrial corridors offer effective integration between industry and infrastructure, leading to overall
economic and social development. Industrial corridors constitute:
o High-speed transportation network – rail and road
o Ports with state-of-the-art cargo handling equipment
o Modern airports
o Special economic regions/industrial areas
o Logistic parks/transhipment hubs
o Knowledge parks focused on catering to industrial needs
o Complementary infrastructure such as townships/real estate
o Other urban infrastructure along with enabling policy framework
• The 5 industrial corridors are spread across India, with a strategic focus on inclusive development
to boost industrialization and planned urbanization.
• Manufacturing is a key economic driver in each of these projects. Industrial Corridors are expected
to play a critical role in raising the share of contribution of the manufacturing sector from
approximately 16%2 to 25% by 2025.

pg. 276
 [Link]

• Smart cities are being developed along these corridors. These cities, with state-of-the-art
infrastructure, will house the new workforce that is required to power manufacturing, in turn leading
to planned urbanization.

Delhi-Mumbai Industrial Corridor (DMIC):

• Delhi Mumbai Industrial Corridor (DMIC) is the first Industrial Corridor project which was
announced.
o DMIC Development Corporation (DMICDC) incorporated in 2008, is the
implementing agency for the project.
o DMICDC has been registered as a company with 49% equity of Government of
India, 26% equity of the JBIC (Japan Bank for International Cooperation) and the
remaining held by government financial institutions.
• The project aims to create smart, sustainable industrial cities by leveraging high speed, high
capacity connectivity backbone provided by the Western Dedicated Freight Corridor (DFC) to
reduce logistic costs in an enabling policy framework.
o These new cities will come up in the States of Uttar Pradesh, Haryana, Rajasthan,
Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat and Maharashtra.
o The 1,504 kms long Western DFC is from J N Port in Mumbai, Maharashtra to Dadri
in the state of Uttar Pradesh.
▪ The DFC project is one of the Indian Railways’ largest infrastructure
projects, undertaken by the government at a cost Rs. 81,459 crore.
• This is the first time that India has embarked on the process of planned urbanisation with
manufacturing as the key economic driver.
o The vision for DMIC is to create a strong economic base with a globally competitive
environment and state of the art infrastructure to activate local commerce, enhance
foreign investments and attain sustainable development.

DEDICATED FREIGHT CORRIDORS

Dedicated Freight Corridors:
● Dedicated freight corridor (DFC), as the name suggests, is meant to create a safe and efficient
freight transportation system in the country.
● DFC involves the seamless integration of better infrastructure and state of the art technology.
● Under the Ministry of Railways.
DFC consists of two arms:
● Eastern Dedicated Freight Corridor (EDFC):
○ It starts at Sahnewal (Ludhiana) in Punjab and ends at Dankuni in West Bengal.
○ The EDFC route has coal mines, thermal power plants and industrial cities.
○ The EDFC route covers Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Jharkhand and West
Bengal
○ The World Bank is funding a majority of the EDFC.
● Western Dedicated Freight Corridor (WDFC):
○ WDFC is around 1,500-km WDFC from Dadri in Uttar Pradesh to Jawaharlal Nehru
Port Trust in Mumbai, touching all major ports along the way.
○ The WDFC covers Haryana, Rajasthan, Gujarat, Maharashtra and Uttar Pradesh.
○ It is being funded by the Japan International Cooperation Agency.

pg. 277
 [Link]

○ Connecting Link for Eastern and Western Arm: It is under construction between Dadri
and Khurja. The industrial corridors of Delhi-Mumbai and Amritsar-Kolkata are also
being developed around both these DFCs.

Significance:

● Increased Capacity
● Decongestion: Around 70% of the freight trains currently running on the Indian Railway network
are slated to shift to the freight corridors, leaving the paths open for more passenger trains.
● Logistics costs will be reduced
● Reduction in the unit cost of transportation,
● Smaller organization & management cost,
● Higher efficiency & lower energy consumption.
● Faster movement of goods.
● It is environmentally friendly.
● Helps in generating more employment
Dedicated Freight Corridor Corporation of India Ltd (DFCIL):
• DFCCIL under the Ministry of Railways is a special purpose vehicle tasked with planning and
completion of 3,306 kms of DFCs.
• It is headquartered in New Delhi and is a Public Sector Undertaking (PSU).
• It engages in the planning and development, deployment of monetary resources, building, upkeep,
and the operation of the DFCs.

Q. What do you understand about a dedicated freight corridor? Discuss its significance for Indian
economy.

pg. 278
 [Link]

pg. 279
 [Link]

pg. 280