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Beee III Unit Notes

BEEE UNIT III Notes

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12 views39 pages

Beee III Unit Notes

BEEE UNIT III Notes

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anandhanr668
Copyright
© All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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Download as PDF or read online on Scribd
sy mupuavy Ni Me Risin aebouk N- ype aomicondudsar & p- tyre , [Link] ie IN -teee 2 2 = ) hon a jjameulL Cumowne oF penton > impuuLy padded ko pee Semicond, ye a Catach n-type semi conduct. me { has ploc:rons. Thess y pismuthy phosphorous pound ane mony. bs ity consider The Formalin OF 4g, Noten mace by adeieg Xd arse ¢ Cas) inco sidicon ai). @ “ Ww) The arsenic. cieom hes K Seem | Five youLeanca. ROLETUTS » Loewe ker \ aysenic Hits in Fig. 5.7.1 n-type material formation = an . “ne silicon crystal in auch a coy Nak as- > its Foun velane eloctamms § From ea) oyu co- Youn: bonds ewith Fow! ee Pagal etoctons, adjawne Citican ALOMS . v) the Fifth eeckavn pond, “This APH pecs no chanw oF “forming otodm@n §=enk a3 na, a coyelont= conduuson pand as -froa eines: hia means “Thue each arsenic Eom addoct peg QLOCE TEN » gives ome TOR pis OF ynko sidicon atom sk The numben oF _ controttod + by tne Curnow Lo he ailiCone na 4 gifts Ne Free chumger, the irarem coed rhcusco ah 4 ON’ aonuy Fmpuntly arom atonares One Frag, caverns in A yew moreial . The rue ass ame. Mojo Sonity chomye comers « 2 oor Olocewmrns CRN be. mpurtry adcoct wh Oto cerMls nouting fee ane KGwN n-bypa Semiconduceer i - - wl then rhe vollage ceppliecd is ko n-Eype semiconducl ne. hich > cree Clo eas evyeulabto cue bO added impuuty. move ina direcion oF positive reminal oF voltage applied . his consibules Q currents . Thus-tne. Concheckion pre dominantly by Freo. Qtodrons, “The holes ane Mes electron cumnentz % dominams 07 Comat. . * Henw in n-type x«semiconducuceta Free elot=rmns cre Caled majoriby Camere. ~ chide he hows which ane gmaxrl fa Number cw Colle minority ccurriers. in Mumbon hen eon The note P-Eype = Semiconcduckor §- ‘ _F cwhen a smeatl amount oF br yatene impucuty 1 Addod bo a pure somiconduacr, jk & cabled p-bype gemiconduucr, %* Tho Enyalent Impaztty hees three Volant Oletnons. Gouttilm, boven, Cen) indium}, 3ucn cur IMpanuy yw Ceillod accopror UMpcoreny_ . + Formation oF P-Bype YY Eee: Adcliry Greatium Cora) (oo FGF zon, jMco gidicon (ST), LALA teetoncaoom * 80 Gralium atom "i, 88.1 ype nse oman Hes inthe giaicon Cmatal jin AUN oO. yy x Ce y Woe —rhat ks -tyee yalanw ecloittwns from covalene bands with -owe ae@cdjawat aidicon aroma. Being Shot ot one wleann, -the Fowen coyerlent bond jn jhe Nelante ahwris (Ncompleve, “he qesale Vercors) OY ww Cave his means -foet- each Gretrium oLeom atom added into letitan atom gives One ne A eumount OF Impeowey Conutoll 4 8 ey added bo The Sidicon. i — holes coe treated as positively vole changed | Conderucion 19 P-type Aemiconduecoer; - + PE pow seth P-type maneicel a Aupeaed fo an ebeaic Herc by Copp Ly g a Vortege, - ee ina valanw locrad, for the @anchutttan. ~Fhon rhe Nokes move and corm mainly yesponal btw. a in P-bype roconil * So the Cusmunt Condudion iB dure Co “fre Hotes, tk “The FYee etoctsroNs etre a clso prevene fO Conds dar band but cma very tors jn Numben, meajoity ceowuen SENS da & Noda, | lo oF hoes _ totes ~ “efoceT ns ~ ay i Ceooues Fig. 5.8.2 Conduetion in p-type material Phe. conduction 19 P= GEpe. Mekenic Ahown yn Fg. N . — . ‘| Explatn “pha PN- Sunckion piode- 2? ¢semicond piocde 2 pn = Junacion $= er ye The Ewo LyPpes or oxterinsi gomucond - Ey-pee 5 et he fl ocr & P-Eype — Hotes one majority a vpuriet et elscerons are munorTtY ange acum enn joriby ch -type ~ EutackTons COW. ies —_ oles core MINcMOy change came % cohen a P-type gomiconducccar & Joined Foe N-DyPe gomicondwecer he conratt gumrte te B Caed PN-yunction tot) PN Dioto. Fig, 5.18.1 Open circuited p-n junction gn a pn~genction, on P-Sicde “rare ete Leora Noor potes, white On N- Sido “Hrese coe Leowe fuumbon oF eledcrons, Hence ren A Non-unktorm cliskribttion OF cheersye —ecenviang DEH LLaION § ~ when Sucn non-cneterm cutAbution extabs hon tne change canriera SEane moving Frem high contontratio cevea kowands -Me Low ARLE Low Conlentration awa. Thes & Cetttod Dit +sion, \ ~n N= Te9-ton QQ) \z. positive immobile ions -*1loes chepfeesing exon iP side F es yeermbine with prea CLUIOND « + ccdelucionet Positively Cherryed | i holes). * Nogacive. Jmmdbite jons i &n peveyion , tne. Fee elects aettunicg FOr w-sido, yeEcombine with “nae Hodes oF tm ctom. we adeucionaL nog abave chemged Free otoctamns ), terion jon, cor) daptacion Lougen Cov) APA f 6 ch yagion *. ~ PN pN-gunckion with Nag ove immo bide change con-p sida, & positive mmboiete = CheUTge on N-Sido. There cure. no - Changye conrtars in tus - qeqion. The region iB daptove ck oer Th enoange Caniens hone coud dopuobion OH ion. Bammer poroniat © - Berio Fn equitibivm conducion , “the cloplacion ogion gees wiconad wpko cu Polite eunars No Poth olouevons «oF Notes can css FRO TCL Thus Ie aces ad % bowie * “The eveces poLentiat deetporen @ GACtoss the Geptorion Veqien cuhith AA A & bce, sna BH Eth ad boa porenciac, gf - o6V [ BPd . qe -o72V Cpe . : Cer. pivection OF comventined CeOUWUAE a aay abln ae rete cocthoda. Electrode Eetoerroda. ' 2 n-type Did electrode = piocka_ Plype cb) Symbol OF Ce _Dindo, —} Forward Bicsing oF PN sunckion Diode ¢ ~ ci) Pomunnd bicesng + ~ ire ed i if ~ yaxion bo \ Feacucend. biasing moans cOnneaing E i‘ yve and p-yegion Lo —Vve,ot te battery, fve cu n- vegi Bide ae Ply = {p= Vv VOHAGR PQ: Forwend biasing Figs Symboulc Rop resenbahion ) whan pen Junction ps ferweurd biased, cat applied yoricige is Joss than the beomedsy polemic’ home CeennoE be ouny Gonduion. “han ii) when the apptied VoHege becomes ees boouuin pokoncial, the Aagarive E@uninal OF oc ey pushes Me Free erectron’ Fyon N LO Pregion. (S¥y- posicfve Lenmmat pushes te hoes From p bon voszion, TT) Thar, hots gue Tepetledl by Postenve Lenminad} and cnoss ne Tunckin againsl- besvudn Porontiat, iv) The eppliest voltege Gvenceme ne bemier Pokenial. Ths yea ese tial with OF alapletion region Hole current # lectidn current "Curent limiting resistor oo Direction of conventional current ee Electron movements WAS Forwand vortege Increase ar a peat Value the deptakion wegion becomas ¥ UL OL Neurrow. sacn “Pere Leoge Noor charge CaOmMiors Can ofoss phe. Sinai. , Yi) To Large noor Majmty cemiers comibue —O__crinsteny= Bet og *Eorcwerid peor ee biewing oF P-N Dunceion Diode; - Reverse biasifg means Connedim p-ragion FO ~Y and n region EO ave Of} ine beustory, R RQ. Diocla A K = (+ —_l Mu ona v ca) Revorse biasing cb) sym boelic Ropresonbuaon , ) when he P-n Junction fs POvonae biased the ave kemminals ceebYacEs The hoes in me P-THt0N,, cuboy From ne Twocsun, Ti) The posikive. Fomminak cteb Years +e ren eters in the n-region euway From pho. JUACION , - @ FD No- charge canrier wK AbL2 Eo anoss the TuUncy iv) both elocesrurs & holes move awe "From -yne Junucion, +e. depderion Teton uwidana _ immobile ‘immobile em ee poave on sone oxte evegion pxtegion. ona peleniweeeeeee ion region widens in reverse bias Fig. 5.17.2 Depleti Tho Rovense = cuppent Flows duo [eo minority enenge eanrriers twhich cow 8meut 0 num be). pene Reverse current ja ativays oruy Smdtt vpne |= HLeeTONS EN PSide @nd holea ON | N-Ajiae come mune oy CNerge Camiora, * which Constitute “He cower in’ Yernse fpreeseck __ Cond ucion « V-2 chodeetoussics OF PN- Junckion Diode 4 ~ Cucin-voltage }- (or) - ge Dynamic Tesi atten . Ve ac eg cuiy kOe conc, ppp-ticatcion Zener diode AS vollage fegttol wy gears e, ij , Wun pg aid - Tatmae 7 Sa B repusused sap Roe jens = Vv eas TR yf eee Zener breskdoivn Brohing of covalent bonds is due to tic fickd ach zener diode, the import The various important a zener diode are, al Zener Voltage Vz of Vz voltage across a zener diode remains constant as long as zene 's operated in its zener region. {t the zener region. It is specified at a specific value of zener test current denoted as Izy and has a standard toleranee of 0%. | 2. Zener Test Current Izy 3. Dynamic Zener Impedance Zz ot Zzy This is a.c. zener impedance which is the ratio of A Vz to ALz. It is the reciprocal of 1 slope of ‘Some manufacturers specify this can carry safely without : ; current. NONI HAIADOAS™ tng tut a hondys CO ae vy —Onirdy, ERonsiSTOR Dy rsseers- € Trane + Raxistor) 4- A pipaan SJunusion “1 ya naistor CBI) wa thus - a Areowminal geomuconduccers Govie® in whch the operat on. dapends on the ineoncecion OF beth rafersity cond. erA ANd hanw the Nome BipolLa7). 98. minority cout + APRLiCcLion ‘- & Ampuuions, OSctteukor qonuks, and ara gwitch ina pigitat cuicLues + COMpULOns - earollites. and otnen moedezn communication Systioms - wrypes OF TYCUNgISEOT T~ 4 © NPN D2« PNP construction oF NPN ¢ — ! tT a = = wlel nN L B NTN | hy Ey (e EK, 6B | } conscruccion symbol Two Diode Analysis “CNP, - 7 oiminal - Emetol Base , coltector, = Junuion = Emieo! pare undson (Ty), & collectey - prise sluniwion C32). ecomicruccion OF PNP &> a | 5 3 ta 6. Bue Ef | a Bf} P rp Bit c pin] p - ale Pons L- P EON = [e Two DIOL comicratsion ~PNP ApslLyst § pe Aveo ¢ C, &, B ; yey Low kevel~ Bare ping Cn 1. _Dopping 2 E, © hex level ~ Collector : . > eed EMUee?, hiyh Level Very @ "pening OF NpN F)cuLsish OFS 1) Vigen Lhe. Foren bias» applied bp & emaeten BIC. Junction. s Royerze bias, apptred the coileckor Bare gunccion. ci) A LoE OF electYons From Ehe eTULTer Jezion LO Crossover [fo Lhe Base YeZiON, Cty AS 4he Base Vegion 5 Ligne-ly doppect certh P-EYpe Tmpwwy, ine fumben oF nodes in athe p- region Yous Smetts and hone te Noor Ctectronsy eombine with Ire hates fn We P-type base region js also vou Smoul, VBE ~FB Ciy) Hence Fow eledeyons Combing ewtth holes Lo cenytitate @ base crooon: Tp, Cy) the emai ting eloctrons C mere thengsz) Crssuvey NEO “Hie, Colleckoy Yegion bO Constikcre. a colleucs Cwnne Ic, . [ te: orc | poration oF PNP Transistor’ - Foracuid bis copped bo Fhe | cy Fg “phe pnp 7 YON iSLO¥ emert on Base JUndion OF a a Aor oF hotes From the wemecto ryegian EO Cyossoven LO Base region. Ci) AS the Base Yeqion Lighety doped witn N- ype intpcouby, The pwmbon ef Weuerons tn cht. Baye Yegion 4 vou gmat. Cid) lene the dumber of Boles Combined eloceros inthe N-"ype base yegio w% Use view gmake, ay) Hen@ Few hotes compbinsd with olectvons Eo cmstibuke G base cued: Tp, i. -. fF 05 05 Coos with > o> c oy o- | oe | vec-RS ale cy The Yemeni ning hoes arter= than 45 7) Crossoven IRto the cojleuor yegion ro CON a | colieckey Cusvwnt« | CVI) hus Ino collector cunnont- Gnd Reese, Guaoun: when Swomed wp Fives the emeeey CuTIMUs o | er terty | Ww ml &) Wpes oF Configuration : He pmmont Rd mtlOl 4. common Base 2+ Common E Collean ‘OR 0 ~ SLipian Iho common Base comtigunal , ~This 1s cso catled grouncteck Bove enigon n Po-tnis conti guecivn , omuncor (Ine inpur kerming 4 collector & (ne output Lemna and Bare ee commen tEonminel, Thpur Chanackwua aT cao — (SE commen Base “ con-tigurcetion % To dwkermine “te Inpur chenaueusern , “the collector- Base voltage Cvceg) & KEPE Conseane GE WHO Volk. * Emitter cucu Te ls inereued Frm RIO IN Suubmbte equel steps by ineveasing VER, + ThA & ‘Yepeared Fer fone +ixed Values OF Vee, A GWE drawn between emt Cored Te and Omertel Bere voltage VERB ce Comstane- ¥eg, te > cma) VOT vcpeoY -y Vea =O / Erutten Bose Junction Ferwend Biased a4 shown fn he chonadows iw, Tipae sop YER CW) “ihe Juneion behaves asa Forward bicwed a Diode Sothak ometOr curTwne TE ¢nurooter yp idly, with Smate Increase in omutter Buse volHAge VER, whon Vep i inoreased Kkeoping yeR Contant, | the width OF the Bese Yorion wine dacmoase “us etfeur Yesutes in con invmease OF TE, “Therese, “the Crowe Shett Lowerds ne toe as Veg ie if jnureased, OEP UE Chanaa: oustics 6 - To ceesiming Ie OWEPUE ChandUOUsLis, Ne SMES! Cusvene TE f& Kop] constant Gt Surable Veuluw. by Adpusting jhe temibten Base VOItOE Yep , & Then Von & increased IN Stutebto eg uo Steps and “tne i Te ® Persad Fey @ach voli Te active. veyicn ——> 4+ Thuis repen Sma Aer ols nic yoy cs — ame Te, ama - ma * Now-no Cwiy ee To ven You ane Plotted ! OIL RT OTIS ¢ f \ vcecy) Tor Consten: Vvedliws OF Te Ve oe Acdkive ea ton * urpat- Cheanad ens. ER- Fe, C€R-Fe Sabuncksion region; ER 2cR - FoTW pias Cuk-O Pons. EeB2cCA- RO yous BL, © BARAT tadeur' y= As Ihe Cottecter voltage ¥ec & 3 uo a inemeas: +ne yeyense hicts, The Apacs ehesge att Bw Celteckor and Bete LOnde EO (Nowease , cwith Me TesUtk that the effecive widin oF The Bese docworses. Ths dependency ot bee -wittdh On Collector Fo-emkLen voltage 1 Known cu Eanty eek, mado Lo” Tihés damcue IneHeccive base-widtn has Pwo Comme an ws © oe —— Ci) Thane is lesa Change toy wecombinatim within te bese ezine enw » xX iNvreoues with Tncreasina |vepl, Gi) For Cxrvomely Large velrages, the wffeceire bose widin may be Yeduad ¢ Conusing Voltage Dreaxdown In he Erensiscer. “Wk pheanavencn PUNdh- thrrcusy . Pooneurneron ¢ ~ Impeaanw Chrh)t - _ » Yep Cconsecum= ; Ade puis ADNAN © hon)*- = AT: : hos = S 2s Te conacont= Avea Ce and Cusment Jain Chtby + - ‘ Hh = Arte = SES Vee compas: cs Ate A> Rowenrse voltage Gain © hr) i~ Hoge gai : 2 bros SY¥EC/A ves , TE Combes Ee erie 2) @ Common emit Con tiqunation - 7 fn tus contiguncin, inpue Oppied petwuen Base and emuteon ,and oukpar & Leen yom Collecter cend omtector, ene rhe emeton OF Ma ETansiseor (2 Common LO both, INput cnd owkput eerewEs, enw the Name Common Erutten Comtigunation, Tume) Cpr) common - Emecten configuration, Ghpuk Chemackoustics ¥ TE HAN Comve berween Mmput vottege VAE Chu Lo emitter yolteige) conc Bese Comment (1B) Cu Conskcent- colleckos- ‘ermucten (Ver), i X~ Vet, Y-T_R Vee- Costar qe _=5V Ci) The base cwmen: VCE=20V incrteued FrOM eno in 25) use SLeps by i Memeccsi9g VBE. — VcE-cmstant , Gi) The veluue oF Ver fs noted fer each Velie oF fs, = cal Ors Avat VS VBE Beae~ emutto7t Vo tee Bae vrei Reales fer Cif) This procedure 15 VEPS yatuos OF Yer, EbB- Junio & FB. and Teoccion » CNS VEE=o — behewes 4erwerid biased ctiode, . LOLI ’ i the wickin oF cep : CV) Vee inewecrsed , ovine bios egion rs inemensed. ¢ uncon Ne : vegion Us reased c : ao epee vo! Collects to Bese Junction), ene : width OF Ihe base tyite cdecreose, PMUs ef foe Ceurses a deormase jn-He hese cevvred f73, evi) Nene, bo get the game Verltee OF Th cus thee | For VCESO,vge shoutd be inercesed. Thewetone, —yhe Cunye SNejts Lo Me Vigne cus ver PNurecues. GV ouepar eheneckerstits | - at AS veECu CB ~Cupute Chase clMuscrcs . X-axs- Vee, Yaxd- Ce ct) Tp-conseemt , he magnitede OF Collectcay -emtrre7 cit) yoHuge Ver & inwessed iM Suceebye — @q rec steps From wee and the Collecter cooment Te WB Moved tw eath setting Vcr, Clit) Now Me Corves OF Te verses Ver ane plocted roy cleyforente COTS EG Vall oF eedares. aaa i i _ \ *%) The oWkpu: Cheorateeuati@ OF Common emute7] com figeorecion Conietks oF 3 vegion, & pute TEYION Setkumeucion cub'~ O14 + cy Aceve. TeYion | - Jeu Emutorte Base. duneien JEB)- Forward Bid, Tey _ poyerse,’ biased, Ia. The colleckor Cwount yiae muvee Sharpty with nerecesifg Ver in ANG Lihecur Vozion OF Cubpule Chetackousti ts OF CE -Lransistor, | Ciy_Saueeoreusion: Yegion 5 “Tees & Jews - Ferme biased The satunation vous CF Usuoutty Yanges blw Oly Ic0 0°23. citi) cur- on Tegion t- paren oop eC Sy) conus sea piased - Transat Pane NOLO ¢ ~ ele — i hie= ANBE yer constant Ate Be CurpuL ADMUECUN Ce Choed.~ hoe = AT gg conxeae AVcE ce Fetwand cusowal gen Chre) .~ SAAR CUI as on ees hie = Ate ATB | Dy Reverse voriege gain Chre) r= | bre = Aver ; | —— 7 FR Comaceumte 7 VCE constcune: AYce Vet, dosgnared Veet seer), Fagan eR Bipolar Junction Transistor 73 2.6.3 CC Configuration mt i in the com- ‘The circuit diagram for determining the static characteristics of an NPN transistor in mon collector configuration is shown in Fig. 2.13. Fig. 2.13 Circuit to determine CC static characteristics Input characteristics To determine the input characteristics, Vgc is kept at a suitable fixed value. The base-collector voltage Vgc is increased in equal steps and the corresponding increase in Ips noted. This is repeated for different fixed values of Vgc. Plots of Vgc versus I for different values of Vgc shown in Fig. 2.14 are the input characteristics. Jo) 041-23 4 5 Vem 44 CCinput characteristics the common emitter configuration. Je(mA) 0123 456 Fig.2.a5 CC output characteristics Output characteristics The output characteristics shown in Fig. 2.15 are the same as those of : | A operational Ampliffert - oporrarfoncl cumpltHien % a basic ctoalo device wed for Conserucking methemeatical oportions Such cy adelufon, subtroition, muLliplicakion , Prveqvetor, Cod pitjeroeiakoy ek. and TA AS: 7. The posicive - symb jnals<- Sp-amp symbol and TARE soneg a c |saoeat oe ube Lenin io yowrage ermine | Ris vee cons FV a | gon- 3 vee a The Regauive supply vortege Femme word ~vee Cor) —V | We 3 The owkpue eer mi new | Ay The inventing Fp kenmiml, peat ek | as Negarive, | 5. The non Foventing | mommed as posittye npue applied EO Cnveuirg Lewminal + - input orimd nee _5 Tnveted OP vily Be a Ve yf — ww tth res peck bo [put « A aNee x (eh phase shite “the IMpu cue govencing pat Leiminal wesetes 17 cue) OULPWE. cpposite polarity Couneiphy Tnpuk opplied to non Ervaeing kenmenal { - \ ice 4 eno phese ahepe vin vin Net. . “ihe HpUe UE non Tnyercing iMpute tenminal youutts in the gome Pokey Cphase) Owepiee . | Pdeal op-cunp ¢- qaoal op-me ps bastceutty cn cumpl tie? which amplifies Me Auttotence blw “rhe Ed C cu | jnpur Signals. tence i & cated tne detForeac me compte] + $7 cTdeat Vo dt V)~¥. i autean Al Vy Vo) a . oo |_| 6 Bs a aL yo pn AST prnwunat_srein 0 A, Ad- he ge cotIh ewhich depen ample areplrHes the, detpenene bjw two IU signals. Hence ik b& catted clerforontial gain. Vd = ~Yv id= V\-Y2 “Nd _ df mene yo Hage Vo = fa Va : Vo - ofp volt eg® iconmen meds ae input signers bs Avenege Jevel of two red ai Yo catted Common moda signet denot Yo = Wve oo Vo oT al cutpat OF curd dey { Onrial ssed CO, Can be expres a Vo = faAYat Ne Ve, Bd comMoN Node RETECTION RATIO S~ f ampltior the ability et om op-amo Ee yejeck a common mode gignet B express ed by a roto couthed Cormmen moce, yejection “Veucio clunoted @ CNRR Cor) p cues | in AB oA MPR | cer inde =2° tog AE | de | } peal op-amp —chariaa-oustics ¢- ly 4 me : [os ort Pe i ees fle ta) Infinite Vovage Jain Cha =) ; al open Te & donoted as Mor. Tt der peronti Loop gen and i$ intinike -teran Weal IP~ cup « impedance CRia =") f- cb) Pntinike input fi av orod cus Rin ed 6 the IRPUe imped cunte, Tntinite ter an Ideal SP RP. ofp ‘impedcunte CRo = 6) + : “rhe clp Impedance is denoted cu R, end & Oro for an idwak- OP uP. Yoltou jhe Smadt ourpue yoltoye osfset vettage e J 5 la ie amg ie The presente ol “provcughy V,= Vo =0 3 called a0 iL B wero for an ideal OP” ce tinike band wietrh 6 Bw v) yey uence b+ Ppreatieny ce) be =the. range perer mane 8 Satis-fo crea py, caued S The. Pegs ofan * al op-cunp & over) whicd ~WNe cmplit en its bend evict - jrrti nf te. c MRR The Yatio of cletercatiol gen and Csmyon mode gain & clefined G3 CMR. Thess Tatmite CMER 07 ae ‘ideal CPp-amp CnswULr “WIO. VALE oo) * Tyhak “ine ehenges TN We CMP with the changes in Ths ENS Wes Vorage Occur SimucLong os Yy Hire pur Voltage. Ch) No effec of Cemperate Ci) power Supp4y peyocen Ratt eC pSPR 56)? ks RY [Link] pa oveusiy_ Amen : -covidos @ Phe eT qmpilien which P ey, 1M An shett OF Igo, bokwenn ipUk cer) output i called Lavery Ampliti\ y B-8 D cundad walso ak ground pocentiag, fiom ‘Ihe contept OF vivEwal ound. Zo Yn=O.- | te | | — | T= Vin- Va : | [ At = Mn-o 2 vin! eas vazo) —9¢0 | = | &___e el _7 OP-amp input cwnen: i, clays wie hence entive cumin: or Pars]s ~rovcugti the Rosiskanle Rt. | ~ Gutpar side considering “fre clivection of Cuovuent | - We can = Tu €1 260) we gee ate 69 2697 We ger Ri RE (Gein with Tet bag Rr CGain wit | | Min = Vo Ly | | | | - Te oar Ta Re —_____ LR woth Join of the amplifies colle Regarive. Sqn incticakes thou: are Pe lanity oF cutpuc § ‘ Cppesite bo the Gf iMptue . Foyip Hence Ck catlect Tnvercing amplifier , \ {Tp ‘le | n pp | 7 ry time = ky -pime ck) D yo i _phase shit oF [80° [2+ Nen- Tnveneing Ampltfien © — See | An Ompitfien cohich cumplifies “Me put vores Preclicing any phase shite bliw inpuz and deat Called Neon - Tnvouiny cmplitien, us — inpur applied, ko, The non - investing input Lexminas B- 1 potential Vin A Same Os B iN potential which tw Vin, From “Hu EY Nen Toveuing Amplifier conape oF virtual ground. From the Guepuk Side we can Vaz Va = Vi ie We Can write, ie, Nora te Vo~ Vin so, \ RS CAs Va= Vin) cn AE The Thverting teiminal T=Vn-© — Vin ops Va= Vin) dap Rr ore crs Va ds oe] ine P - sign indicares -fnek tree & NO | phase shyt between IMpuk ant CurPue, | vin VP Amplriion aluays complies ° simett) —yoitage UvailbIe to is Y non © nveanng t-enminel by 0 Od lp q ) Nohewse, tne factor, shat a A d hee Cut &r,\ Hence Vo =(u Ri Vv | 9 ime CED RY), Ve hae Tako rakors te ‘ - B- Grounded = \~ rvound. potenticl from the Contepl of 4 \ virtue qround , ; v . . Vn=0=%R lp coment: 18 22710 Y cuore fT Plowing “Howugh Ri, also flows A Cy, cy Shown in yg From impur Steg, We CON wTIke From impur stele, We COM TIE t= Vin- Va = Vin © V, Ry “RT : Poor ourpur Side = Ta ¢y dC Vn - Yo TH]: opamp. Fat Sa cdor ) Cau “The Ci 262) vin - Te =~ eS cha tare pacing born stokes (fe eure = Cy ae -ce Cie) [ ve . Ro od dua oO bo — Veo 7 Ko dt +I 7 f 6 on [vin Ae reco) | ~ sign [Se Phewe pe Bee shige | _-Erpue and owrpur Wee forms: Rare aka ‘i ip signal ‘ ' ; lip signal vet =~ | Yqceree “fa due - fet vote) Ss rime L @ 2s Time (Od : w = -afe} -— Vin (E}= A for Exo (J, =-Ae eles =o tu LiLo slope Re wave IMpeul- Ventty= Vm SinWE = am cost _ : P co Pon b= -[vinat ‘ 7 Vol Je VoCt) = ~V¥m (eset ) 2 f Vn SINWE —w wn 1 pit orentiak oy = NW i Node BO Grounded Ry _ A- abe Ground potonial Vn =0 my U5 ad ~- €(p aun: ww We10- — ce Vo © di Flows sprotough “He RE + Fig: ep-amp derfewearielet Prom tne input Rid. We cc tonite, ae Vin- i a, =e, dC¥in-Ya) 2 dvin 39 dr de Fram CUtpuk gid, we Con wrile T= On D2) Equeve ta 4 dog =o, 5. F ae Ri we = trp AVin | clei 9 03) S CO, Rp Time Vole [ constant ao § att) a ee lee ne 7 > CE) fl inpue CsLep sips Vett) ry 7 > CE) Nini Le spike Curpte ¢ spike) ° topute < vit per b2o eee Vintt) = Ym Stace afp_ oy derpocnciaten gis -d wate) voll) = aia = = 6 | ae | hk. sin at) \ Mere ea 2 TY ws Cos te al [ww oseutaer *- | C — ae & coakainty one oO} “Me MOSE The Sine wUCINe a -fundcemenrad wewvecterms «A veaiely oF GTauts cond peckaigaes ewe becn devetopecl yor Me gyenencctien o4 sine Ware. The chy cules called ascillencrs- ' the dyuuk — worl as con osdiliceecs Pes Fo Seki Lue conduions Catted Bar khawen condi GY) wsed bo genemcue gine woye cole Bar khacesen eaiewuon, The Bankheusen exfkevion stares thee + The kota phese ghee around gq Loup, cu the Signal pyocects -frem inpuc “frouyh amplitiey, 4ecel bac Aerwcrk hack FO pur again, Complomencey a ov, i predsely 9% cer) 3bo", J fre C23 “The mf rutude Of THe preclude of Me open Lov cin of sie ampeden Cn. Meg rutucde ot the ~feedbag facta Bb ay Cie) jJapl=t ae : TE consists Cb an canpls twecLbac Neboocalt wesistea R) cites § CC), I wat and « F ve Vez st Conmsis i rad OY cond — Ge A basic Re Petwok Shown jp fg. 1) wilich Cukpur is Een ACvss R. wohicte ils pheaer chicgyscem snewn va hg From te PPcacy cbasyraim, it Cag be Son Mag aon + Heads Hupub Voltage Vi by arate 6. As cup wilaye YR Bi Pheae wito sr, 94 also Meads Vi by angle - “the Phu ange e Con he ach wrod A phot Re Sewing prepa vate ol Rte FY — 4 Re PHBE Shite of al(cy ny a tH rE al oo “rte “Pecclistc, — papevorg tee f i CO used hers hee Re = is0 pneu 20 opnected in cee Yudesy isheye G ED) Cocke — pheashit- Ge oe G 4.62 Basic Electrical, Electronics and Instrumentation Engineering From figure 4.50, the voltage at node “ is calculated as Then, the output voltage V, A “ } ; vale fe) The output voltage of digital to analog Sunt of the weights represented by the switeh Advantages converter is proportional to the hes, 1. High resolution, 2. High accuracy, 3. At requires only two values of res Z of bits of digital input stors, Rand 2R, regardless of number 4.13 ANALOG TO DIGITAL CONVERTERS Analog to digital converter is a digital network, which converts analog gnal into digital signal. ‘The basic block diagram of analog to digital epnvertes s shown in figure 4.51 Start | | Eoc ,}-— 4, Analog ‘i input V, noe Digital output 1 Figure 4.51 When analog input is given, an output binary data of d,, dy produced as function of D. D = dQ 4dy224...4d, 2" nesstnasnerettieanioness | s and Cl iti r na 9 additional control sigr s the converter, when to start the be completed. EOC convertel has bv is EOC. START inform: en should the conversion Analog to digital and the another one conversion whereas EOC informs wh! stands for ‘End Of Conversion’. Analog to digital converters are classified into two groups. 1, Direct type 2. Indirect type Direct type ADC are further classified as 1. Flash (comparator) type converter 2. Staircase type converter 3. Tracking or servo converter 4. Successive approximation type converter Indirect type are classified as 1. Charge balancing analog to digital converter 2. Dual slope analog to digital converter Successive Approximation Method Figure 4,52 shows an 8-bit converter, which requires 8 clock pulses to obtain digital output. It consists of successive approximation register (SAR), operational amplifier, and D/A converter. SAR is used to find the required value of each bit by trial and error. Stat (aie SAR Clock A dy dy dg Ve +d, MSB 1 ot Pop racry--o7: tion rr mire Lit b—+d, ts : DAC - Figure 4.52 When START command is given, SAR sets MSB, d, = 1 with all other bits equal to zero so that, the trial code is 1000 0000. The output V, from DAC is now compared with analog input V,. If V, > Va, then 1000 0000 is less than correct digital representation. START | Q —— 4.64 Basic Electrical, Electronics and instrumentation Engineering - Now, the MSB will remains at ‘1’ and next bit is made ‘1’ by SAR and it is further tested. ‘Therefore, the trial code is now 1100 0000. Suppose, in this case, if V, < Vy, then the SAR resets the MSB bit to ‘0’ and go on to the next LSB. Since, 1100 0000 is greater then the applied digital input. This procedure is repeated for all subsequent bits (i.c., from MSB to LSB), one ata time, until all bit positions have been tested. When DAC output crosses V,, the comparator changes the state and this is taken as end of conversion (EOC) command, Now, the data available on SAR will be the digital equivalent of the given analog signal. Advantages 1. High resolution 2. More versatile 3. High speed The Staircase Ramp Type Figure 4.53 shows basic block diagram of a stair case ramp type analog to digital converter. It consists of comparator DAC, AND gate, counter and display unit. The basic principle is that the input signal V, is compared with an internal stair case voltage V,, generated by a si circuit consisting of a pulse generator (clock), a counter (counting the pulses) and a digital to analog converter, converting the counter output into a AC signal As soon as V, is equal to V,, the input comparator closes a gate between the clock and caunter, hence the counter stops and its output is shown on the display. Comparator DAG | fe Ref. Voltage [ Counter fs} Display Clock Reset/ Start Figure 4.53 Hs Electronic Devices and Circults i \ Operation The clock generates pulses continuously. At the start ofa measurement the counter is reset at 0 at time t, so that the output of the digital to analog converter is also zero, IV, is not equal to zero, the input comparator applies an output voltage that opens the gate so that clock pulses are passed on to the counter through the gate. The counter starts counting and the DAC starts to produce an output voltage increasing by one small step at cach count of the counter, , The resultant DAC output is a staircase voltage applied to the second input of the comparator, as shown in figure 4.54, tyStart - brStop (Gate close) DAC Output Bo Figure 4.54 This process continues until the staircase voltage is equal to or slightly greater than the input voltage V,, At instant t,, the output voltage of the input comparator changes state or polarity, so that the gate closes and counter is stopped. The display unit shows the result of the count. \ Te aa _| i Basic Electrical, Electronles and instrumentation engineering foeaba ht inPUt signal (ac or do) is applied to the non-inverying terminal and feedback is given as shown in figure 4.45. This circuit Amplifies without / inverting the input voltage. That is why, this arrangement is called non- inverting amplifier, : It also uses negative feedback system i.e., outy the inverting input terminal. To analyze this configuration by appli feedback principle, we can write that V, = V2 = Vi feedback forces the inverting input V, to be gu ual to‘non-inverting input V2- ‘ort anid it provides the differential forms’a potential divider. / This condition is referred as virtual voltage V4 as equal to zero. Now Re and Hence, e output voltage is obtained in a same phase or polarity with the input voltage. Here, the gain is always greater than unity. The voltage gain can be Adjusted to unity or more, by proper selection of resistors R, and Ry. /The output voltage of the non-inverting amplifier is also directly proportional to the input voltage. Therefore, this configuration is also called as voltage controlled voltage source y @ ~74,12 DIGITAL TO ANALOG CONVERTERS =" [Digital to analog converters are used to convert digital signals into analog signals) The role of digital to analog converters in instrumentation systems are thdt, in some applications it is required to convert digital signal into an analog signal before being processed through computer driver CRT display and digital control of automatic process control systems etc. nM, a a Ee ae. a. Figure 4.47 Here digital inp input is z : the switch positions are controlled by the digital inputs. When the Ut is one, the Corresponding switch is closed and when the digital cro, the corresponding switch is opened. Here, the operational amplifier is used as a summing amplifier. Due to the high input impedance of otat ue: Summing current will flow through feedback resistor R,, Now, the total current is 1 Yeh tht. 4] The output voltage is the vy voltage drop across R, and it is given as oF ~1y Ry “Uh tht a. £4,244, +d,2™)R, \ when Ry = R, the output voltage becomes (esa sce Votlaye Paguleucors $ A Vora. 7 alakor oa component of pies Supply ewohich nol only ryemors ~tho yipple cor A Lo meuxe “The owkpuus Smooth DPrC, neers Beer clso Keeps phe OuEpUe Vo tye Shae Tipu ins do oF Frvespective oF he cheenges in “rhe boc Vottage , 5 Tnecet “re 7 Rog cxleuce &~ Geneyal Purpase Lineccr Fe 123 Res eqrunes Of Tc123t~ urea Free Veos Ve. Out C1) TE works AS Vo Flew, Regulator Q @ Qe cukpur vorlage Wagir -frorn 9 bo 31 Votls cue Coste nts “PEO \5o MA- Chi) Loced Ceaments O 0 oO 1BO MA. 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