15 Darwin’s

10.2 Theory
Darwin’s of Evolution
Observations

What is Evolution?
• Study of how things change over time
15 Darwin’s
10.2 Theory
Darwin’s of Evolution
Observations

Theories of Evolution - Lamarck

• Jean Baptiste Lamarck (1744 – 1829)
► Law of Use and Disuse
- parts of the body that are used
become more developed
- unused body parts become
smaller and eventually disappear
► Law of Inheritance of Acquired Characteristics
- organisms can pass traits acquired during their
lifetime to their offspring
- ex. giraffe evolution
15 Darwin’s
10.2 Theory
Darwin’s of Evolution
Observations
Theories of Evolution - Lamarck
• Lamarck’s explanation of how giraffes evolved long
neck:
1) In order to reach higher leaves,
giraffes stretch their necks and
acquire long necks. (Law of Use
and Disuse)
2) They can pass their acquired
long neck trait to their offspring.
(Law of Inheritance of Acquired
Characteristics)
3) Eventually, all giraffes have long
necks over time.
• Lamarck’s explanation was believed to be invalid.
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10.2 Theory
Darwin’s of Evolution
Observations

Theories of Evolution - Darwin

• Charles Darwin (1809-1882)
- traveled on HMS Beagle to Galapagos
Islands observing and collecting
samples of organisms
15 Darwin’s
10.2 Theory
Darwin’s of Evolution
Observations
Theories of Evolution - Darwin
• Darwin observed that:
1) the Galápagos Islands were close together but had
very different climates.
2) the characteristics of many animals and plants
varied noticeably among the different islands of the
Galápagos. (ex: 14 species of finches)
Warbler finch Cactus finch
Woodpecker finch Sharp-beaked finch
Small Small
insectivorous ground
tree finch finch
Large Cactus Medium
insectivorous eater ground
Insect eaters
tree finch finch
Seed eaters
Vegetarian Large
tree finch Bud eater ground
finch
15 Darwin’s
10.2 Theory
Darwin’s of Evolution
Observations
Theories of Evolution - Darwin
• Darwin wondered if finches living on different islands
had once been members of the same species.
• These separate species would have evolved from an
original South American ancestor species.
15 Darwin’s
10.2 Theory
Darwin’s of Evolution
Observations

Theories of Evolution - Darwin

• Darwin’s conclusions:
– variations in beaks
► differences in beaks in the original flock

► adaptations to foods available on islands

– natural selection for most fit

► over many generations, the finches were

selected for specific beaks & behaviors

– offspring inherit successful traits
► accumulation of winning traits: both beaks &

behaviors
– separate into different species
15 Darwin’s
10.2 Theory
Darwin’s of Evolution
Observations
Theories of Evolution - Darwin
• Darwin collected the preserved remains of ancient
organisms, called fossils.
• Some of those fossils resembled organisms that were
still alive. Others looked completely unlike any
creature he had ever seen.

ancient Armadillo present day Armadillos

15 Darwin’s
10.2 Theory
Darwin’s of Evolution
Observations

Theories of Evolution - Darwin

• Darwin published the book
“The Origin of Species” in 1859
(32 years after the end of his
voyage).
• Darwin proposed the Theory of
Evolution by Natural Selection:
individuals with traits best
suited for a specific environment
survived and passed on these
traits to their offspring.
15 Darwin’s
10.2 Theory
Darwin’s of Evolution
Observations
Theories of Evolution - Darwin
• How would Darwin have explained the evolution of
giraffe’s long neck differently than Lamarck?
• Based on Darwin’s theory of
natural selection:
1) Long neck giraffes were better
suited for reaching higher leaves
and survived better.
2) More long neck giraffes survived
over time and passed on the long
neck traits to their offspring.
3) Short neck giraffes died out
because they could not compete
with the long neck giraffes.
15 Darwin’s
10.2 Theory
Darwin’s of Evolution
Observations

Several key insights led to Darwin’s idea for natural

selection.
• Darwin noticed domesticated plants and animals
seemed to show traits that were not found in their
wild relatives.
• Breeders of these domesticated plants and animals
select the desired traits (instead of the
environment).
neck feathers

crop

tail feathers
15 Darwin’s
10.2 Theory
Darwin’s of Evolution
Observations

Several key insights led to Darwin’s idea for natural

selection.
• Artificial selection is the process by which humans
select traits through breeding. (aka “selective
breeding”)
15 Darwin’s
10.2 Theory
Darwin’s of Evolution
Observations

Several key insights led to Darwin’s idea for natural

selection.
• Darwin compared processes in nature to artificial
selection.
• In artificial selection, human selects the desired
traits; while in natural selection, environment (or
nature) selects the desired traits.
• In nature, there is always struggle for survival
because of limited resources of food, water, and
shelter.
15 Darwin’s
10.2 Theory
Darwin’s of Evolution
Observations
Natural selection explains how evolution can occur.
• There are four main principles to the theory of
natural selection.
1) Overproduction:

OVERPRODUCTION

A jaguar may produce more offspring than

they can survive due to struggle for survival.
15 Darwin’s
10.2 Theory
Darwin’s of Evolution
Observations
Natural selection explains how evolution can occur.
2) Variation: heritable differences among individuals.

VARIATION

Jaguar 1 Jaguar 2

Jaguar 1 = larger jaws and teeth

Jaguar 2 = smaller jaws and teeth
15 Darwin’s
10.2 Theory
Darwin’s of Evolution
Observations
Natural selection explains how evolution can occur.
3) Adaptation: a feature that allows an organism to
better survive in its environment

ADAPTATION

Jaguars with larger jaws and teeth have better

adaptations for eating shelled reptiles, so they are
more likely to survive and reproduce better.
(survival of the fittest)
15 Darwin’s
10.2 Theory
Darwin’s of Evolution
Observations
Natural selection explains how evolution can occur.
4) Descent with Modification:
Over time, natural selection will produce more
individuals with the adaptations that are better
suited for a particular environment.
DESCENT with
MODIFICATION

Larger jaws and teeth become the more common traits

in the population. So jaguars’ descendants showed
modification, or change, over time.
15 Darwin’s
10.2 Theory
Darwin’s of Evolution
Observations
Modern Day Example of Natural Selection
• Industrial Melanism of peppered moths
- Industrial Revolution in Europe during 1850s
affected the natural selection on colors of the
peppered moths
- As the environment changed, the moths that could
camouflage themselves had better chances
of survival and reproduction.

Year % dark % light

1848 5 95
1895 98 2
1995 19 81
15 Darwin’s
10.2 Theory
Darwin’s of Evolution
Observations
Modern Day Example of Natural Selection
– early 1800s = pre-industrial England
►low pollution

► lichen on trees = light colored bark

► light colored moths survived better

– late 1800s = industrial

► factories = soot coated trees

► killed lichen = dark colored bark

► dark colored moths survived better

– mid 1900s = pollution controls

► clean air laws

► return of lichen = light colored bark

► light colored moths survived better again

15 Darwin’s
10.2 Theory
Darwin’s of Evolution
Observations
Natural selection acts on distributions of traits.
• A normal distribution, represented by a bell-shaped
curve, is generally found in a typical population.
– highest frequency near
mean value
– frequencies decrease
toward each extreme
value
• Traits not undergoing
natural selection have a
normal distribution.
15 Darwin’s
10.2 Theory
Darwin’s of Evolution
Observations
Natural selection can change the distribution of a trait
in one of three ways.
1) Stabilizing Selection
- favors intermediate
phenotype
- reduces variations
15 Darwin’s
10.2 Theory
Darwin’s of Evolution
Observations
Natural selection can change the distribution of a trait
in one of three ways.
2) Directional Selection
- favors phenotype at one
extreme
- leads to rapid evolution
10.2 Darwin’s Observations
Natural selection can change the distribution of a trait
in one of three ways.
3) Disruptive Selection
- favors both extreme
phenotypes; intermediate
phenotype is eliminated
- leads to evolution of two
new species
16 Evolution
10.2 Darwin’sof Populations
Observations

Natural selection acts on different phenotypes in

a population.
• Genetic variation leads to phenotypic variation.
• The greater the genetic/phenotypic variations in a
population increases the chance that some
individuals will survive
• Genetic variation is stored in a population’s gene
pool.
- gene pool = all the genes in all individuals in a
population
16 Evolution
10.2 Darwin’sof Populations
Observations

• Allele frequencies measure genetic variation.

– measures how common allele is in population
– can be calculated for each allele in gene pool
– As allele frequencies and gene pools change over time,
the population evolve.
16 Evolution
10.2 Darwin’sof Populations
Observations
Genetic variation comes from several sources.
• Mutation is a random change in the DNA of a gene.
– can form new allele
– can be passed on to
offspring if in
reproductive cells

• Sexual reproduction results in new combinations of

alleles. (crossing-over, independent assortment)
– usually occurs during meiosis
– parents’ alleles
arranged in new
ways in gametes
16 Evolution
10.2 Darwin’sof Populations
Observations
Genetic variation results in different types of adaptations.
• Adaptation = variations that improve an organisms’
chance for survival and reproduction.
• Physical Adaptation
1) Chemical: poison, toxin (ex: skunk)
2) Mechanical:
¾ Camouflage = adaptive coloration; blend in with
the environment
¾ Mimicry = resemble another species
3) Structural: protective body forms (ex: fangs,
claws, spines)
16 Evolution
10.2 Darwin’sof Populations
Observations
Genetic variation comes from several sources.
• Behavioral Adaptation
- actions taken by an organism to prolong survival
(ex: hiding, running, migration, hibernating)
16 Evolution
10.2 Darwin’sof Populations
Observations
There are five factors that can lead to evolution.
1) Genetic drift
- changes allele frequencies due to random chance.
- Genetic drift causes a loss of genetic diversity.
- It is most common in small populations.
16 Evolution
10.2 Darwin’sof Populations
Observations

• A population bottleneck can lead to genetic drift.

– It occurs when an event drastically
reduces population size.
– The bottleneck effect is genetic drift
that occurs after a bottleneck event.

• The founding of a small population can lead to genetic

drift.
– It occurs when a few individuals start a new population.
– The founder effect is
genetic drift that occurs
after start of new
population.
16 Evolution
10.2 Darwin’sof Populations
Observations

2) Gene flow
- movement of alleles from one population to another
- changes the allele frequencies in a gene pool
• immigration = movement into the population
• emigration = movement out of the population
16 Evolution
10.2 Darwin’sof Populations
Observations

3) Mutation
- permanent change in DNA
• Positive mutations – help an organism better adapt
to its environment
• Harmful mutations – organism dies and removes
gene from population
16 Evolution
10.2 Darwin’sof Populations
Observations

4) Sexual selection
- selects for traits that improve mating success.
16 Evolution
10.2 Darwin’sof Populations
Observations

5) Natural selection
- selects for traits advantageous for survival.
16 Evolution
10.2 Darwin’sof Populations
Observations
The isolation of populations can lead to speciation.
• Speciation = the rise of two or more species from one
existing species.
• A species is a group of organisms that breed with one
another and produce fertile offspring.
• Populations become isolated when there is no gene flow.
– Isolated populations adapt to their own environments.
– Genetic differences can add up over generations.
16 Evolution
10.2 Darwin’sof Populations
Observations

The isolation of populations can lead to speciation.

• Types of Isolation:
1) Geographical Isolation
- isolated by physical barriers
(ex: continental drift, earthquake,
volcano)
2) Behavioral Isolation
- differences in courtship and
mating behaviors
3) Temporal Isolation
- timing of reproductive periods prevents mating
16 Evolution
10.2 Darwin’sof Populations
Observations
Evolution through natural selection is not random.
• Natural selection can have direction.
• The effects of natural selection add up over time.
16 Evolution
10.2 Darwin’sof Populations
Observations

• Convergent evolution describes

evolution toward similar traits in
unrelated species.
16 Evolution
10.2 Darwin’sof Populations
Observations

• Divergent evolution describes evolution toward

different traits in closely related species.

kit fox red fox

ancestor
16 Evolution
10.2 Darwin’sof Populations
Observations
Species can shape each other over time.
• Two or more species can evolve together through
coevolution.
– evolutionary paths become connected
– species evolve in response to changes in each other
– coevolution can occur in beneficial or competitive
relationships.
16 Evolution
10.2 Darwin’sof Populations
Observations

• Adaptive Radiation
- Many species evolve from one species
– ancestral species diversifies into many descendent
species
– descendent species
usually adapted to
wide range of
environments
16 Evolution
10.2 Darwin’sof Populations
Observations
Species can become extinct.
• Extinction is the elimination of a species from Earth.

– occur at roughly the same

rate as speciation
– usually affects a few species
in a small area
– caused by local changes in
environment
17 The
10.2 HistoryObservations
Darwin’s of Life

Evidence for evolution came from several sources.

1) Fossils records
– provides a record of the earth’s past life forms
• offers the most direct evidence for evolution
• shows a pattern of development of early
ancestors to their modern descendants
17 The
10.2 HistoryObservations
Darwin’s of Life

• fossil – preserved or mineralized remains (bone,

petrified tree, tooth, or shell) or imprint of an
organism that lived long ago

• fossil record is incomplete – many organisms

lived in places where fossils could not form –
there are gaps in the record
17 The
10.2 HistoryObservations
Darwin’s of Life

2) Biochemical Evidence
– changes in DNA/amino acid/protein sequences
- closely related organisms have similar DNA/
amino acid/protein sequences and this also
suggests common ancestry.
17 The
10.2 HistoryObservations
Darwin’s of Life

• Example: studying differences in hemoglobin

between species
17 The
10.2 HistoryObservations
Darwin’s of Life

3) Comparative Anatomy
– comparison of anatomy can reveal basic
structural similarities (even though the
functions may be very different) indicating
common ancestry

Human hand Mole foot Bat wing

17 The
10.2 HistoryObservations
Darwin’s of Life

¾Homologous Structures
- same structures but used for different functions
through evolution
- ex. forelimbs in vertebrates all have the same
basic bone structure
- have common ancestors(closely related)
17 The
10.2 HistoryObservations
Darwin’s of Life

¾Analogous Structures
- different structures but used for same functions
through evolution
- ex. bird wings, bat wings, insect wings
- DO NOT have common ancestors( not closely
related)

Bat wing
Fly wing
17 The
10.2 HistoryObservations
Darwin’s of Life
¾Vestigial Structures
- structures that are reduced in size through
evolution
- either have no use or have a less important
function than they do in other related organisms
- provide evidence of an organism’s evolutionary
past
- ex. hindlegs in whales, appendix in humans
17 The
10.2 HistoryObservations
Darwin’s of Life

4) Comparative Embryology
– comparing embryos of related organism shows
similar developmental patterns
- similar in embryos, but different in adult forms
17 The
10.2 HistoryObservations
Darwin’s of Life

- ex: the embryos of all vertebrates have similar

characteristics during early development –
all develop a tail, backbone, buds that
become limbs, and pharyngeal pouches.