Principles of Integrated Pest and Disease Management 3(2+1)

Course No.
Syllabus (3rd Year, 5th semester)

Theory:
Categories of insect pests and diseases, IPM: Introduction, history, importance, concepts,
principles and tools of IPM. Economic importance of insect pests, diseases and pest risk
analysis. Methods of detection and diagnosis of insect pest and diseases. Calculation and
dynamics of economic injury level and importance of Economic threshold level. Ecological
management of crop environment. Introduction to conventional pesticides for the insect pests
and disease management. Survey surveillance and forecasting of Insect pest and diseases.
Development and validation of IPM module. Implementation and impact of IPM (IPM
module for Insect pest and disease. Safety issues in pesticide uses. Political, social and legal
implication of IPM. Case histories of important IPM programmes.
Practical
Methods of diagnosis and detection of various insect pests, and plant diseases, Methods of
insect pests and plant disease measurement, Assessment of crop yield losses, calculations
based on economics of IPM,Identification of biocontrol agents, different predators and
natural enemies. Mass multiplication of Trichoderma, Pseudomonas, Trichogramma, NPV
[Link] and nature of damage of important insect pests and diseases and their
[Link] (agro-ecosystem) dynamics of a selected insect pest and diseases. Plan &
assess preventive strategies (IPM module) and decision making. Crop monitoring attacked by
insect, pest and diseases. Awareness campaign at farmers’ fields.
 PEST: Introduction, Definition and Concept

 Derived from French word ‘Peste’ and Latin term ‘Pestis’ meaning plague or
contagious disease
 Pest is any animal which is noxious, destructive or troublesome to man or his interests
 A pest is any organism which occurs in large numbers and conflict with man’s
welfare, convenience and profit
 A pest is an organism which harms man or his property significantly or is likely to do
so (Woods, 1976).
 Insects are pests when they are sufficiently numerous to cause economic damage
(Debacli, 1964).

Pests are organisms which impose burdens on human population by causing

I. Injury to crop plants, forests and ornamentals.
II. Annoyance, injury and death to humans and domesticated animals.
III. Destruction or value depreciation of stored products.
Pests include insects, nematodes, mites, snails, slugs, etc. and vertebrates like rats, birds
etc.

Depending upon the importance, pests may be agricultural forest, household, medical,
aesthetic and veterinary pests.

A. Categories of Insect Pests

1. Based on occurrence
I. Regular Pests: Frequently occurs on crop.
i. Close association e.g. Rice stem borer, Brinjal fruit borer.
II. Occasional Pests: In frequently occurs, no close association e.g. Case worm on rice,
Mango stem borer
III. Seasonal Pests: Occurs during a particular season every year. E.g. Red hairy
caterpillar on groundnut, Mango hoppers.
IV. Persistent Pests: Occurs on the crop throughout the year and is difficult to control
e.g. Chilli thrips, mealy bug on guava
V. Sporadic Pests: Pest occurs in isolated localities during some period. E.g. Coconut
slug caterpillar.
2. Parameters of insect population levels
I. Economic threshold level (ETL) Population density at which control measure should
be implemented to prevent an increasing pest population from reaching the ETL.
II. Economic injury level (EIL) The lowest population density that will cause economic
damage.
III. Damage boundary (DB) The lowest level of damage which can be measured. ETL is
always less than EIL. Provides sufficient time for control measures.

3. Classification of Animate Diseases in Relation to Their Occurrence

1) Endemic: When a diseases more or less constantly prevalent from year to year in a
moderate to severe form in a particular country.
2) Sporadic: These diseases occurs at irregular intervals and location.
3) Pandemic: These diseases occur all over the world and cause mass mortality.
4) Epidemic or epiphytotic: A disease occurring periodically but in a severe form involving
major area of the crop. It may be constantly present in locality but assume
severe form occasionally.
B. Categories of Pathogenic Pests/Diseases
1. Based on plant part affected

I. Localized, if they affect only specific organs or parts of the plants. Eg. Root rot and
leaf spot
II. Systemic, if entire plant is affected. Eg. Downey mildew and damping off.
2. On the basis of organs affected:
I. Fruit diseases: In these diseases fruits are mainly affected E.g. Apple scab (Venturia
inaequalis).
II. Root diseases: In these disease, root is mainly affected. Eg. Root rot of papaya.
(Pythium aphanidermatum) and dry root rot of Chickpea (Rhizoctonia bataticola).
III. Leaf diseases: Disease is localised in the foliage. Eg. Leaf spot of cotton. (Alternaria
gossypii) and Powdery mildew diseases.
IV. Seedling diseases: Seedlings are affected in which stem and root tissues rot. Eg.
Damping off of seedling. (Rhizoctonia sp.)
3. Based on perpetuation and spread
I. Soil borne- when the pathogen perpetuates through the agency of soil. Eg: Damping
off (Pythium sp.), Seedling blight (Phytophthora, Fusarium sp.).
II. Seed borne- when the pathogen perpetuates through seed (or any propagation
material). Eg. Loose smut of wheat (internally seed borne)
III. Air borne- when they are disseminated by wind e.g. rusts and powdery mildews.
Rusts, powdery mildews, loose smuts bring about secondary infection through air.
4. Based on the signs and symptoms produced by the pathogens
I. Rusts: Caused by Basidiomycetes of the order Uredinales. Eg. Stem rust of wheat.
II. Smuts: Caused by fungus of order Uredinales, mass of black powdery spores and
grains are not produced. Eg. Loose smut of wheat caused by Ustilago nuda tritici.
III. Wilts: In this disease, the vascular system of plant is affected. Eg. Bacterial wilt of
cucurbits caused by Erwinia trachiephila.
IV. Powdery mildews: It is a disease of foliage, stem, flower and fruit. Eg. Powdery
mildew of grapes.
V. Rots: In this disease, underground part of plant is infected. Eg. Rhizoctonia and
Phytophthora root rot.
 VI. Blight: It is complete chlorosis, yellowing and browning which results in death of the
plant. Eg. Leaf blight of paddy.
VII. Leaf spots: It may be caused by fungi or bacteria, spots are formed on leaves which
results in complete yellowing and dropping of leaf. Eg. Septoria leaf spot in tomato.
VIII. Canker: Canker is a dead area in bark or cortex of woody stem. Ex: Citrus canker.
IX. 10 Anthracnose: an ulcer-like lesion that can be necrotic and sunken. These lesions
can appear on the fruit, flowers and stems of the host - e.g. Apple Anthracnose of
stems and or leaves (Cryptosporiopsis sp.).
X. Damping Off: it is a rapid collapse and death of very young seedling. Either the seed
rots before emergence or the seedling rots at the soil line and falls over and dies. The
most common genera involved are Fusarium, Rhizoctonia and Pythium.
XI. Scab: localized lesion on host fruit leaves tubers and other plant parts. These
infections usually result in a roughened, crust-like area on the surface of the host - e.g.
Apple Scab (Venturia inaequalis) and Pear Scab (Venturia pirina).
XII. Dieback : progressive death of shoots and twigs generally starting at the tip of the
infected plant part - e.g. Shoot Dieback of Apple due to Brown Rot of Cherry
(Monilinia sp.).
XIII. Galls : enlarged parts of plant organs, usually caused by excessive multiplication or
enlargement of plant cells - e.g. Camellia Leaf Gall (Exobasidium camelliae), Plum
and Prune Black knot (Apiosporina morbosa), Pine Western Gall Rust (Peridermium
harknesii), Clubroot - (Plasmodiophora brassicae) enlarged roots that look like clubs
or spindles.
XIV. Leaf Curls: curling, thickening & distortion of leaves - e.g. Almond Leaf Curl, Peach
Leaf Curl, Pear Leaf Blister, Maple Leaf Curl and many more caused by Taphrina sp.
Affects the blossoms, fruit, leaves and shoots of backyard peach and nectarine trees.
XV. Downy mildews: Symptoms appear as yellow to white patches on the upper surfaces
of older leaves. This disease is caused by family Peronosporaceae.
5. On the basis of group of causal organisms
I. Fungal disease: Caused by plant pathogenic fungi. Eg. Anthracnose and Smut.
II. Bacterial disease: Caused by plant pathogenic bacteria. Example: Citrus canker.
III. Viral disease: Caused by plant viruses. Eg. Rice tungro disease.
IV. Phanerogamic phytopathogenic diseases: Caused by phanerogamic plant parasites.
Eg. Striga, Cuscutta.
 V. Nematode Diseases: Diseases caused by plant pathogenic nematodes. Eg. Ear cockle
of wheat.
6. Based on Infection Process
I. Infectious -All the diseases caused by animate causes, viruses and viroid’s can be
transmitted from infected host plants to the healthy plants and are called infectious.
Examples: - Powdery mildews, Rusts.
II. Non-infectious - Non-infectious diseases cannot be transmitted to a healthy plant.
Also referred as non-parasitic disorders or simply physiological disorders, and are
incited by abiotic or inanimate causes like nutrient deficiency or excess or
unfavourable weather conditions of soil and air or injurious mechanical influences.
Examples: - Black heart of potato.
7. Classification of Animate Diseases in Relation to Their Occurrence
I. Endemic: When a diseases more or less constantly prevalent from year to year in a
moderate to severe form in a particular country. E.g., Wart disease of potato is
endemic to Darjeeling.
II. Sporadic: These diseases occurs at irregular intervals and location. Eg. Blights,
Rusts.
III. Pandemic: These diseases occur all over the world and cause mass mortality. Eg.
Late blight of potato.
IV. Epidemic or epiphytotic: A disease occurring periodically but in a severe form
involving major area of the crop. It may be constantly present in locality but assume
severe form occasionally. Eg. Rust, Late blight, Mildews.

Integrated Pest Management (IPM)

Introduction and Importance
India’s population has been growing at an annual rate of 1.8 percent, and is expected
to touch 1.3 billion mark by 2020. At this rate of population growth, the country would
require an additional food grain of about 2 million tonnes a year (Paroda, 1999).
Insect pests, diseases and weeds are the major constraints limiting agricultural
productivity growth. It is estimated that herbivorous insects eat about 26 percent of the
potential food production. To protect the crop losses from the pests farmers uses the chemical
pesticides. The continuous use of chemicals in the field which leads to environment pollution,
problems of insecticide resistance, secondary pest outbreak and resurgence further add to the
cost of plant protection.
Annual crop losses due to insect pests and diseases in India are estimated to be 18
percent of the agricultural output. Losses caused by specific pests may be higher.
Helicoverpa spp. in cotton causes losses up to 50 percent. According to Raheja and Tewari
(1996), H. armigera (American bollworm) alone causes an annual loss of about Rs1000
crores. Pesticides often kill the natural enemies along with the pests. With natural enemies
eliminated, it is difficult to prevent recovered pest populations from exploding to higher and
more damaging levels, and often developing resistance to chemical pesticides. Repeated
applications of chemical pesticide only repeat this cycle. At low yields, benefits from pest
control were not huge. However, as yields started increasing, pesticide use started becoming
widespread. Their adverse effects on the environment and human health also soon became
apparent.
The continuous use of pesticides acted as a powerful selection pressure for altering
the genetic make-up of the pests. This resulted in a much higher percentage pest population
being resistant to pesticides. At present, the number of plant pathogens resistant to fungicides
are 150. Resistance to insecticides is common and more than 500 insect species have
acquired resistance to the pesticides.

History of IPM
• 2500 BC First records of insecticides; Sumerians used sulfur compounds to control
insects and mites.

• 200 BC Romans advocated oil sprays for pest control.

• 300 AD First records of biological controls; Chinese used. predatory ants in citrus
orchards to control caterpillar and beetle pests.

• 1930 Introduction of synthetic organic compounds for plant pathogen control.

• 1940 First successful use of an entomopathogen; Milky Spore (Bacillus popillae) used
to control Japanese beetle.
• Michel bacher and Bacon (1952) coined the term“integrated control”
• In 1959, scientists discovered that aphids could be better controlled by reducing the
amount of pesticide used because the pesticides were killing aphid predators as well
as the aphids themselves, causing large-scale pest resurgence (Stern, et al., 1959).
• The concept of 'pest management' was proposed in 1961 (Geier and Clark, 1961)

• By 1962, when "Silent Spring" by Rachel Carson was published, serious concerns
about the disadvantages of pesticide use were widely raised. Rachel Carson and others
suggested that pest control methods other than chemical pesticides should be used in
order to protect wildlife, human health and the environment.

• Geier (1966) coined the term “pest management”

• Integrated Pest Management- In 1967 the term IPM was introduced by R.F. Smith
and R. van den Bosch.

• Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO, 1967) defined IPM as “a pest

management system, that, in the context of associated environment and population
dynamics of the pests species, utilizes all suitable techniques and methods in as
compatible a manner as possible and maintains pest populations at levels below those
causing economic injury”
• In 1985 India declared IPM as official Ministerial Policy.

• In 1989, IPM Task Force was established and in 1990. IPM Working Group
(IPMWG) was constituted to strengthen implementation of IPM at international level.
 • In1997, Smith and Adkisson were awarded the World Food Prize for pioneering work
on implementation of IPM.

Definition IPM definition by FAO (1967)

Integrated Pest Management (IPM) is a system that, in the context of associated
environment and population dynamics of the pest species, utilizes all suitable techniques and
methods in as compatible a manner as possible and maintains pest populations at levels below
those causing economic injury.
IPM definition by Luckmann and Metcalf (1994)
IPM is defined as the intelligent selection and use of pest control tactics that will
ensure favourable economical, ecological and sociological consequences.
Concept of IPM
Integrated Pest Management (IPM) is an ecologically based strategy that focuses on
long-term solution of the pests through a combination of techniques such as biological
control, habitat manipulation, modification of agronomic practices, and use of resistant
varieties. The systems approach minimizes environmental degradation, sustains agricultural
productivity, promotes economic viability in both the short and long run, and maintains
quality of the life (Charles and Youngberg, 1990).
Pest Management strategies include
 Reduce the need for pesticides by practices such as scouting/ monitoring,
 Use of resistant cultivars, timing of planting, and biological pest controls·
 Increased mechanical/biological weed control; more soil and water conservation
practices; and strategic use of green manures ·
 Use of natural or synthetic inputs in a way that poses no significant hazard to
humans or the environment.
Major Obstacles in IPM
 Although, IPM has been accepted as the most attractive option for protection of crops
from the ravages of pests, implementation at the farmer’s level has been limited.
 Low awareness and innovativeness of extension personnel and target groups
 Inadequate interaction between research and extension agencies
 Problem of timely and adequate supply of quality inputs, including bio control agents
and bio pesticides
 Complexity of IPM vs. simplicity of chemical pesticides
  The dominant influence of pesticide industry
 Non-availability of location-specific IPM modules for many crops
Essentials for implementation
 Availability of location-specific IPM modules, which are ecologically sound,
economically viable and socially acceptable
 High level of target group participation
 Area-wide dissemination strategy
 Measuring, evaluating and publicizing the impacts of IPM

Basic principles of Integrated Pest Management

1. Consideration of Ecosystem
Control of insect pest population is a function of the ecosystem itself by means of
natural enemies and other factors. Knowledge of the role of the principle elements of the
units is essential to an understanding of population phenomenon. The study of individuals is
of prime importance, their biology behaviour response to other members of the same species
and to other organisms and to biotic factors in the environment.
2. Pest Surveillance
Pest Surveillance and forecasting are having a vital part in the integrated pest
management. Surveillance or monitoring means constant observation of a subject i.e., a crop
or pest, and recording the factors observed, compilation of information obtained and
prediction of future events about pest population. Hence pest surveillance comprises of three
basic components.
a) Determination of the level of incidence of the pest species.
b) Determination of what loss the incidence will cause.
c) Determination of economic benefits or other benefits the control will provide.
The above information would be immense use in determining the need for a pest
control measure. Mere presence of a few numbers of pest species should not be the criterion
for pesticide application and there should be sufficient justification. Surveillance can provide
the necessary information to determine the feasibility of a pest control programme. It should
be a tool that assists pest management specialists in determining the actual factors that are
involved in a pest build up, so that the specialists can determine practices that will manage
these factors and prevent the initial build-up of a pest.
3. Utilization of Economic Threshold Levels (ETL)
The level of pest population is very important consideration for taking up control
measures. Pest population must be maintained at levels below those causing economic injury.
The economic threshold is the pest density at which control measures should be determined
to prevent an increasing pest population from reaching economic injury level. The
determination of these thresholds is a pre-requisite to the development of any pest
management strategy.
4. Application of minimum selective hazards
The application of chemical measures to pest population has to be in such a manner
that target pest populations are just kept below economic injury thresholds. By observation of
this principle the development of resistant populations of pest is avoided or delayed, the
possibility of resurgence of treated population is decreased, adverse effect on non-target
organism and amount of environmental contamination are reduced, and the cost of control is
also lowered.
When insecticide treatments are deemed necessary special consideration should be given to
(1) Effectiveness of the insecticide against most vulnerable life stage of the pest
(2) Employing an insecticide that will cause least disturbance in the ecosystem.
(3) Applying the insecticide in such a way that it will restrict its distribution to the area
where it is needed
Tools of Pest Management
The available techniques for controlling individual insect pests are conveniently
categorised in increasing order of complexity as -
1. Cultural
2. Mechanical
3. Physical
4. Biological
5. Genetic
6. Regulatory
7. Chemical
1. Cultural methods or agronomic practices:
a. Use of resistant varieties

b. Crop rotation

c. Crop refuse destruction

d. Tillage of soil

e. Variation in time of planting or harvesting

f. Pruning or thinning and proper spacing

g. Judicious and balanced use of fertilizers

h. Crop sanitation

i. Water management
j. Planting of trap crops

2. Mechanical methods
a. Hand destruction

b. Exclusion by barriers
 c. Use of traps

3. Physical methods
a. Application of heat - Hot water treatment
- Exposing of infested grain to sun
- Super heating of empty godowns at 50 degree C to kill
hibernating stored grain pests.
b. Manipulation of moisture - Reduction of moisture content of grains helps to prevent
from the attack of stored grain pests.
c. Energy - Light traps

4. Biological control
a. Protection and encouragement of natural enemies
b. Introduction, artificial increase and colonization of specific parasitoids and predators.
I. conservation of natural enemies
II. Parasites and Parasitoids
 Egg Parasitoids
 Larval Parasitoids
 Pupal Parasitoids
c. Propagation and dissemination of specific bacterial, viral, fungal and protozoan diseases.
5. Genetic methods - Use of sterile male technique

6. Regulatory methods - Plant quarantine

a. Foreign quarantine
b. Domestic quarantine
7. Chemical methods - Use of attractants
- Use of repellents
- Use of growth inhibitors
- Use of insecticides
Advantage of Integrated Pest Management
1. Fits better in National Economy
2. More efficient and cheaper method
3. Avoid upsetting the balance of nature
 4. Minimises residue hazards of pesticides
TRADITIONAL METHODS OF PEST CONTROL:
CULTURAL CONTROL
Definition: Manipulation of cultural practices to the disadvantage of pests.
I. Farm level pratices :

Principles and Methods of Plant Disease Management

The principles of plant disease management are generally based on identity of the
disease to minimizing the damage or loss below economic injury level. Methods for the
control of disease are classified as: Exclusion, Eradication, Protection and Resistance, and
later two more methods were included, Avoidance and Therapy.
Principles of Plant disease management are as under
1. Avoidance of the pathogen
2. Exclusion of the pathogen
3. Eradication of the pathogen
4. Protective measures
5. Development of resistance in host
6. Therapy of diseased plant

1. Avoidance of the pathogen

It involves tactics that prevent the contact of the pathogen on susceptible stage
of the plant and favourable conditions for the pathogen. This is achieved by
i. Selection of Geographic area
ii. Selection of field
iii. Choice of time of sowing
iv. Disease escaping varieties
v. Selection of seed
vi. Modification of cultural practice
i). Selection of Geographic area
 Several bacterial and fungal diseases are more severely infect the crop in wet areas
than in dry areas. Smut (Tolyposporium penicillariae) and ergot of pearl millet (Cleviceps
microsphala) are serious in wet areas. Growing of pearl millet in dry areas with irrigation
facilities can be avoided from smut and ergot diseases.
ii). Selection of field
Selection of field will help in the management of several soil borne diseases.
Cultivation of same crop year after year in the same field then survival of soil borne pathogen
is long and makes the soil sick. Ex: Red rot of sugar cane, late blight of potato, wilt diseases
of arhar, green ear of bajra, root knot nematodes, bacterial wilt of vegetables.
iii). Choice of time of sowing
Generally pathogens are able to infect the susceptible plants under certain
environmental conditions. Alteration of date of sowing can help in avoidance of favourable
conditions for pathogen. Ex. Pea and Gram planted soon after rain, when soil temp and
moisture level are high, shows high incidence of root rot, blight and wilt. Delayed sowing
will help in reducing the incidence of disease.
iv). Disease escaping varieties
The disease escaping quality of crop varieties due to characteristics of growth and
time of maturity e.g. early maturing varieties of Pea and wheat which matures early (by
January) usually escape damage from powdery mildew and rust.
v). Selection of seed
Selection of seed and planting material from healthy sources will effectively manage
the diseases such as loose smut of wheat caused by Ustilago nuda tritici, bunchy top of
banana (Banana virus-1), Fusarium wilt of banana (Panama wilt), whip smut and red rot of
sugarcane and virus free potato tubers through tuber indexing.
vi). Modification of cultural practice
Modification in various cultural practices like method of sowing, choice of crop, crop
rotation, irrigation time/method, application of fertilizers and soil amendment will help in
management of plant diseases.
a). Sanitation: Field sanitation including removing the host debris is effective in
significantly reducing the incidence of late blight, ring rot and leaf roll diseases of potato and
phomopsis spp. in soybean. Eradication of host and pathogen or rouging and elimination of
over summering or over wintering host or control of weeds also help for elimination of viral
and soil borne pathogens.
b). Tillage: Tillage help in loosening of soil hence provide aeration which is effective in
preventing/ against soil borne pathogen like Fusarium root rot of beans and Sclerotium
rolfsii.
c). Crop rotation: Crop rotation refers to the practice of growing different type of crops in a
piece of land and this practice play an important role in increasing soil fertility and crop
production, maintaining the soil health and controlling seed borne pathogens.
d). Mixed cropping: Fusarium wilt of pigeon pea is reduced when pigeon pea is grown along
with sorghum due to secretion of Hydrogen cyanide (HCN) by sorghum root and this
compound harm to wilt pathogen.
e) Inter cropping: Intercropping is a practice of growing two or more crops within a field in
order to derive the benefits of unutilized inter-row spaces, complementation, and competition
among the crops .Intercropping watermelon with upland rice suppressed Fusarium wilt in
rice.
e). Spacing: Sowing with optimum distance play an important role in disease management.
When sowing with close spacing results in high humidity among plants which can be
conducive for heavy seed borne infections. Disease caused by Cercospora spp. on pulses
spread very fast under crowdy conditions.
f). Method of sowing: Planting method is effective in increasing and reducing disease
severity, deep sowing of wheat seed increased bunt and flag smut diseases. When ginger
planted in raised bed, then incidence of Pythium myriotylum infection is less.
g). Selection of healthy seed: Planting seeds should be free of the pathogen and come from a
carefully maintained, generally pure block and selected from production fields and should be
cleaned commercially and treated chemically or non- chemically to avoid or eradication of
seed borne inoculums.
h). Adjustment of planting time: Choice the planting time when requirements of the host
and pathogen do not correspond and so the plant may escape infection. If winter wheat sown
early in autumn may escape infection of Tilletia caries and T. foetida due to plants pass the
susceptible stage before optimum condition for bunt spore germination. Similarly early
sowing of oat seeds in spring reduces the disease incidence of Ustilago avenae.

2. Exclusion of the pathogen

It means preventing the entrance and establishment of pathogens in uninfected crops in a
particular area. Objective of the exclusion is to prevent spread of the disease and this can be
achieved by:
i. Seed treatment
ii. Inspection and certification
iii. Plant quarantine
iv. Eradication of insect vector
i). Seed treatment
Eternal and external seed borne inoculums can be prevented through heat, gas or chemical
treatment of seed, tuber, bulbs and propagative plant part. The seed treatments increase the
seed germination and reduce disease development in the field.
ii). Inspection and certification
Crops grown for seed purpose are inspected periodically for the presence of diseases that are
disseminated by seed. Necessary precautions are to be taken to remove the diseased plants in
early stages, and then the crop is certified as disease free.
iii). Plant quarantine
Plant quarantine prevent the import and spread of plant pathogens into the country or
individual states by legal restriction, certain federal and state laws regulate the conditions
under which certain crops may be grown and distributed between states and countries.
Types of Plant quarantine:
1. Domestic quarantine: When rules and regulations issued for prohibiting the movement of
insects, pest and diseases and their hosts from one state to another state of India is called
domestic quarantine. For example, Bunchy top of banana present in Kerala, Assam, Bihar,
West Bengal and Orissa, Banana mosaic present in Maharashtra and Gujarat and Wart of
potato present in Darjeeling area of West Bengal.
2. Regulatory quarantine or foreign quarantine: In this type of quarantine rules and
regulations issued prohibiting the import of plants, plant materials, insects and fungi into
India from foreign countries by air, sea and land.
3. Eradication of the pathogen
i). Biological control of plant pathogen
In the current intensive agricultural practices where the adverse side effects of mismanaged
chemical agriculture are weighing more than their benefits, biological control is assuming an
important component of the modern agriculture for enhancing the productivity without
affecting the ecosystem.
iii). Removal and destruction of diseased plants or plant organs
The presence of diseased plant, alternate and collateral host in the field is a source for
maintain of infection chain of pathogen. The removal of crop residue and other survival
substitute of inoculums will help in eradication of pathogen.
i. Rouging of diseased plants
ii. Eradication of alternate and collateral host
iii. Sanitation
iv). Heat and chemical treatment of diseased plant
Heat and chemical treatments of diseased plant eradicate the pathogen present in the plant or
on plant organs. Root dip of vegetables crop like bringal, tomato and chilli in chemical
fungicide or nematicide is a method of sanitizing the seedlings before transplanting.
v). Soil treatment
In this method, the soil treatment with chemicals, heat and some cultural practices as summer
deep ploughing, mulching, flooding and fallowing will help to inactivate or eradicate the
pathogens present in the soil.
a). Summer deep ploughing: Deep ploughing of field during summer months expose soil to
hot weather which will eradicate heat sensitive soil borne pathogens.
b). Soil solarisation: Soil solarisation or slow soil pasteurization is the hydro/thermal soil
heating accomplished by covering moist soil with polyethylene sheets as soil mulch during
summer months for 4-6 weeks.
c). Flooding of field: If flooded the field up to 30cm deep for 8-10 weeks will help in
eradicating several soil borne pathogens due to creations of anaerobic and low oxygen
conditions in the soil.
d). Soil amendments: Amendments of soil with organic materials like oil cake, saw dust,
straw, and karanj cake will effectively manage the several soil borne diseases caused by
Fusarium, Pythium, Phytophthora, Macrophomina, Aphanomyces and Verticillium.
Beneficial micro-organisms increases in soil and helps in suppression of pathogenic
microbes.
e). Application of Soil fungicides: Spray or drench the fungicide in soil before sowing of
seed for eradication of soil borne pathogen like, Bordeaux mixture, copper oxy chloride,
Carbendazim and Formaldehyde etc.
4. Protective measures
If provided some protective cover for plant to face infectious pathogens For prevents
infection by means of a toxicant or some other barrier to infection.
i). Chemical treatment
The prevention of the pathogen from entering the host or checking the further development
after infection by the application of chemicals as foliar spray and seed treatment. Ex. Seed
treatments with Thiram + Carbendazim 2:1 ratio protect the seed from soil borne diseases and
spray Mancozeb @ 0.25% protect the crop from several air bone diseases.
ii). Chemical control of insect vector
Biting and mostly sucking insects may cause severe irritation and transmit causal agents of
various plant diseases especially viral diseases from infected crop to uninfected susceptible
plants. Spray of crop with systemic insecticide Imidacloprid 17.8% SL @ 0.5ml/lit of water
minimized the population of white fly vector of leaf curl of chilli and yellow mosaic of Urd,
Moong and Soybean.
iii). Modification of environments
The environment can be modified so that it is suitable for plant growth but not for disease
development. For example if aeration is increased in crop canopy then humidity decrease on
aerial plant parts, and become unfavourable for growth of pathogen. Similarly improving soil
drainage, changing the time of sowing, proper irrigation practices can all produce conditions
unfavourable to diseases development.
iv). Modification of host nutrition
Nutrient application affects the development of plant diseases under field conditions directly
through the nutritional status of the plant and indirectly by affecting the conditions which can
influence the development of the disease. The root rot disease of wheat and barley (take-all)
caused by Gaeumannomyces graminis can be effectively controlled by nutrition of the host
plant.
5. Development of resistance in host
Development and utilization of host plant resistance remains the most viable,
environmentally safe, ecologically sound and also less expensive technique for the
management of diseases.
i. Selection and hybridization for disease resistance
ii. Resistance through chemotherapy
iii. Resistance through host nutrition
6. Therapy of diseased plant
Generally cure of diseased plant or plant parts in most crops is not possible, but some
crops and fruit trees have been successfully therapy by chemical and physical treatment.
i. Chemotherapy
ii. Heat therapy
iii. Tree surgery

i). Chemotherapy
In chemotherapy, chemical treatments applied to eliminate the pathogen from the infected
part of the diseased plant. The using chemicals are mostly systemic fungicides and
antibiotics. These chemicals toxic to pathogen and provide temporary resistance in host plant
and they are known as chemotherapeutants.
ii). Heat therapy
It is an important component of healthy seed and plant propagative material production as it
has proved most effective in eliminating the pathogen associated with seed, tubers, bulbs and
graft and also many virus diseases.
a). Hot water treatment: The seed and propagative plant part like cane set is treated at 50° C
for 10 to 15 minutes (grain seed) and 2 to 3 hours (can set). The method is effective against
loose smut of wheat, smut of barley, sorghum and smut, wilt, leaf scald, ratoon stunting,
grassy shoot, mosaic and chlorotic streak pathogens of sugarcane.
b). Hot air treatment: The hot air treatment has been proved as eradication of plant
pathogen. If seed cane treated by hot air treatment at 54°C for 8 hours is effective against
grassy shoot and ratoon stunting causing pathogens.
c). Aerated stem therapy: Several fungal and viral pathogens eliminated through specially
designed aerated stem therapy (AST). The eradication of grassy shoot, ratoon stunting and
smut pathogens is recommended the treatment of sugarcane set by aerated stem therapy at
50°C for 1-3 hours.
d). Moist hot air treatment: This method is successfully practices in management of smut,
grassy shoot, leaf scald and ratoon stunting diseases of sugarcane with the seed can treated by
moist hot air treatment at 54° C for 2.5 hours at 95-99 % RH.
iii). Tree surgery: After removal diseased parts and pruning and cutting practice covering
the wound with fungicidal paste is helping in avoid pathogen infection. Basically this method
employed on horticultural plants.

Biological methods for disease management

Practically using microorganisms against plant pathogens started with the control of
crown gall with Agrobacterium radiobacter and seedling blights caused by Pythium and
Rhizoctonia with Trichoderma harizanum, Gliocaladium virens and Streptomyce sgriseus.
Mechanisms of biological control (Antagonism)
1. Antibiosis or Amensalism
Antibiosis or amensalism is microbial activities, in which one organism produce
antibiotics and toxins, which are volatile or nonvolatile in nature, and have a direct effect on
other organisms.
a) Antibiotics: Antibiotics are microbial toxins that can, at low concentrations, poison or
kill other microorganisms. Most microbes produce and secrete one or more
compounds with antibiotic activity. For example the strong antagonists Trichoderma
harzianum and T. viride secrete cell wall lysing enzymes, 6-1, 3-glucanase . Similarly
Gliocladium virens produces gliotoxin which is responsible for the death of
Rhizoctonia solani on potato tubers. Some strains of Pseudomonas fluorescens
produce a range of compounds, viz., 2,4- diacetyl phloroglucinol (DAPG),
phenazines, pyocyanin, which have broad spectrum activity against many plant
pathogenic bacteria and fungi.
b) Bacteriocins: These are antibiotic like compounds with bactericidal specificity
closely related to the bacteriocin producer. Ex: crown gall (Agrobacterium
tumefaciens) can be control by the use of related Agrobacterium radiobacter
 c) Volatile compounds: Antibiosis mediated by volatile compounds has been observed
in the management of soil borne pathogens, viz., Pythium ultimum, Rhizoctonia
solani and Verticillium dahlia, by Enterobacter cloacae. The volatile fraction
responsible for inhibition was identified as ammonia.
2. Competition: The majority of the bio control agents are fast growing and they compete
with plant pathogens for space, nutrients and minerals including oxygen. During this process,
the antagonist may suppress the growth of the pathogen population in the rhizosphere and
thus reduce disease development. The bacterial bioagent Pseudomonas fluorescens produce
extracellular, low molecular weight iron transport agents, known as siderophores which
chelate with iron in the soil, and make it difficult for the pathogens to proliferate.
3. Mycoparasitism: Mycoparasitism or hyper parasitism occurs when the antagonist invades
the pathogens by secreting enzymes such as chitinases, celluloses, glucanases and other lytic
enzymes. The mechanism covers different stages of interactions.
• First stage: Chemical stimulus of pathogenic fungi attracts the antagonist fungi and
induces a chemotropic response of the antagonist.
• Second stage: Recognition between the pathogen and the antagonist is due to the
lectins.
• Third stage: It is followed by the interactions between hyphae of the pathogen and
the antagonist. Examples of such interactions are T. harzianum acting against
Fusarium oxyporum, F. roseum, F. solani, Phytophthara colocaciae and Sclerotium
rolfsii.

Plant Growth Promoting Rhizobacteria (PGPR)

Bio control agents also produce growth hormones like, auxins, cytokinin, gibberellins
etc. These hormones suppress the harmful pathogens and promote the growth of plants and
simultaneously increase the yield. A group of bacteria that enhance the growth of plant
through nitrogen fixation, phosphorus solubilization or production of plant growth promoting
metabolites are known as Plant Growth Promoting Rhizobacteria (PGPR). Many PGPR
strains specially Bacillus subtilis and Pseudomonas fluorescens have a potential to be used as
microbial inoculants to enhance crop productivity due to their ability to produce
phytohormones.
Cross Protection
 The phenomenon in which plant tissues infected with mild strain of a pathogen are
protected from infection by other severe strains of the pathogen. In wilt disease of mint
caused by Verticillium dahlia inoculation of roots at least 2 days earlier with Verticillium
nigresces reduce the incidence of wilt. This strategy also used in the management of severe
strains of Citrus Tristeza virus.
Systemic Induced or Acquired Resistance
Various biotic inducers (e.g., fungi, bacteria, viruses, phytoplasma, insects, etc.) and
abiotic stresses (e.g., chemical and physical inducers) developed resistance due to the
formation of structural barriers such as lignification, induction of pathogenesis-related
proteins, and conditioning of the plants

Economic importance of insect pests.

The researcher reveal that maximum members of the Class Insecta are useful to
the human beings, besides the plants and other animals. In this chapter the researcher
tries to elaborate, on a few important ways in which mankind has benefitedfrom the
insects.
A. Benificial Insects
1. Insects as Pollinators
Pollination is often considered to be the most useful activity of insects, for
human begins. “The total value of pollination services rendered by all insects globally
has been estimated to be in excess of $100 billion annually (2003 valuation).” (Insect
biodiversity, 2009).
Insects pollinate almost all kinds of the flowering plants –trees, (fruit and nut),
shrubs, vegetables, herbs, crop plants, fibre and oil producing plants, ornamental
(garden) plants, leguminous plants, drug plants, etc. Active pollination of plants is mainly
carried out by the insects of the Order Hymenoptera (especially, bees). The common
insect pollinators include the bees, the flies, butterflies, moths, small beetles, thrips.
• Benefits of bees are cosmopolitan, not only in producing honey and wax, but also in
bringing about cross-pollination of many fruits and flowers.
2. Insects as Predators/ Role in Biological Control:
Biological control refers to the use of a living organism to control a species
pest. The group of insects which attack the injurious species (insect pest) are probably
of most importance, economically. Biological control through insects, involve the use of
the predator species parasite species and disease, to attack the harmful insects.
Conservation of natural enemies is an important part in any biology control
effort. This involves identifying any factors that limit the effectiveness of a particular natural
enemy and changing them to help the beneficial species. Biological control can be
implemented is by raising sterile males in captivity and then releasing them as and when
desired.
 A lady-bird bettle, destroys scale worms which are pests of orange and lemon trees.
 Epicauta is a blister beetle, it deposits eggs where locusts occur, and the larvae on
hatching enter egg capsules of locusts and eat up masses of eggs.
 Calasoma, a ground beetle preys upon many kinds of lepidopterous larvae which
destroy cereals and cotton.

3. Beneficial Parasitic Insects:

The larvae of Tachina and related flies are parasites of injurious lepidopterous larvae,
such as army-worms which are injurious to cereals.
Some insect’s parasitize injurious insects, they usually lay eggs in the bodies of larvae
and adults of harmful insects; the young on hatching from eggs finally kill their hosts. The
larvae of Tachina and related flies are parasites of injurious lepidopterous larvae, such as
army-worms which are injurious to cereals.
Larvae of hymenopteran flies and carnivorous wasps devour aphids in large numbers.
Chalcids and ichneumon flies are parasitic, laying eggs in cocoon and larvae of phytophagous
Lepidoptera. A panteles, a hymenopteran fly lays eggs in army-worms and boll worms, the
parasitic larvae gnaw their way through the skin of the host.
4. Insects as Bio-indicators:
A butterfly “acts as a litmus test of our environment, giving as forewarning of
pollution or other kinds of habited degradation.” Butterflies are generally regarded as
ecological indicators. Dragonflies and damselflies (Odonates) are also bio-indicators.
5. Insects as Producers:
 Certain insect species can be used to cultivate and/ extract dyes. The most
important of these are the cochineal insects. Cochineal is a red dye produced from the body
of the insects.
6. Lac –
This is a resinous substance, produced by a scale insect Laccifer lacca
(Cockrell, 1924).
7. Silk and Sericulture –
The techniques involved in the efficient rearing of silk worm and in silk
production together constitute what is known as ‘sericulture.’ Bombyx mori (L.), is
commonly referred to as the ‘Silk worm’ or the ‘Mulberry Silkworm’ as it feeds on the
leaves of the mulberry tree, or the ‘Oriental Silkworm’, as in the Orient, sericulture has
built up around this insect, and its secretion. B. mori occurs in different racial forms.

B. Injurious Insects
Many insects damage forest trees, growing farm crops, fruits and stored grain, the
damage they cause annually runs into millions of rupees. The number of such insects is
innumerable, they are mostly Lepidoptera, Coleoptera, Diptera and Hemiptera. Euproctis, the
brown tail moth and Lymantria, the gipsy moth are serious pests of shade and foliage trees,
their larvae are a menace and destroy forest trees. Myetiola, the Hessian fly is a small sized
midge, its larvae damage wheat plants.
The larvae of two Lepidoptera Chilo in India, and Diatraea in America bore into
stems of sugar-cane and cause a great deal of damage. Pyrilla, a hemipteran sugar-cane leaf
hopper sucks the juice of sugar-cane, both as adult and nymph, causing great loss of sugar.

Economic Importance of Diseases

The study of plant diseases is important as they cause loss to the plant as well as plant
produce. The various types of losses occur in the field, in storage or any time between sowing
and consumption of produce. The diseases are responsible for direct monitory loss and
material loss. Plant diseases still inflect suffering on untold millions of people worldwide
causing an estimated annual yield loss of 14% globally with an estimated economic loss of
220 billion U. S. dollars. Fossil evidence indicates that plants were affected by different
diseases 250 million year ago. The Plant disease has been associated with many important
events in the history of mankind of the earth.
The crop loss due to diseases is estimated to be approximately 30-50%.
Late blight of potato (Irish famine) in 1841-51
The late blight of potato, a diseased caused by the fungus, Phytophthora infestans, is
a famous example of what a plant disease can do to change the course of history. In 1845, this
disease destroyed the potato crop of Ireland where potato constituted the staple diet of the
majority in rural areas. The disease had started in Ireland, England and part of the continental
Europe as early as 1830 and was causing some damage every year, resulting in food shortage.
It was reported that in 1840 the population of Ireland was 8 million which was reduced to 4
million after the famine.
Coffee rust 1867-1870 (Sri Lanka)
The coffee and tea were equally consumed in England because these were available in
plenty from such occupied countries as India, Sri Lanka and Malaysia. Sri Lanka used to
produce maximum coffee in the world. In 1867, coffee rust attacked the plantations in Sri
Lanka and by 1893, export of coffee from Sri Lanka had declined by 93%. The economic
crisis forced the planters to cut down coffee plants and take to tea planting. When coffee rust
was spreading in Sri Lanka the science of plant pathology was just developing and control
measure of the disease were not known. The system of monoculture in coffee plantations of
Sri Lanka was considered a contributory factor in devastations caused by the coffee rust
which was not prevalent in coffee growing countries of South America.
Bengal Famine 1942 (India)
In the last year of Second World War (1943) Bengal had to face a serious famine. One
of the reasons to which this famine has been attributed was the loss in yield of the rice crop
due to attack of Helminthosporium leaf spot which had been affecting the crop for the last
several years. Situation was similar to the Irish potato famine but not so catastrophic. In India
wheat rust had been considered to cause a loss of over Rs. 40 million annually. In the year of
epidemics there have been a losses amounting to Rs. 500 million or more. Although
introduction of dwarf high yielding varieties has reduced the losses to a great extent even
now the farmers lose 8-10%of the expected yield due to rusts. The loose smut of wheat is
estimated to cause an average loss of 3% every year.
  The ‘Molya’ disease, caused by a nematode is another example. The disease of
wheat and barley prevalent in most parts of Rajasthan causes a loss of Rs. 30
million in barley and 40 million in wheat every year.
 Different smuts of sorghum are responsible for an annual loss of Rs. 100
million.
 5% to 75% loss in chickpea due to Ascochyta blight was reported from
Rajasthan during 1982.
 Wilt of pigeon pea causes 5-10% loss every year in U.P. and Bihar.

Pest Risk Analysis (PRA)

Pest risk analysis (PRA) is a science-based process that provides the rationale for
determining appropriate phytosanitary measures for a specified PRA area.
 It is a process that evaluates technical, scientific and economic evidence to
determine whether an organism is a potential pest of plants and, if so, how it
should be managed.
 Under the International Plant Protection convention (IPPC), the term plant pest
refers to all organisms harmful to plants or plant products including other plants,
bacteria, fungi, insects and other animals, mites, molluscs, nematodes, and
viruses.

Pests can be either regulated or not, and the IPPC recognizes and defines two categories
of regulated pests of plants:
1. Quarantine Pests
 It is any organism that is injurious or potentially injurious, directly or indirectly, to
plants or plant products or by-products of plants and includes bacteria, fungi, insects, mites,
molluscs, nematodes, other plants and viruses,
2. Regulated non-Quarantine Pests
“a non-quarantine pest whose presence in plants for planting affects the intended use
of those plants with an economically unacceptable impact and which is therefore regulated
within the territory of the importing contracting party”.
PRA assists with determining whether a pest fits either of these two categories
and the strength of phytosanitary measures, if any, that should be taken in response to
it. If it is determined that the organism is a potential quarantine pest of plants, the probability
of introduction and spread and the magnitude of potential consequences is evaluated using
scientific, technical and economic evidence. If the pest risk is deemed unacceptable, the
analysis may continue by suggesting management options that will reduce the pest risk to an
acceptable level. These pest risk management options may be used to establish phytosanitary
regulations.
Pest Risk Analysis (PRA) Pest risk analysis is a process consisting of three stages
a) Initiation of the PRA through identification of a pest or pathway, or review or
revision of an existing phytosanitary policy,
b) Pest risk assessment, and
c) Pest risk management.
Methods of detection and diagnosis of insect pest and diseases

Calculation and dynamics of

Economic Injury Level-
Pest density that will justify the cost of applying control measures.
Pest density is:
Above the EIL -damage exceeds the cost to control
Below the EIL -damage is lower than the cost to control
V xN
EIL=
Vx I
 C= cost of controlling the pest per unit area (e.g. Rs./acre)
N= number of pests injuring the commodity per unit area (No. of pest /acre)
V= value of the commodity per unit area (e.g. Rs. /acre)
I= percentage of commodity injured (% loss expressed as a decimal)
EIL is expressed as number of pests per unit area (pest density)
For Examples
Cost of controlling a pest/acre is 500 Rs with 800 insects causing injury on the
commodity. This commodity is valued at 2000 Rs /acre and the percentage commodity
injured by the pest is 10%.
Calculate the EIL for this pest
V xN
EIL= = 500x800/2000x.10 = 2000 Insect per
Vx I
acre
Main driving forces for the EIL is the cost of control and the value of the commodity
Economic threshold level (ETL) or Action threshold
• ETL is defined as the pest density at which control measures should be applied to
prevent an increasing pest population from reaching Economic Injury Level (EIL).
• ETL represents pest density lower than EIL to allow time for initiation of control
measure
Factors Influencing ETL and EIL
• a. Market value of crop
• b. Management costs
• c. Degree of injury per insect
• d. Crop susceptibility to injury
Market value of crop
When crop value increases, EIL decreases and vice-versa.
Management of injury per insect
When management costs increase, EIL also increases.
Degree of injury per insect-
• Insects damaging leaves or reproductive parts have different EIL (Lower EIL for Rep.
part damages)
• If insects are vectors of disease EIL is very low even 1 or 2 insects if found -
management to be taken
 • If insects found on fruits - Marketability reduced - EIL very low
Crop susceptibility to injury
If crop can tolerate the injury and give good yield. EIL can be fixe data higher value

Pest Monitoring- Pest Surveillance and Forecasting

Pest Monitoring
Monitoring phytophagous insects and their natural enemies is a fundamental tool in
IPM - for taking management decision
Monitoring-
• estimation of changes in insect distribution and abundance
• information about insects, life history
• influence of biotic and abiotic factors on pest population
Pest Surveillance
Refers to the constant watch on the population dynamics of pests, its incidence and
damage on each crop at fixed intervals to fore warn the farmers to take up timely crop
protection measures.
Three basic components of pest surveillance
 • Determination of the level of incidence of the pest species
• Determination of the loss caused by the incidence
• Determination of the economic benefits, the control will provide

Pest Forecasting
Forecasting of pest incidence or outbreak based on information obtained from pest
surveillance.
Uses
• Predicting pest outbreak which needs control measure
• Suitable stage at which control measure gives maximum protection
Two types of pest forecasting
a. Short term forecasting
b. Long term forecasting - Based on effect of weather parameters on pest
Objectives of Pest Surveillance
• to know existing and new pest species
• to assess pest population and damage at different growth stage of crop
• to study the influence of weather parameters on pest
• to study changing pest status (Minor to major)
• to assess natural enemies and their influence on pests
Survey
Conducted to study the abundance of a pest species.
Two types of survey - Roving survey and fixed plot survey
Roving survey
- Assessment of pest population/damage from randomly selected spots representing
larger area
- Large area surveyed in short period
- Provides information on pest level over large area
Fixed plot survey
Assessment of pest population/damage from a fixed plot selected in a field. The data
on pest population/damage recorded periodic from sowing till harvest. e.g. 1sq. m. plots
randomly selected from 5 spots in one acre of crop area in case of rice. From each plot 10
plant selected at random. Total tillers and tillers affected by stem borer in these 10 plants
counted. Total leaves and number affected by leaf folder observed. Damage expressed as
percent damaged tillers or leaves. Population of BPH from all tillers in 10 plants observed
and expressed as number/tiller.
Qualitative survey - Useful for detection of pest
Quantitative survey - Useful for enumeration of pest

Sampling Techniques
Absolute sampling - To count all the pest so occurring in a plot
Relative sampling -To measure pest in terms of some values which can be compared over
time and space e.g. Light trap catch, Pheromone trap
Methods of sampling
a. In situ counts -Visual observation on number of insects on plant canopy (either entire plot
or randomly selected plot)
b. Knock down - Collecting insects from an area by removing from crop and (Sudden trap)
counting (Jarring)
c. Netting - Use of sweep net for hoppers, odonates, grass hopper
d. Norcotised collection - Quick moving insect’s anaesthesised and counter
e. Trapping - Light trap - Photo tropic insects
Pheromone trap - Species specific
Sticky trap - Sucking insects
Bait trap - Sorghum shoot fly-Fish meal trap
Emergence trap - For soil insects
Stage of Sampling
• Usually most injurious stage counted
• Sometimes egg masses counted - Practical considerations
• Hoppers - Nymphs and adult counted
Sample Size
• Differs with nature of pest and crop
• Parger sample size gives accurate results
Decision Making
• Population or damage assessed from the crop
• Compared with ETL and EIL
• When pest level crosses ETL, control measure has to be taken to prevent pest from
reducing EIL.