STATES OF MATTER:

● Every state of matter has one thing in common; particles. Everything is made
up of tiny particles.
● These particles are broken down to atoms. These particles can also be just
atoms.
● Some substances have molecules - when 2 or more atoms join together.
● Some have ions - when groups of charged atoms join together.
● Solids have particles that cannot move around freely.
● Liquids and gases have particles that can move around freely.
● While moving, they collide and bounce in all directions.
● They change directions everytime they collide and it is called random
motion.
● Examples: Gas - perfume spreads around the room freely. Liquid - water
flows through the floor wherever it can go.
● Diffusion is the process which occurs in gases and liquids when 2 different
types of liquid or gas particles collide and mix with each other.
● Particles go from an area of high concentration (more particles) to an area of
lower concentration (less particles).
● Solids have a fixed shape and volume. They also do not flow (move freely).
● Liquids have a fixed volume but an unfixed shape. It flows and it takes the
shape of the container it is in.
● Gases do not have a fixed shape or volume. It is lighter and spreads out to fill
its container.
● Water is a substance that can be all three states of matter. Solid - ice, liquid -
water and gas - water vapour/steam.
● When added heat, ice changes into water. The temperature it changes into
water is called melting point.
● When added heat, water changes into water vapour. This is called
evaporation. Hotter the water, quicker the evaporation.
● When added extra heat, water starts to have bubbles. It is now boiling. The
temperature it starts to boil is the boiling point.
● From steam to ice, the steam is cooled which gets it to condense and turn into
water. Then it is further cooled to turn into ice.
● Condensation is the opposite of evaporation. Freezing the opposite of melting.
Water has the same freezing point as ice for melting.
● When ice gets heat, the molecules vibrate. They lose their positions and
break away. Thus ice turns liquid. Melting
● When water gets heat, molecules vibrate. They vibrate faster and get enough
energy to escape through vapours. Evaporation
● Gases have pressure. When they flow and collide with each other and the
walls of their container, they create pressure.
● The pressure increases as more volume and heat is added to the gas. The
pressure increases as the area decreases.
● Gases have diffusion. The speed of diffusion depends on the mass of
particles and the temperature.
● The lower the mass of the gas, the quicker it diffuses.
● The higher the temperature, the quicker it diffuses.

CELLS:

● Every organism is made up of cells. Some are unicellular and others are
multicellular.
● Unicellular have only one cell while multicellular have 2 or more. Uni has a
short lifespan because it depends on one cell. Multi has a longer lifespan
because if one cell dies, it has others to work and maybe regenerate.
Examples of uni are bacteria. Multi have humans.
● To see these cells, you use a microscope. A light microscope shines light
through whatever piece you look at and uses glass lenses to magnify it. It can
magnify about 1500 times.
● An electron microscope uses electrons and magnifies up to 500,000.
● A plant cell has a cell wall, cell membrane, nucleus, cytoplasm, chloroplast,
vacuoles, chlorophyll and starch.
● An animal cell has a cell membrane, vacuoles, cytoplasm, nuclear envelope,
and nucleus.
● Cell membrane is a thin partially permeable layer which allows particular
substances to pass through. It is in both cells.
● Cell wall is made of cellulose which is fully permeable, hence letting any
substance pass through. It protects and supports the cell. It is in plant cells.
● Cytoplasm is 70% water and contains many substances, especially protein.
Metabolic reactions take place here. It is in both cells
● Vacuoles in plant cells contain a solution of sugar and other substances called
cell sap, they are large. Animal cell vacuoles are small called vesicles which
may contain food or water.
● Chloroplasts contain a green pigment called chlorophyll which absorbs light
during photosynthesis. It is only in the plant cell.
● Nucleus has genetic information stored in it which is carried by chromosomes
that are made up of DNA. It is in both cells.
● Mitochondria is the powerhouse of the cell found in every ce except for
prokaryotic cells. They release energy for aerobic respiration and energy is
used from it for the cell. It is in both cells.
● Ribosomes make protein using amino acids. They are smaller than
mitochondria. It is in both cells.
● Cells with the same function often group together to form a tissue.
● Tissues with the same function often group together to form an organ. For
example tissues in your stomach work together to form your stomach.
● Organs with the same function often group together to make organ systems.
For example, the stomach works with other organs to make the digestive
system of our body.
● Cells lose or develop certain structures in order to adapt to their function. This
is called differentiation.

MASS, WEIGHT AND DENSITY:

● Mass is the amount of matter in an object.

● SI unit of mass is kilogram (kg).
● Weight is the gravitational force on an object that has mass. Meaning the
amount of force gravity is applying on it to pull it down.
● Inertia it the mass of an object that resists change of rest or motion.
● Gravitational field is a region in which a mass experiences a force due to
gravitational attraction.
● SI unit of force is Newton.
● On earth, the weight of anything worth 1 kg is 9.8N.
● W=mg, g=9.8m/s2 = 9.8N/kg
● Gravitational field strength is the force per unit of mass.
● G = w/m
● The weight of an object is directly proportional to its mass.
● Density is the mass per unit volume.
● Density = mass/volume, d=m/v
● SI unit of density is kg/m3
● Density of regular shaped objects can be found out by taking out the volume
and mass of the object. Mass to be measured by a balance and volume to be
calculated through multiplying height, breadth and length measured by a ruler.
● Density of irregular shaped objects can be found out by taking out the volume
and mass of it. Mass can be measured through a balance. Volume can be
measured by adding the object to water in a measuring cylinder and then
subtracting the volume before the object was added with the new volume. For
example, the volume of water with no object is 10cm3 and with an object is
15cm3. The volume of the object is 5cm3.
● Density of liquid can be found out by taking out the volume and mass of it.
Volume can be measured by a measuring cylinder. Mass can be measured
the same way irregular object's volume was found but with a balance.

MOVEMENT IN AND OUT OF CELLS:

● Diffusion is the chemical process of when particles from an area of higher

concentration travel to an area of lower concentration.
● The rate or speed of diffusion depends on the kinetic energy of the particles
and temperature.
● Osmosis is the process of when diffusion occurs in water through a partially
permeable membrane or wall.
● Substances are dissolved in water which travel in and out of the cells. This
is possible due to osmosis when the concentration outside the cell is higher or
lower as compared to the concentration inside the cell.
● Every cell has a partially permeable membrane which let's certain
substances pass through itself for it to reach the inside of the cell.
● High water potential = dilute solution (less dissolved) and low water potential
= concentrated solution (more dissolved)
● Osmosis in an animal cell affects the cell by either bursting it or not bursting it.
The cell does not burst when water enters the cell. This happens due to water
potential being low inside the cell as compared to outside. The cell does burst
when it has a higher water potential as compared to outside because the
water leaves the cell.
● Osmosis in a plant cell affects the cell by either making the cell turgid or
flaccid. It makes it turgid when water enters the cell due to water potential low
inside the cell and enlarges it which results in it being sloppy. Osmosis makes
a plant cell flaccid as the water inside the cell leaves due to low water
potential outside the cell.

ATOM, ELEMENT & COMPOUND:

● Atoms are the simplest form of matter which cannot be divided further by
chemical means.
● Elements are chemical substances which are purely made of one type of
atom. For example, sodium is made up of sodium atoms so it is an element.
● Compounds are pure substances in which 2 or more elements are
chemically combined.
● Elements are arranged in the periodic table.
● Every element is made up of atoms and atoms are made up of subatomic
particles known as protons, neutrons and electrons.
● Protons have a positive charge. Neutrons have no charge. Electrons have
negative charge.
● Every atom has the same proton and electron (this basically even outs the
charges in the atom) and more neutrons than the other particles.
● The proton (atomic) number in an element refers to the amount of protons
(and electrons) present in an atom. The nucleon (mass) number refers to the
amount of protons and neutrons combined in the nucleus.
● To find out the amount of electrons, refer to the proton number and to find out
the amount of electrons, subtract the proton number from the nucleon
number.
● An element can be identified by the number of protons available in the atom
of the element.
● Atoms of the same element can be different from each other in matter of the
amount of neutrons they consist of. These atoms are called isotopes of
each other. Same proton and electron but different neutron.
● For example, one carbon atom can have 6 protons, 6 electrons but 7 neutrons
which would make the nucleon number 12; hence the carbon atom would be
called Carbon-12. Another carbon atom can have the same protons and
electrons but more neutrons like 8 which would make the nucleon number 14;
hence the atom would be called Carbon-17.
● Isotopes can collide with each other so we take out the relative atomic mass
of the atom. The formula for it is: Ar = (abundance 1 x mass 1) + (abundance
2 x mass2)/100.
● Isotopes can be used to check for leaks, treat cancer and kill germs/bacteria.
● Atoms have a nucleus made up of protons and neutrons around which the
electrons revolve.
● The electrons revolve in a fixed manner and orbit around the nucleus. The
way they orbit around the nucleus is known as a shell.
● Each shell is limited to a certain number of electrons. The first shell of every
element has a maximum of 2 electrons. The second shell has a maximum
of 8 electrons. The third shell also has a maximum of 8 electrons. The
fourth shell has only 2 electrons.
● The last shell is known as valence shell and its electrons are known as
valence electrons.
● Each shell has its own energy, the first having the lowest and the last
having the highest.

ENZYMES:

● Catalyst is a substance that increases the rate of chemical reactions and is

not changed by the reaction.
● Enzymes are proteins which are biological catalyst which increase the rate
of metabolic reactions inside our body.
● Anabolic reactions occur when smaller molecules combine to form larger
molecules.
● Catabolic reactions occur when large molecules break down to smaller
molecules.
● Every nutrient has its own enzymes to break it down.
● Protein = Protease = Amino Acids
● Fat = Lipase = Fatty Acids
● Hydrogen peroxide = Catalase = Oxygen and water
● Sucrose = Sucrase = Glucose
● Starch = Amylase = Maltose
● Maltose = Maltase = Glucose
● The nutrients on which the enzymes act upon are called substrate
● Enzymes are affected by temperatures, pH and pH values.
● Higher the temperature, the faster the enzymes work. Lower the
temperature, the slower the enzymes work. Optimum temperature is 40-45°C
● Every enzyme has its own optimum pH value for e.g protease works best in
an acidic environment.
● An enzyme does not work when optimum pH value and temperature are not
given.

MOTION:

● Distance is the length between 2 points. It is a scalar quantity and the SI unit
is “metres”.
● Displacement is the shortest distance as a straight line between 2 points. It
is a vector quantity and the SI unit is “metres”.
● Speed is the distance covered per unit time. It is a scalar quantity and the
SI unit is ‘m/s’. Formula: metre/second.
● Velocity is speed going in another direction, displacement per unit time. It is
a vector quantity and the SI unit is ‘m/s’. Formula: displacement/time
● Change in velocity occurs when either speed, direction or both change.
● Acceleration is the change in velocity per unit time. Formula: V-U/T
● V = Final velocity, U = initial velocity and T = time
● Deceleration is the decrease in velocity per unit time. Formula: V-U/T.
● Average speed is total distance cover per total unit time.

PHYSICAL QUANTITIES & MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUES:

● Systematic errors occur due to the measuring instrument.

● It is the space in measuring instruments where no marking is written.
● To find out the height when there is a systematic error, add scale reading with
error space. Height = scale reading + x
● Vernier scale is the most precise measuring instrument and is used for
precise measurements. They can measure as precisely as 0.5mm.
● Micrometre screw gauge is used to measure extremely small object and has
an accuracy of 0.01mm.
● Formula: CSR x 0.01 + MSR = answer in mm
● CSR = Circular scale reading, MSR = Main Scale Reading and 0.01 is used if
the answer is needed in millimetres.
● Scalar quantities have magnitude (size) only. Time, temp, speed etc are
scalar quantities.
● Vector quantities are forces described by magnitude (size) and direction.
Weight, displacement etc are vector quantities.
● Zero error occurs when the reading on the main scale does not coincide with
the zero of the thimble.

CLASSIFICATION OF ANIMALS:

● Classification means grouping living organisms.

● Characteristics of living organisms are as follows; movement, respiration,
reproduction, growth, sensitivity, excretion and nutrition.
● Movement - an action which causes movement of position or place.
● Respiration - a chemical process where gases are exchanged and release
energy.
● Reproduction - the process that makes more of the same kind.
● Growth - a permanent growth in size.
● Sensitivity - the ability to detect and reaping to changes in the environment.
● Excretion - removal of toxic material and waste from organisms.
● Nutrition - taking in of materials for growth, energy and development.
● The basic unit of classification is ‘specie’ which can interbreed and produce
fertile offspring.
● Species<genus<family<order<class<phylum<kingdom.
● The binomial system is an internationally agreed upon system in which the
scientific name of an organism is made up of 2 parts showing the genus
and species.
● The five kingdom system includes prokaryote, protista, fungi, plantae,
animalia.
● Prokaryote - unicellular, no nucleus, non-cellulose cell wall and no
mitochondria.
● Protista - multi/unicellular, nucleus and feed by photosynthesis.
● Fungi - multicellular, nuclei, non-cellulose cell wall, no chlorophyll and feed by
saprophytic.
● Plantae - multicellular, nucleus, cellulose cell wall, chloroplasts and feed by
photosynthesis.
● Animalia - multicellular, nucleus, no cell wall and chloroplast and feed on
organic substance.
● Plant kingdom is grouped into 2 main categories; flowering and non
flowering.
● Non flowering are either vascular or nonvascular.
● Flowering are either mono or dicot.
● Mono have 1 cotyledon, many petals, long leaves and veins are paralleled.
● Dicot have 2 cotyledons, petals of 4 or 5, wide leaves and veins are branched.
● Vertebrates are organisms with a back bone; fish, amphibians, reptiles,
birds and mammals.
● Fish - scales, fins, jelly-covered eggs, eyes but no ears, cold blooded
 ● Amphibians (Frogs) - moist skin, four limbs, back feet often webbed, jelly-
covered eggs, eyes and ears, cold blooded.
● Reptiles (Lizards) - dry scaled, four legs (not snake), eggs with rubbery shells,
eyes and ears, cold blooded.
● Birds - feathers with scaled legs, wings with 2 legs, eggs with hard shells,
eyes and ears, warm blooded.
● Mammals - fur, four limbs, live young, eyes and ears (external flap), warm
blooded and females have mammary glands for offsprings growth.
● Invertebrates are organisms with no backbone, exoskeleton, segmented
body and jointed legs; crustaceans, insects, arachnids and myriapods.
● Crustaceans - less than 4 pairs of legs, 2 pairs of antennae, 2 body parts,
compound eyes, breathe via gills
● Insects - 3 pairs of jointed legs, 1 or 2 pair of wings, 1 pair of antennae, 3
body parts, compound eyes, breathe via trachea.
● Arachnids - 4 pairs of legs, no wings, 2 body parts, several pairs of simple
eyes, piercing jaws.
● Myriapods - long thin body with many segments, no thorax or abdomen, more
than 9 pairs of legs, simple eyes, 1 pair of antennae.
● Viruses live on the borderline of life.
● They are living inside the host body.
● They are dead/ghost when outside the body.
● They are composed of outer protein DNA/RNA.

PERIODIC TABLE:

● The periodic table is a list of elements arranged in order of increasing proton

numbers.
● Each vertical column is called a ‘group’.
● Each horizontal row is called a ‘period’.
● There are 8 groups and 7 periods.
● Group I to III are metals.
● Between II and III are transition metals.
● Group IV to VIII are non-metals.
● Elements inside a group have the same number of valence shells. Valence
shell is the shell which is furthest to the nucleus in an atom.
● Elements inside a period have the same number of shells. Shells are the
organised orbits of the electron around a nucleus in an atom.
● Groups run from top to bottom and periods run from left to right.