CASH TRANSFER SCHEMES AND DOMESTIC VIOLENCE

I. INTRODUCTION

Domestic violence is highly prevalent in impoverished households. Its

occurrence can be aggravated by various factors like poverty and
unemployment. Due to the inherently gendered division of roles within
Indian families, control over money is generally vested in the hands of the
husband. As a consequence of this control, the money is often spent on
ancillary concerns, if not, alcohol. Such expenditure can lead to subsequent
anguish about financial burdens and can lead to alcoholism, anger issues
and the like which increases the likelihood of domestic violence. The
violence inflicted not only affects the victim but also contributes to the
impairment of the family.

As a result of the correlation of domestic violence to the financial decisions

of the family being taken by the man, any scheme which adds or reduces
control of the abuser over finances, can directly or indirectly impact the
occurrence of domestic violence in a household. In light of this, it becomes
imperative to ensure cash transfer schemes (CTs), which through their
inherent nature directly impact such financial control, factors in the
implications it may have on domestic violence. Studies conducted in Latin
America, where conditional cash transfer schemes (CCTs) have been
successful, provide empirical evidence which confirms that the modality and
nature of economic welfare schemes can have an impact on social factors
such as domestic violence.

II. EVALUATION OF CASH TRANSFER SCHEMES AS A TOOL FOR POVERTY

ALLEVIATION

1
 Cash transfers are direct, regular, non-contributory cash payments
made to the impoverished as a safety net mechanism. 1 Cash transfer
schemes are becoming increasingly popular as a means to stabilize and
uplift impoverished households. There are various types of cash transfer
schemes, often differing in their target purpose, target population and mode
of implementation.2

However, a more notable distinguishing feature would be the

conditionality of the scheme. Unconditional cash transfer schemes provide
the safety net without any conditions attached, whereas, in conditional cash
transfer schemes there are bona fide pre-requisites to avail the benefits of
the scheme.3 The rationale behind cash transfer schemes is that low income
is the core cause of impoverishment. Thus, regular cash income can help
sustain a household by giving them the means to spend on food and
healthcare, as well as schooling, nutrition, etc. 4 This allows for a dignified
survival without resorting to cyclic debt or comprising on essentials. Thus,
the rationale is layered, firstly, promotes a dignified lifestyle and capacity to
invest in human capital. Secondly, it stabilizes the household from further
downfall or potentially prevents the downfall itself. 5

A. UNCONDITIONAL CASH TRANSFER SCHEMES

Beyond the abovementioned reasons, Unconditional Cash Transfer

schemes (“UCT”) are preferred over in-kind schemes because they provide
flexibility and independence to households to invest in spheres that suit

1
UK Aid, DFID Cash Transfers Evidence Paper, pg. 49, 2011, available at:
[Link]
2
Berk Ozler, How should we design Cash Transfer Programmes, World Bank Blogs,
available at [Link]
transfer-programs.
3
Supra note 1, pg 49.
4
Id.
5
Id.

2
their needs. Thus, the influx of cash allow households with heterogeneous
needs to invest in their long-run welfare improvements. 6 The no strings
attached approach provides families the space to invest in their
individualistic needs, that large scale paternalistic policy mechanisms may
not account for. Due to their stable and regular nature, UCTs also impact
psychological wellbeing positively, by relieving extreme mental strain.
Additionally, UCTs are easier to arrange than in-kind transfers, as they
manifest directly in the choices of the persons. There are also no costs of
the infrastructure, transportation and storage requirements of in-kind
transfers. Further, they are cheaper than conditional cash transfers as there
is no need to survey the pre-requisites of the transfer. 7 It is for this reason,
that UCT’s are being increasingly preferred by governments. 8 However, a
cause for concern, is the notion that cash influx that is non-contributory will
impact the labour supply.9

An example of a UCT that was successful, is the Child Support Grant

(“CSG”) which was introduced in South Africa, to cover the poorest 30% of
children. The UCT was targeted at populations on the basis of their means.
Any children living in households earning below approximately US$110 in
urban areas and US$150 in rural areas or informal settlements, were
entitled to the benefits of CSF.
Evidence of the success of contemporaneous alleviation of
impoverishment, can be seen in various other studies surrounding UCT’s.
These experiments prove that contrary to the larger perception that UCT’s
decrease labour supply, they promote growth and upliftment. One such
6
Johannes Haushofer, Jeremy Shapiro, The Short-term Impact of Unconditional Cash
Transfers to the Poor: Experimental Evidence from Kenya, 131(4) The Quarterly Journal of
Economics, (2016), pg 1973–2042, available at: [Link]
7
[Link]
8
Devanshi Chanchani, Would the People of Chhattisgarh Prefer Cash Transfers instead of
Foodgrain?, 52(34) EPW, (2017).
9
Posel, Dorrit, James A. Fairburn, and Frances Lund, Labour migration and households: A
reconsideration of the effects of the social pension on labour supply in South Africa, 23 (5)
Economic
Modelling, (2006), pg 836–853.

3
experiment evidenced a marginal reduction in labour supply and an
increase in children’s education. Similarly, in another scheme, there was no
impact on labour supply but reduced crime and a positive impact on
children’s education as well as mental health. This is not confined to
conventional UCT’s, even in unconventional UCTs, such as the lottery, a
marginal reduction in labour supply was noted. Thus, these studies confirm
the ability of targeted population to invest in their betterment and make
choices that contribute to their overall wellbeing. These studies also rebut
the notion that non-contributory cash influx necessarily results in a
decrease of labour supply and incentive to work.10

Nonetheless, there are fundamental disadvantages to an UCT. While

the decrease in labour supply is a wholly separate and contestable point,
there are other important ramifications of UCT’s. The cash may be spent on
temptation goods such as alcohol, drugs or cigarettes.11

In contrast, there have been studies to disprove the propensity of the

target population across countries towards temptation goods such as
cigarettes, alcohols and drugs. 12

An explanation for these discrepancies, is that the outcome of the

scheme depends on the fabric of the society in which it is being
implemented. Especially, in countries where there exist such conflicting
social norms and tendencies, Conditional Cash Transfer Schemes (“CCT”)
are better placed to control such ramifications in comparison to UCTs.

10
[Link]
11

David K. Evans, Anna Popova, Cash Transfers and Temptation Goods: A Review of Global
12

Evidence (Policy Research Working Paper 6886, 2014) available at:

[Link]
sequence=1&isAllowed=y.

4
 There have been various studies that illustrate that the efficacy of
cash transfer schemes is dependent on the social fabric in which it is being
implemented.13 So social context is important.

B. CONDITIONAL CASH TRANSFERS

Conditional cash transfers (CCTs), seek to produce an outcome through

the “income effect,” by essentially increasing the income of the household,
and a “substitution effect,” by ensuring that the target population avails
PDS system. Therefore, while UCTs alleviate credit constraints and create
a demand, CCT’s leverage the income to induce a substitution effect. 14 In
an ideal CCT, the scheme would factor in the opportunity costs of the
induced substitution effect, in the cash influx to maximise the incentive to
avail the scheme.15

There are empirical studies that provide on the ability of CCTs to

tremendously increase schooling rates in developing countries in Latin
America.16 Noting their success in Latin America, CCTs are being implemented
worldwide to alleviate impoverishment. Currently, over 37 developing
countries have implemented various CCT programs,17 They have also been
implemented in developed countries such as the USA.

13
Devanshi Chanchani, Would the People of Chhattisgarh Prefer Cash Transfers instead of
Foodgrain? 52(34) EPW (2017).
14
Baird S., Ferreira F. H. G., Ozler B., Woolcock M., Relative Effectiveness of Conditional
and Unconditional Cash Transfers for Schooling Outcomes in Feveloping Countries: A
Systematic Review. 8 Campbell Systematic Reviews (2013) available at:
[Link]
15
Id.
16
Schultz, T.P. School Subsidies for the Poor: Evaluating the Mexican Progresa Poverty
Program, 74(1) Journal of Development Economics, (2004), pp. 199-250; De J anvry, A. &
Sadoulet, E, Making Conditional Cash Transfer Programs More Efficient: Designing for
Maximum Effect of the Conditionality, 20(1) World Bank Economic Review, (2006) pp. 1-29.
17
Fiszbein, A. & Schady, N. Conditional Cash Transfers: Reducing Present and Future
Poverty, World Bank Policy Research Report (2009); Grosh, et al, Assessing Safety Net
Readiness in Response to Food Price Volatility, World Bank Discussion Paper No. 1118
(2011).

5
 CCTs are considered an effective way to reconcile social evils with
safety nets and social assistance policies. 18 CCT’s are two tiers in their
approach. Beyond being a safety net that implements a target purpose
through pre-requisites, it also serves as an investment in human capital,
ultimately benefiting the households 19
The idea is that distributing cash is
not as effective as arming households with the capability and skills to be
self-reliant. Thus, it is seen as a mechanism to provide a safety net to the
impoverished whilst empowering them at the same time. 20

CCTs are tweaked in interesting ways to contribute to human capital.

A lot of schemes aim to increase gender parity as a target purpose. 21 Some
CCT’s account for the gender bias present in households and leverage the
same for more efficient outcomes. For instance, in the Bolsa Escola
scheme, in Brazil, there are monthly payments made to households with
children of the ages 6–15 enrolled in grades 1–8, on the condition that they
fulfil 85% of school attendance. These cash transfers were made directly to
mothers.22

As aforementioned, the underlying principle embedded in the CCT

approach is that stimulating demand through income transfers is necessary
to induce major changes in human capital and empowerment. 23 However,

18

19

20
Hyun Son, Conditional Cash Transfer Programs: An Effective Tool for Poverty Alleviation?
51 ERD Policy Brief (2008) available at:
[Link]
21
THE POOREST AND HUNGRY: ASSESSMENTS, ANALYSES, AND ACTIONS: AN IFPRI 2020 BOOK,
International Food Policy Research Institute, edited by Joachim Von Braun, Ruth Elaine
Hill, International Policy Research Institute, (2020).
22
Id.
23
See, MARTHA C. NUSSBAUM, CREATING CAPABILITIES: THE HUMAN DEVELOPMENT APPROACH
(Harvard University Press 2011).

6
this increased reliance on cash transfers, is misplaced if the supply side is
inadequately prepared for the increased demand. 24 For instance, in many
developing countries, there are insufficient schools to cater to the
population of children in the locality. Thus, in such a situation, mandating
attendance in return for cash, may not manifest in the required result. Thus,
in developing countries that have severely lacking social service
infrastructure, CCT programs should go hand in hand with an improvement
in the public distribution system (hereafter “PDS”) and social service. 25

Another drawback, is that the incentive is contingent on fulfilling the

condition. In a situation where due to unavoidable circumstances, such as
ill-health, a child was unable to meet the attendance requirement, the
household would have borne the opportunity cost of schooling and other
costs. In fact, girls who dropped out of school and consequently lost their
CCT payments were more likely to get impregnated than girls who dropped
out of school with UCT benefits. Thus, in this aspect UCT’s do provide a more
reliable safety net.26

All in all, CCTs have been largely successful in achieving their target
purpose of alleviating certain aspects of poverty. Irrespective of whether
the apprehension of expenditure on temptation goods, lavish goods,
decrease in labour supply, is unfounded, CCT’s can be feasible solution. The
reason that CCTs have gained popularity is their ability induce the target
population into the right choices.27 Even if, the population were to make
that choice without inducement, CCTs definitely enhance the outcome by
ensuring the target purpose is maximized and reduces the chances of
beneficiaries running astray. Moreover, there is tangible proof of the

24
Sudha Narayana, Perspectives on Cash Transfers, 46(21) EPW (2011).
25
Supra note 30.
26
Christy Bieber, 4 ways credit card can make you poorer, available at
[Link]
poorer/(Last visited on September 20, 2022).
27
Supra note 37.

7
outcome of the scheme, unlike the CSG scheme wherein the increase in
height was evidence of the nutritional intake.

However, there is more than meets the eye in these surveys and the
success of the CCT depends on the vantage point of the survey
undertaken.

III. CASH TRANSFER SCHEMES AND THEIR IMPACT ON DOMESTIC

VIOLENCE: A COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS BASED ON EMPIRICAL STUDIES

In light of the complex dynamic between poverty and domestic

violence, Cash Transfer schemes, cannot be viewed solely through an
economic lens. As stated above, different modes of cash transfer schemes
both conditional and unconditional have varying social impacts, that are
unanticipated. Since domestic violence and impoverishment are tied in a
vicious cycle, a cash transfer scheme affects more than just the mere
income of an impoverished household. Each scheme may have an incidental
impact on domestic violence which can be either positive or negative
depending upon prevailing social circumstances. The way in which cash
transfers affect traditional gender roles can act as a marker for assessing
whether there will be an increase or decrease in domestic violence.

The social impact of cash transfer schemes on women’s health and

empowerment has gained popularity as the subject of various empirical
studies over the past two decades. 28 Since conditional cash transfer
schemes are capable of assessing capabilities and inducing behavioral
changes, it is the spillover effect of conditional transfers which have been
studied. Since CCTs have gained popularity and been successful majorly in
28

8
Latin American countries, most studies have been focused around empirical
evidence collected from these countries. In this section of the paper, the
authors will analyse three empirical studies from different Latin American
countries that assess spillover effects of CCT schemes on domestic violence.

There are different theories that link household income and domestic
violence and women empowerment. The feminist theory places patriarchy at
the root for violence by suggesting that men use violence as a tool. 29 On the
other hand the evolutionary theory propounds that the need for inflicting
violence stems from uncertainty of paternity or in simpler terms, the
prospect of the infidelity, which gives rise to insecurity which results in
violence.30 In line with the former theory, if through external means, the
autonomy of a woman within the household is increased, it may lead to
decreased violence. However, with respect to the latter theory, an increased
autonomy might in fact lead to an increase in violence. Therefore, given the
lack of consensus on theories related to a woman's income and Domestic
Violence, it is no surprise that the empirical evidence is also mixed. The
evidence should thus be evaluated in light of the assumptions made by
different authors.

Although the specifics of the CCT programs whose social impact have
been studied differs from country to country, the base line is that all of
these programs transfer monetary resources to women of the target
impoverished households since they are more likely to “reinvest the
resources into the family’s well-being.”31 The broad assumptions that are

29

30

31

9
made by most authors is that conditional cash transfers can decrease
domestic violence by32-

(a) Increasing a woman’s bargaining power and autonomy by bridging

the intra-household wage/power gap present.
(b)Improving emotional well-being by reducing impoverishment and
poverty related stress.
(c) Increasing women’s exposure to the healthcare sector (as a part of
the condition to avail the cash)
(d)Preventing social exclusion of women of the household and promoting
interaction with other members of the community (again through
imposition of conditions) thereby increasing the social cost of men
inflicting violence.

IV. WHILE SOME OF THE EMPIRICAL STUDIES CONFIRM THESE

ASSUMPTIONS, MOST STUDIES SHOW NON-LINEAR RESULTS WHICH CAN ONLY

BE EXPLAINED THROUGH FACTORS LIKE SOCIAL AND CULTURAL BACKGROUND

OF THE COUNTRY, MODE OF TRANSFERS (CASH OR KIND OR MIXED) AND

OTHER SPECIFICITIES.

V. CTS AND COVID 19 IN INDIA

A. DOMESTIC VIOLENCE IN INDIA: CAN PARALLELS BE DRAWN FROM LATIN

AMERICAN STUDIES?

While the impact of CCTs on domestic violence have been studied in

detail in Latin American countries, the same kind of extensive study has not
been done in the Indian context. It can be stated that the results from the
Latin American studies can be referred to, yet not blindly imported to the
Indian context, without first tailoring it to the prevailing socio-cultural
32

10
backdrop of the county. As we have seen from the previous studies, in most
cases, CCTs have been successful in reducing spousal violence by improving
female autonomy within the household. Even while importing the simple
autonomy model in India, the results seen are anomalous than that of the
reference countries.

A study by Dyson and Moore observed that women in Northern India

experience substantially lower levels of autonomy as compared to women in
South India. In line with the results from the aforementioned studies it can
be expected that North Indian women face more domestic violence than
South Indian women. However, in a study conducted by Menon and Johnson
based on NFHS health data for India, the converse was found to be true. 33
Another empirical study confirmed through evidence that Indian women’s
employment in a context of impoverishment and prevailing gender
inequality may have severe consequences on them and their risk of facing
domestic violence given low employment stability of their husbands. 34 The
same study found almost 47% of the female participants were not employed
because their husbands did not want them to work which shows the gender
stereotype imposed despite the fact that spousal employment could relieve
impoverishment related stress.35

Such anomalies exist due to a number of factors. or instance, the

dowry framework which is still rampant in India creates opportunities for
violence that are unique to India. In a study by Bloch and Rao with respect
to the Indian scenario, it is observed that “the Fhusband uses violence to
signal to his in-laws the degree of his satisfaction with his marriage and
uses violence as a weapon of extortion. Thus, women coming from wealthier
33
N. Menon, and M. P. Johnson Patriarchy and Paternalism in Intimate Partner Violence: A
study of Domestic Violence in Rural India in RECENT STUDIES ON INDIAN WOMEN: EMPIRICAL
WORK OF SOCIAL SCIENTISTS (2007).
34
Suneeta Krishnan et. al, Do Changes in Spousal Employment Status Lead to Domestic
Violence? Insights from a Prospective Study in Bangalore, India 11 Violence Against
Women (2005).
35
Id.

11
families are more likely to be beaten in order to elicit greater transfers from
their parents.”36 Additionally, legal remedies to prevent domestic violence
exist, however recourse to the same is hardly taken. This is due to the lack
of cultural acceptability of the practice in a country like India where the
institution of marriage is held to be sacrosanct and the husband is placed on
a pedestal. For these (non-exhaustive) reasons, it can be stated that the
results from the Latin American studies can be referred to, yet not blindly
imported to the Indian context, without first tailoring it to the prevailing
socio-cultural backdrop of the county.

A.1. Cash Transfers in India and Covid-19: Need for Re-evaluation?

As a response to the Covid-19 Pandemic, the Government of India

announced a 1.70 lakh crore direct benefit transfer (DBT) for around 800
million beneficiaries under the Pradhan Mantri Garib Kalyan Yojna. 37 The
unconditional cash support includes Rs 500 to be transferred to about 200
million women with accounts under the Prashan Mantri Jan Dhan Yojna
(PMJDY) and a disbursement of Rs 2000 to 87 million farmers under the PM
Kisan scheme.38 Additionally, the relief package also includes increased
wages under the MGNREGA scheme.39 Apart from cash support there is also
support in kind in the form of free rations announced for a period of three
months initially, extended by another five in light of prevailing situation. 40
The distribution is to be carried out through the Public Distribution System
(PDS).
36
F. Bloch, and V. Rao, Terror as a Bargaining Instrument: A Case Study of Dowry Violence
in Rural India, 92 American Economic Review (2002); Mukesh Eswaran and Nisha
Malhotra, Domestic Violence and Women's Autonomy in Developing Countries: Theory and
Evidence, 44(4) The Canadian Journal of Economics (2011).
37
Down to Earth, Cash, on delivery: How India has taken up DBT in the times of COVID-19,
available at: [Link]
has-taken-up-dbt-in-the-times-of-covid-19-72247 (Last Accessed on November 10, 2020).
38
Id.
39
The Hindu, The COVID-19 fiscal response and India’s Standing, available at:
[Link]
[Link] (Last Accessed on November 10, 2020).
40
Down to Earth, Cash, on delivery: How India has taken up DBT in the times of COVID-19,
available at: [Link]
has-taken-up-dbt-in-the-times-of-covid-19-72247 (Last Accessed on November 10, 2020).

12
 However, despite the relief assurances by the government, there has
been barely much implementation of the same and the alleged benefits have
scarcely reached the intended beneficiaries. It has been reported that
within the first three weeks of the Lockdown, around 98% stranded workers
have not received any cash relief from the government, 96% had not
received rations from the government and in order to conserve whatever
ration they had they were barely eating one meal a day. 41 A number of other
studies and surveys conducted over various periods of time during the
lockdown have noticed similar results where majority of the promised
benefits were either not received at all or were received after inordinate
delays which would lead to hunger and starvation.42

The implementation problems are not unexpected as they are not a

recent but rather a long-standing hurdle for government welfare schemes.
Aren’t cash transfers much logistically easier to execute, short term benefits
more visible?

In fact, the government has been touting cash transfers such as JAM
(Jan Dhan Aadhar Mobile) as a magic bullet for addressing the concerns of
the various anti-poverty programs despite not having the infrastructure to
support it. Around 420 welfare schemes in India are delivered through
Direct Benefit Transfer out of which only 63 of them are in-kind transfers. 43
The PDS in India suffers from severe shortcomings however, instead of
focusing on solving these concerns, the government is more bent on

41
Stranded Workers Action Network, 21 Days and Counting: COVID-19 Lockdown, Migrant
Workers, and the Inadequacy of Welfare Measures in India (April 2020).
42
Meghna Yadav, People are skipping meals’: 68% of households in phone survey say
income has fallen since lockdown, available at: [Link]
skipping-meals-68-of-households-in-phone-survey-say-income-has-fallen-since-lockdown
(Last Accessed on November 10, 2020).
43
Down to Earth, Cash, on delivery: How India has taken up DBT in the times of COVID-19,
available at: [Link]
has-taken-up-dbt-in-the-times-of-covid-19-72247 (Last Accessed on November 10, 2020).

13
revolutionizing the cash transfer system through infrastructure it is
nowhere close to achieving. As mentioned in part II, cash transfers are not
appropriate for all poverty alleviation goals and their efficacy is highly
context-dependent.44 As Prof. Jean Dreze states, even if the infrastructural
problems with cash transfer are solved, there is still no reason to privilege
and prioritize them as the sole tools of social policy as in-kind transfers are
equally important.45

At this juncture it is important to add to the critique of direct and

unconditional benefit disbursement by mentioning the impact of cash
transfers on domestic violence. Studies show that unconditional transfers
may sometimes lead to increases in domestic violence. 46 Cash incentives
cannot be a one size fits all solution. For different targeted benefits,
different schemes need to be tailored not only in terms of mode of transfer
but also in terms of who it is transferred to. For instance, The National Food
Security Act (NFSA) identifies women as the recipients of the food
entitlement within the household. If the food entitlement is converted into a
cash entitlement, wouldn’t it undermine household food security but also
increase chances of violence against women?47

In light of the inadequacies of the existing scheme rolled out at the

wake of the pandemic and the drawbacks of direct unconditional transfers
which are often viewed as a panacea by the government, there is an urgent
need for a re-evaluation of the welfare schemes especially in light of the
Covid-19 crisis. Instead of a solely income-based approach, a focus on

44
Sudha Narayanan, A Case for Reframing the Cash Transfer Debate in India, 46
(21) Economic and Political Weekly (2011).
45
Jean Dreze, JAM and the Pursuit of Nirvana, available at: [Link]
and-the-pursuit-of-nirvana (Last Accessed on November 10, 2020).
46
Ana Maria Buller, et al, A Mixed-Method Review of Cash Transfers and Intimate Partner
Violence in Low- and Middle-Income Countries, 33(2) The World Bank Research Observer
(2018).
47
There is a brilliant discussion on this by Nitya Rao, Cash Transfers, 48(4) Economic and
Political Weekly (2013).

14
individual capabilities is required to be able to minimize negative spillover
effects from such schemes which are inevitable.48 This is all the more
important from the perspective of increasing instances of domestic violence.

2. Covid-19 and the Shadow Pandemic

The Covid-19 Pandemic has given rise to an unprecedented global

crisis. The adverse impact on the economy has dominated the discourse
however, the pandemic has had adverse implications on social aspects of
life as well. In April, UN Secretary General Antonio Guterres observed that
there was a “horrifying global surge in domestic violence” in light of
nationwide lockdowns which were being imposed across countries. 49 In a
recent study, the UN Agency for Sexual and Reproductive Health has stated
that if the nationwide lockdowns are to extend by another few months the
cases of domestic violence could easily surge to more than 31 million
worldwide.50 This increase in domestic violence globally has been termed as
the ‘shadow pandemic.’51

In India, the situation is quite bleak as well. As per the data of the
National Commission for Women (NCW) there has been an expeditious
upsurge in reported cases. As is the case with India, the real numbers are
far higher than the numbers which are reported as reporting can lead to life
threats, backlash, increased risks etc. Therefore, the situation is expected to
be much worse than the data provided. A month prior to the lockdown, the
number of complaints related to domestic violence against women received

48
See, Part I
49
United Nations Press Release, Amid Global Surge in Domestic Violence, Secretary-
General Urges Governments to Make Prevention, Redress Part of National COVID-19
Response Plans, available at: [Link] (Last
Accessed on November 10, 2020).
50
The Hindu, Coronavirus lockdown: Surge in domestic violence, says WHO, available at:
[Link]
violence-says-who/[Link] (Last Accessed on November 10, 2020).
51
Phumzile Mlambo-Ngcuka, Violence Against Women and Girls: The Shadow Pandemic,
available at: [Link]
violence-against-women-during-pandemic (Last Accessed on November 10, 2020).

15
by the NCW were 123 however, within merely the first three weeks of
lockdown this number almost doubled to 239.52 It has been stated that
during the first four phases of the lockdown, more complaints have been
recorded than it has been over the last ten years in a similar time frame. 53
This can be explained by the fact that survivors are compelled to be
confined in abusive environments with their abusers due to the imposition
of lockdown. Additional factors like restricted movement, reduced modes of
communication (in many impoverished households, women do not have
access to phone) and reduced contact with family also exacerbate the
situation.

3. Proposition

In light of the economic crisis the government’s main aim is to provide

financial security to alleviate the situation of its citizens. However, it is the
authors’ case that such welfare schemes cannot be viewed solely from the
economic perspective given the overwhelming increase in domestic
violence. As has been mentioned above, the cash transfer programs can
have incidental implications on the levels of domestic violence in a
household. Therefore, the modalities and nature of such transfer need to be
evaluated in such a way as to minimize these negative spillover effects. It
cannot be brushed aside as an ancillary issue especially at a time when
domestic violence is at an all-time high. This can be very challenging given
the fact that financial security is the top priority among impoverished
households especially during such a time of crisis. Direct cash handovers
like that being disbursed by the government therefore might be the need of
the hour but they need to be tailored to include conditions which can
52
[Link], Covid-19 lockdown: Domestic violence cases reported to NCW nearly double in
last 25 days, available at: [Link]
violence-cases-reported-to-ncw-nearly-double-in-last-25-days (Last Accessed on November
10, 2020).
53
The Hindu, Domestic violence complaints at a 10-year high during COVID-19 lockdown
available at: [Link]
year-high-during-covid-19-lockdown/[Link] (Last Accessed on November 10,
2020).

16
prevent misuse and ensure family welfare. This is because, due to the
prevalent economic recession and widespread unemployment even cash
transfers are less effective in reducing poverty related stress in households
and the manifestation of the stress in the form of violence can ultimately
hamper the objective of family welfare.

CCTs have proven to be more useful in diminishing the negative

spillover effects of cash incentives to impoverished households. This is
because CCTs not only focus on economic improvement but also behavioral
change and are a part of a wider social policy which aims to enhance the
capabilities of households.54 Admittedly, CCTs also pose a challenge in
implementation in terms of capacity development however, they are more
beneficial in the long-term as opposed to short-term effects of periodic
unconditional transfers. India does have existing CCT schemes, however,
most of them do not have financial security as the main focus such as the
Oportunidades or the Plan de Equidad scheme.

Drawing from the conclusions of the Latin American studies while

keeping in mind the specificities of India’s socio-economic background, the
authors propose that as a response to the economic as well as social crisis
brought about by the novel coronavirus, the government should create a
conditional cash transfer scheme where part of the benefit is given in the
form of cash and the other part is given as an in-kind food voucher that can
be redeemed through the PDS. This combination scheme should be
conditional to enrollment or continuation of children in (virtual) classes. 55
The cash component should factor in the opportunity cost imposing the said

54
Must read - UNDP India, Discussion Paper on Conditional Cash Transfer Schemes for
Alleviating Human Poverty: Relevance for India available at:
[Link]
[Link] (Last Accessed on November 10, 2020).
55
Since the dropout rate from schools have increased manifold. See, Times of India,
Pandemic has increased school dropouts, available at:
[Link]
dropouts/articleshow/[Link] (Last Accessed on November 10, 2020).

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condition as many impoverished households do not have the resources to
support the same even after a basic subsistence transfer. Integrating
periodic health checkups as a part of the condition of the transfer can be
done eventually once the health crisis posed by the coronavirus subsides
and the healthcare sector is less overburdened. Such a scheme would
essentially combine the different benefits given by the government even
currently under one umbrella and make it subject to conditions in such a
way that family welfare is ensured and negative spillover effects are
minimized. Women should be made the recipients of this scheme in order to
vest them with autonomy over decisions regarding family welfare. However,
it should be ensured that the cash transferred should not be so substantial
as to challenge the traditional gender role in a household where the man is
the breadwinner as it has been observed that it can lead to increased
instances of domestic violence. Therefore, this model is optimized with
respect to having maximum benefits in minimizing domestic violence as a
spillover effect of CTs.

VI. CONCLUSION

In light of Covid-19, India has been faced with a simultaneous

economic crisis as well as a shadow pandemic where there has been an
unprecedented rise in domestic violence cases. In such a scenario, focusing
on merely the economic aspect of cash transfer can be counterproductive in
the long term and therefore it is all the more necessary to factor in the
incidental implications of a welfare scheme before its implementation. Since
the existing schemes have not been able to meaningfully contribute to
alleviation of the existing dire situation, the authors propose a mixed
transfer conditional scheme tailored to India’s socio-economic context
which can minimize the negative impact on domestic violence and promote
family welfare. In the determination of the cash component of the scheme

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the authors do propose enforcing traditional gender roles to minimize
violence.

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