1 States of Matter

◼ Introduction
In our surroundings, we see a large variety of things with different shapes, sizes and
textures. The air we breathe, the food we eat, stones, clouds, stars, plants and animals, even
a small drop of water or a particle of sand, everything is matter. We can also see, as we look
around that all the things mentioned above occupy space and have mass. In other words,
they have both mass and volume.
Early Indian philosophers classified matter in the form of five basic elements "Panch Tatva"
– air, earth, fire, sky and water.
Ancient Greek philosophers also classified matter in similar manner.
Definition
Matter: Anything which occupies space (or have volume) and has mass is called matter.
Some examples of matter are water, air, metals, plants, animals, etc.
The perception of joy, love, hate, thought, cold, hot, pain is not considered as matter.
It is believed that entire universe consists of two components-matter and non-matter.
Different forms of energies are regarded as non-matter.
◼ Physical nature of matter
From a long time, there were two views about the physical nature of matter.
(i) Continuous nature, like a block of wood or a sheet of glass.
(ii) Particulate nature, that matter is made up of particles like sand.
Matter is made up of particles (Particulate nature)
The particle nature of matter can be demonstrated by a simple activity.

Add Stir
Salt

Water Salt solution Glass rod

Dissolution of salt in water

When we add some salt in a beaker filled with water, the common salt settled at the base of
the beaker, as it is a continuous form of matter. On stirring, the common salt disappeared i.e.

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it get dissolved in water. This dissolving or disappearance of common salt in water suggests
that common salt is not a continuous state of matter. Instead, it is made of extremely small
particles. The water breaks down the common salt into small particles that they are no
longer visible to the eye.
The level of water in the beaker does not rise or fall. This suggests that particles of common
salt got dispersed in water. This also suggests that there must be some hollow spaces in
water. This implies that water itself is not continuous, but is made of extremely small
particles, which are not visible to the eye. The extremely small particles of common salt
positioned themselves in the small spaces between the particles of water. This also accounts
for the fact that level of water does not rise, because the particles of common salt do not
displace it but occupy the small spaces in between the particles of water.
Size of the particles
The following activity demonstrates that the constituent particles of matter are very small.
(a) Take a 250 mL beaker and add 100 mL water to it.
(b) Now add 2-3 crystals of potassium permanganate (KMnO4) and stir with a glass rod in
order to dissolve the crystals.
(c) Take 10 mL of this solution and add to 90 mL of water taken in another beaker.
(d) Take 10 mL of this diluted solution and put into 90 mL of water taken in another beaker.
(e) Repeat this process two more times. Observe the colour of the solution in the last beaker.

Potassium permanganate colour fades on dilution with water

Observation
This experiment shows that just a few crystals of potassium permanganate can colour a large
volume of water. So, we conclude that there must be millions of tiny particles in just one
crystal of potassium permanganate which keep on dividing themselves into smaller and
smaller particles with each dilution thereby making the colour lighter and lighter. The same
activity can be done using 2 mL of Dettol instead of potassium permanganate. The smell can
be detected even on repeated dilution.
The particles of matter are very small, they are small beyond our imagination!!
Conclusion
The matter is made up of extremely small particles which cannot be seen even with a
powerful microscope, what we actually see is an aggregate of tiny particles.

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◼ Characteristics of particles of matter
(i) Particles of matter have space between them
When sugar is dissolved in water, the volume of the
liquid remains unchanged because during dissolution,
the particles of sugar get into the spaces between
Matter have spaces between the
the particles of water. particles
As a result, they get evenly distributed and there is
no noticeable change in volume. Similarly, when potassium permanganate is dissolved
in water, its particles get evenly distributed throughout the bulk of water. This is
indicated by uniform colour of the solution.
This indicates that there are spaces between particles of matter. The particles of
potassium permanganate get uniformly distributed in the spaces between water
molecules.
Similarly, when we prepare tea, coffee or lemonade (nimbu pani) we observe that
particles of one type of matter get into the spaces between particles of other.

The diver is able to cut through water in a swimming pool. Why?

Explanation
The diver is able to cut through water in the swimming pool
because matter is not continuous, but it is made up of particles
which have vacant spaces between them. Moreover, the Swimming is possible
because of spaces
attractive forces between molecules of water are not very
present between water
strong. The diver can easily cut through water by applying force molecules
to displace water and occupy its place.
(ii) Particles of matter are continuously moving
We have so far concluded from our discussion that matter is
made up of very small particles and they are separated from
one another by empty spaces or voids, also called
Diffusion of particles
interparticle spaces. of burned incense
A question will immediately come to our mind. Are these stick shows that
particles stationary or in a state of motion? The following particles of matter
are in a state of
activity will illustrate that particles are continuously moving. continuous motion
They are not stationary.

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We can get the smell of perfume sitting

KMnO4 KMnO4
several meters away. Why? crystal crystal
Explanation
This is because perfumes contain volatile solvent
which carries pleasant smelling vapours.
They diffuse quite fast and can reach to people Fast purple Light purple
sitting several meters away. colour colour
The particles of perfume(matter) are not y y
stationary but are continuously moving. They (Hot water) (cold water)
drift through the air and hence we can smell the Kinetic energy  Temperature
perfume. energy

Temperature:
The rate of mixing is faster in case of hot water. Purple colour of potassium permanganate
starts spreading on heating the solution and after some time the entire solution becomes
purple.
Conclusion
The particles of matter possess motion and the kinetic energy of the particles increases with
increase in temperature.
Nature of substance
Rate of diffusion depends upon the nature of substances. More viscous substances, which
have particles with less kinetic energy, takes more time to get diffused.
Diffusion
"The spontaneous intermixing of particles of two or more different
substances is called diffusion." The rate of diffusion becomes faster
with increase in temperature because at higher temperature, the
particles have more energy and hence move faster.
Diffusion of gas through small holes is called effusion. For example,
(a) Slowly escaping of air from a tyre pinhole.
(b) Deflating of balloon over time due to mini holes on the balloon.
Diffusion is,
Different rates of
(i) Fastest between two different gases.
diffusion by ink and
(ii) Slower between two different liquids or a solid and a liquid. honey
(iii) Slowest (or almost negligible) in case of two different solids.
Rate of diffusion increases with temperature. Thus, punctured tyre becomes flat more
quickly in summer than in winter.
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(iii) Particles of matter attract each other
Some forces of attraction between the particles of matter bind them together. Force of
attraction between particles of matter are of two types:
Cohesion force- The force of attraction (or cohesion) between the particles of same
kinds of matter. For example, water-water molecules.
Adhesion force-Between particles of different kind of substances. For example,
between water and glass molecules.

We can easily move our hand in the air but to do the same through a solid block of
wood, we need a karate expert. Why?
Explanation
In air, the interparticle attractive forces are negligible and hence, it is easy to separate the
particles in air and we can easily move our hand through it. In a solid block of wood, the
interparticle forces are very strong and hence, it is not easy to separate the particles.
Therefore, it is not easy to move our hand through a solid block of wood (only a karate expert
can do it).

1. Which of the following are matter?

Chair, air, love, smell, hole, almonds, thoughts, cold, cold
drink.
Sol. Chair, air, almonds, cold drink.
2. Give reason for the following.
(i) It is commonly observed that if a bottle of ammonia is Wooden block,
opened in one corner of the laboratory, its smell can be a solid has fixed shape
felt in the other corner of the laboratory after some
time.
(ii) The smell of hot sizzling food reaches you several meters away, but to get the smell
from cold food you have to go close.
Sol. (i) It is due to the reason that particles of ammonia gas intermix with particles of air
spontaneously and reaches every corner due to diffusion. Hence, its smell is felt.
(ii) The smell of hot sizzling food reaches us more quickly as compared to smell of cold food.
This is because rate of diffusion is faster at higher temperature than at lower
temperature.

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Memory Map
Are extremely small in size

Have spaces Between them

Particles
of
matter Are continuously moving

Attract each other

◼ States of matter
Matter around us exists in three different states:
(i) Solid (ii) Liquid (iii) Gaseous
These states of matter arise due to the variation in the
characteristics of the particles of matter. Now, let us study about
the properties of these three states of matter in detail.
The Solid State
Solids are known for their hardness and rigid nature. Different shapes of
solids
Characteristics of the solid state
(1) Solids have fixed shape.
(2) Some solids can change their shape.
(3) Solids keep their volume.
(4) Solids can be hardly compressed on applying pressure.
(5) Solids show negligible kinetic energy of the particles.
(6) Solids do not show the property of diffusion.

Why a wooden block should be called a solid?

Explanation Arrangement of
molecules in a liquid
A wooden block has a fixed shape and is rigid and follows all
properties of a solid. Hence, it should be called a solid.

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A rubber band undergoes a change in shape on stretching, still we call it a solid. Why?
Explanation
A rubber band is called a solid because although it undergoes a change in shape on stretching
yet it regains the same shape when the force is removed.

Internal structure of
Pen, Book, Needle and rubber band is like that
wooden stick of spring, that’s why it is
stretchable.
This shows different properties of solids.

1. When salt or sugar are poured into different kinds of vessels, why do they take the
shape of vessel?
Sol. Salt or sugar takes the shape of containing vessel, but does not change its individual shape.
For example, sugar crystals are cubical and they remain cubical in any vessel.
2. Sponge is a solid, yet we are able to compress it. Why?
Sol. Sponge has very small holes throughout its structure. These holes are filled with air. When
it is compressed, the air in the holes is squeezed out. Thus, we are able to compress it.
The Liquid State
The liquids have fluidity and the molecular motion is comparatively more than solids. Both
these characteristics in the liquid state are because of the presence of weaker interparticle
forces.
Characteristics of the liquid state
(1) Liquids do not have fixed shape.
(2) Liquids occupy definite volume or keep their volume.
(3) Liquids have fluidity and not rigidity. Liquids are quite often called fluids.
We generally suffer from dehydration in extreme hot weather due to the excessive loss
of fluids.

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Found. JEE-NEET : Class 7
(4) Liquids have lesser density as compared to solids.
(5) The kinetic energy of the particles in the liquid state is more than
in the solid state.
(6) Particles in the liquid state can easily diffuse.
The gases like oxygen and carbon dioxide diffuse and hence dissolve
in water. The dissolved oxygen in water is essential for the respiration
of water animals. The dissolved carbon dioxide helps the aquatic Containers of
different shapes
plants to synthesize their food by the process of photosynthesis.
The Gaseous State
Out of the three states of matter, the interparticle spaces are the maximum in the gaseous
state. The interparticle forces which hold the different particles in
the gaseous state together are the minimum. As a result, rigidity is
minimum while fluidity is maximum.
Characteristics of gaseous state Arrangement of
(1) Gases do not have fixed shape. molecules in a gas

(2) Gases have maximum fluidity and least rigidity.

(3) Gases do not have fixed volume and are highly compressible.
(4) Density of gases is very less.
(5) The kinetic energy of the particles in the gaseous state is very high.
(6) Gases exert pressure.
(7) Gases diffuse very rapidly.
Please note that even the heavier gases can rise upwards and lighter
gases can move downwards. This means that the diffusion of the
Same gas has
gases is not influenced by gravity. For example, invert a cylinder acquired different
shapes depending on
containing hydrogen gas (colourless) over a cylinder containing
the shape of balloon.
nitrogen dioxide (reddish brown) and separate the two cylinders
by a lid.
Now, remove the lid. What will you observe? Both the cylinders will acquire the same colour
i.e., light brown. This means that hydrogen gas has moved downwards and nitrogen dioxide
upwards. Both the cylinders contain a uniform mixture of these two gases and are light
brown in colour.
Air is common example of the gaseous state. It is a mixture of number of gases like nitrogen,
oxygen, carbon dioxide, inert gases, etc. A few other examples are hydrogen, ammonia,
sulphur dioxide, chlorine, etc.
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More examples
(i) CNG (Compressed natural gas) is used as fuel in internal combustion engines.
(ii) Oxygen in compressed form is supplied to hospitals for serious patients in cylinders.
(iii) LPG (Liquefied petroleum gas) which is used in home for cooking.
(iv) Cooking gas (LPG) is obtained by compressing petroleum gas into cylinders. Its major
constituent is butane(C4H10).
Comparison of compressibility of solid, liquid and gas
(a) Take three 100 mL syringes and close their nozzles by inserting them in a rubber cork.
Remove the pistons from all the syringes.
(b) Fill chalk pieces in the first, water in the second and leave third syringe as such. It
already contains air.
(c) Insert the pistons back into the syringes.
(d) Compress all the syringes by pushing the pistons.
It is observed that when the syringe containing air is compressed by applying pressure, the
piston move downward easily and it is compressed to a larger extent. But when the second
syringe containing water is compressed, it is not easily compressed and it is compressed to
a much lesser extent than that of air. The first syringe containing chalk pieces (solid) is
compressed with most difficulty.
This shows that gases are more compressible than solids and liquids.

Plunger

Chalk Water
powder
Air

Solids are not Liquids are hardly Gases are

compressible compressible compressible

Compressibility of solid, liquid and gas

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Explain why a gas fills the vessel completely, in which it is kept?

Explanation
The molecules of a gas have large intermolecular spaces and kinetic energy, but extremely
small intermolecular forces. The molecules of the gas spread in the entire space of the
containing vessel on account of high kinetic energy and practically low intermolecular
forces, hence fill entire space of the vessel.

1. Arrange the following in the order of increasing density. (Density = Mass / Volume)
Air, exhaust from chimneys, honey, water, chalk and iron.
Sol. Air, exhaust from chimneys, water, honey, chalk and iron.
Comparison of characteristic properties of solids, liquids and gases
Property Solids Liquids Gases
Not Definite. Take Not Definite. Take the
the shape of the shape of the container
Shape Definite container, but do not by occupying whole of
necessarily occupy the space available to
all the space. them.
Not Definite. Occupy
Volume Definite Definite the volume of the
container.
Compressibility Almost nil Very very less Very high
Fluidity or Rigidity Rigid Fluid Fluid
Density High Low Very low
Generally, do
Diffusion Diffuse slowly Diffuse rapidly
not diffuse
Intermolecular
Negligible More than solids Maximum
space
Intermolecular force Maximum Less than solids Minimum
Kinetic energy of
Negligible More than solids Maximum
particles

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◼ Interconversion of States of Matter
We all know from our observation that water can exist in three states of matter : solid as ice;
liquid as the familiar water and gas as water vapour. A substance may exist in three states
of matter i.e. solid, liquid or gas, depending upon the conditions of temperature and
pressure. By changing the conditions of temperature and pressure, all three states could be
obtained (solid, liquid, gas). On heating, a solid changes into a liquid which on further heating
changes into gas.

Water
Ice changes changes
into water into water
vapour

Solid Liquid Gas

Change in three states of matter

If a solid is to be converted into liquid, the interparticle spaces have to be increased.
Similarly, if a liquid is to change to the gas, these spaces have to be further increased. In other
words, we can say that one state of a substance can be converted into another by changing
interparticle spaces and interparticle forces of attraction.
Please note that the process can also be reversed under suitable conditions. This is known
as interconversion of states of matter and this can be brought about by two
Ice
ways :
(solid)
(i) By changing the temperature
(ii) By changing the pressure Cool Heat

Effect of change of temperature Water

(liquid)
As temperature increases, the ice starts changing into water. This change is
called Melting or Fusion. The temperature remains same till all the ice Cool Heat
changes into water. The thermometer shows 0°C until all the ice has melted. Steam
On further heating, the temperature starts rising. At 373 K (or 100°C), water (gas)

starts boiling. As the water continues boiling, the temperature remains Change in state
of water
constant.

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Thermometer
Thermometer
Shows 100 c
Thermometer
Thermometer Shows 100°C
Shows 0 c
Ice Shows 100°C Water
Water
Ice Water
Water Vapour
cube
cube
vapour

Temperature remains
Temperature constant
remains constantduring
duringthe
the change of state.
change of state.

This shows that temperature remains constant during the change of state.
Explanation about interconversion of different states of matter
(i) Change of state from solid to liquid-Melting
Ice is a solid. In solids, the particles are tightly packed together. When we heat a solid, its
particles become more energetic and kinetic energy of the particles increases. Due to the
increase in kinetic energy, the particles start vibrating more strongly with greater speed.
The energy supplied by heat overcomes the intermolecular forces of attraction between
the particles. As a result, the particles leave their mean position and go farther from each
other. After this, solid melts and a liquid is formed.
"The temperature at which a solid melt to become a liquid at the atmospheric pressure
is called its melting point". The melting point of ice is 0°C. It may also be written as
273.15 K or 273 K.
°C + 273 = K
In Kelvin temperature, the symbol (°) is not used. Temperature on Celsius scale from
temperature in Fahrenheit can be calculated by the following formula:
9/5 (°C) = °F – 32
Conversion of temperature on Celsius scale to Kelvin scale
For example, 0°C = 0 + 273 = 273 K
100°C = 100 + 273 = 373 K
Conversion of temperature on Kelvin scale to Celsius scale
For example, 373 K = 373 – 273 = 100°C
273 K = (273 – 273) = 0°C

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 Chemistry

1. Convert the following temperatures to the Celsius scale.

(a) 300 K (b) 573 K
Ans. (a) (300 – 273) = 27°C. (b) (573 – 273) = 300°C.
2. Convert the following temperature to the Kelvin scale.
(a) 27°C (b) 378°C
Ans. (a) 27 + 273 = 300 K (b) 378 + 273 = 651 K
Latent heat (hidden heat)
It is observed that the temperature of the system does not change after melting point is
achieved till all the ice melts, though we continue to heat the beaker. This happens because
the heat supplied is used in changing the state by breaking the intermolecular forces of
attraction which hold them in solid state. As a result, there is no change in temperature till
all the ice melts. This energy required to change solid into liquid is called "latent heat".
The word "latent" means "hidden" because this energy is hidden into the contents of the
beaker.
Latent heat is of two types
(a) Latent heat of fusion (b) Latent heat of vaporization
Latent heat of fusion
Latent heat of fusion is defined as the amount of heat energy required to change 1 kg of a
solid into liquid at atmospheric pressure without any change in temperature at its melting
point. The latent heat of fusion of ice is 3.34 × 105 J/kg.
(ii) Change of state from liquid to solid-Freezing
When the temperature of a solid is raised, it melts to form a liquid. Conversely, if the
temperature of a liquid is lowered, the reverse process takes place. The kinetic energy of
the particles decreases and the particles start moving slowly. As the temperature is
further lowered, the attractive forces pull the particles close to each other and the
substance freezes i.e. the liquid changes into solid. Thus, the temperature at which a
liquid freezes to become a solid at atmospheric pressure is called its freezing point.
(iii) Change of state from liquid to gas-Boiling
In a liquid most of the particles are close to each other. When we supply heat energy to
the liquid, the particles of water start vibrating even faster. Some of the particles become
so energetic that they can overcome the attractive forces of the particles around them.
Therefore, they become free to move and escape from the liquid. Thus, the liquid
evaporates i.e. starts changing into gas. "The temperature at which a liquid changes into
gas or vapour at the atmospheric pressure is called its boiling point."
For example, the boiling point of water is 100°C or 373 K.
Latent heat of vaporization
The latent heat of vaporization of a liquid is the quantity of heat in joules required to
convert 1 kilogram of the liquid (at its boiling point) to vapour or gas, without any change
in temperature. The latent heat of vaporization of water is 22.5 × 105 joules per kilogram
(or 22.5 × 105 J/kg).

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Why it takes much longer to cook food in the hills (mountains) than in the plains
(Sea level)?
Explanation
The boiling point of a liquid depends upon the pressure acting on it. It increases, if the
pressure is increased or decreases if the pressure acting on it is decreased. For example,
water boils at 373 K at sea level where the pressure is 1 atmosphere. However, on
mountains, it boils at a lower temperature where the pressure is less than 1 atmosphere.
Because water boils at a lower temperature at hills food will cook at a lower temperature
and it will take longer to get enough heat for cooking. It is because of this reason that cooking
of food takes longer time on mountains and lesser time in plains.
(iv) Change of state from gas to liquid-Condensation
When a gas or vapour is cooled by lowering its temperature, the
kinetic energy of their constituent particles decreases. Due to
decrease in the kinetic energy, the particles start moving slowly.
As the temperature is further lowered, the attractive forces pull
the particles close together and the gas or vapour condenses i.e.
gas or vapour changes into liquid. Thus, the process of changing
Droplets formed on
a gas (or vapour) to liquid by cooling is called condensation. the outer surface of
For example, we see water droplets on the outer surface of a the glass containing
glass containing ice-cold water. ice cold water.

The water vapour present in air, on coming in contact with the cold glass of water loses
energy and gets converted to liquid state, which we see as water droplets.
(v) Sublimation
The process of conversion of a solid into gas or viceversa without undergoing into liquid
state is known as sublimation. The process of conversion of a gas into solid state is
known as deposition or desublimation.
For example, ammonium chloride, camphor, iodine, naphthalene, solid carbon dioxide
(dry ice), anthracene undergoes sublimation.
Sublimation can be represented as
Heating
Solid Cooling
Gas

Sublime: A gaseous form, directly formed from a solid on heating, is known as sublime.
Sublimate: A solid state of matter formed directly from its gaseous state on cooling, is
called sublimate.

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 Chemistry

Cotton plug
Vapours of Inverted funnel
ammonium
chloride Solidified
ammonium chloride
Ammonium
chloride

Sublimation of ammonium chloride

Solid ammonium chloride on heating gets converted into vapour which gets condensed on
the funnel. Solid state is directly converted into gaseous state.
More examples of sublimation
(i) In very cold places, the snow does not melt but sublimes directly to vapours.
(ii) In frost-free refrigerators, ice on the walls of the freezer sublimes when warm air is
circulated through the compartment during the defrost cycle.
Water vapour

Freezing

Melting
(at 0°C)

Ice Water
Effect of change of pressure
To convert a gas into a liquid or to convert a liquid into a solid, the interparticle distances
must by decreased and the interparticle forces of attraction must be made stronger. This can
be done in the following ways:

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Found. JEE-NEET : Class 7
(i) By applying pressure
(ii) By lowering temperature or
(iii) By combination of both the factors discussed above.
(i) By applying pressure
Gases are compressible because on applying pressure, the spaces between the gaseous
particles decrease. Therefore, gases can be compressed readily.
Piston
Piston

Gas Gas
particles particles

By applying pressure particles of gas can be brought close together.

(ii) By lowering temperature
If we cool the gas, the kinetic energy decreases and the particles slow down. As a result,
interparticle distances decrease and interparticle forces of attraction increase which
pull the gas particles close to form a liquid.
(iii) By combination of both the factors discussed above
From the above discussion, it is evident that a gas can be liquefied either by increasing
the pressure or by lowering the temperature. However, in most of cases, a combination
of both these factors is used to liquefy the gases. If the pressure on the liquefied gas is
further increased and the temperature further lowered, the liquefied gas may change
into the solid state.
Liquid

Deposition/De-sublimation
Solid Gas
Sublimation

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Why solid CO2 is also known as dry ice?

Explanation
If carbon dioxide gas is cooled under high pressure, it can
be directly converted into solid carbon dioxide called dry
ice. If the pressure on dry ice is decreased to one
atmosphere, it sublimes i.e. it directly gets converted into
the gaseous state (i.e. carbon dioxide gas) without passing
through the intervening liquid state. As a result, unlike
ordinary ice, dry ice does not wet the surface on which it is
kept. It is because of this reason that solid carbon dioxide
is called dry ice. It is used as a refrigerant under the name Solid CO2
dricold.
Three conditions of temperature and pressure which decide the state of matter:
⚫ If the melting point of a substance is above the room temperature at the atmospheric
pressure, it is classified as solid.
⚫ If the boiling point of a substance is above room temperature under atmospheric
pressure, it is classified as liquid.
⚫ If the boiling point of the substance is below the room temperature at the atmospheric
pressure, it is classified as gas.
◼ Evaporation
"The process of a liquid changing into vapour (or gas) at any temperature below its boiling
point is called evaporation."
Whatever be the temperature at which evaporation takes place, the latent heat of
vaporization must be supplied whenever a liquid changes into vapour (or gas).
For example,
(i) Water in ponds changes from liquid to vapour without reaching the boiling point.
(ii) Water when left uncovered slowly changes into vapour.
(iii) When we put wet clothes for drying, the water from the clothes goes to the atmosphere.

Differences between evaporation and boiling

Evaporation Boiling
1 Evaporation process takes place Boiling takes place only at definite
spontaneously at all temperatures. temperature (boiling point) at which the
vapour pressure of the liquid is equal to
atmospheric pressure.
2 Evaporation takes place only at the Boiling takes place even below the surface
surface of the liquid. of the liquid in the form of bubbles.
Evaporation is a surface Boiling is a bulk phenomenon.
phenomenon.
3 It always causes cooling. It doesn’t cause cooling.

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Factors affecting evaporation

Factors
affecting
evaporation

Acetone is a
volatile liquid

(i) Nature of liquid

Different liquids have different rates of evaporation. A liquid having weaker interparticle
attractive forces evaporates at faster rate because less energy is required to overcome
the attractive forces.
For example, Acetone evaporates faster than water.
(ii) Surface area of the liquid
The evaporation depends upon the surface area. If the
surface area is increased, the rate of evaporation increases
because the high energy particles from liquid can go into
gas phase only through surface.
Well spread clothes
For example, dry faster
(a) The rate of evaporation increases when we put kerosene
or petrol in an open china dish than in a test tube.
(b) Clothes dry faster when they are well spread because the surface area for
evaporation increases.
(iii) Temperature
Rate of evaporation increases with increase in temperature. This is because with the
increase in temperature more number of particles get enough kinetic energy to go into
the vapour state (or gaseous state).
For example, clothes dry faster in summers than in winters.
(iv) Humidity in the air
The air around us contains water vapour or moisture. The amount of water present in
the air is referred as humidity.

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 Chemistry
The air cannot hold more than a definite amount of water vapour at a given temperature.
If the humidity is more, the rate of evaporation decreases. The rate of evaporation is
more if the air is dry.
For example, clothes do not dry easily during rainy season because the rate of
evaporation is less due to high moisture content(humidity) in the air.
(v) Wind speed
The rate of evaporation also increases with increase in speed of the wind. This is because
with increase in speed of wind, the particles of water vapour move away with wind,
resulting in decrease in the amount of vapour in the atmosphere.
For example,
(a) Clothes dry faster on a windy day.
(b) In a desert cooler, an exhaust fan sucks the moist air from the cooler chamber which
results in greater rate of evaporation of water and hence greater cooling.

Why evaporation causes cooling?

Explanation
During evaporation, cooling is always caused. This is because
evaporation is a phenomenon in which only the high energy particles
leave the liquid surface. As a result, the particles having low energy
are left behind. Therefore, the average molecular energy of the
remaining particles left in the liquid state is lowered. As a result,
there is decrease in temperature on the part of the liquid that is left. Desert cooler
Thus, evaporation causes cooling.
For example,
(a) When we pour some acetone (nail polish remover) on our palm, we feel cold. This is
because the particles gain energy from our palm or surroundings and leave the palm
feeling cool.
(b) We sprinkle water on the roof or open ground after a sunny hot day. This cools the roof
or open ground. This is because the large latent heat of vaporization of water helps to
cool the hot surface.

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Found. JEE-NEET : Class 7
Some other examples of evaporation
(i) We should wear cotton clothes in hot summer days to keep us cool and
comfortable.
We get a lot of sweat on our body in hot summer days. Cotton is a good
absorber of water, so it absorbs the sweat from our body and exposes
it to the air for evaporation. The evaporation of this sweat cools our
body. The synthetic clothes (made of polyester, etc) do not absorb
much of sweat, so they fail to keep our body cool in summer.
(ii) Water stays cool in the earthen pot(matki) during summer.
Water cools because
When the water seeps out of the pores of an earthen pot during hot
of evaporation.
summer, it evaporates rapidly. As the cooling is caused by
evaporation, therefore, the temperature of water within the pot
falls and hence it becomes cool.
(iii) Rapid cooling of hot tea.
If tea is too hot to sip, we pour it in the saucer. In doing so, we
increase the surface area and the rate of evaporation increases.
This, in turn, causes cooling and the tea attains a desired
temperature for sipping.
Tea cools because
(iv) A wet handkerchief is placed on the forehead of a person of evaporation
suffering from high fever.
The logic behind placing wet cloth is that as the water from the wet cloth evaporates, it
takes heat from the forehead. This, in turn, lowers the temperature of head and protects
brain from any damage due to high temperature.
(vi) We often sprinkle water on the road in summer.
The water evaporates rapidly from the hot surface of the road, thereby taking heat
away from it. Thus, the road becomes cool.
◼ Plasma
Definition: Plasma is the fourth phase of matter, apart from the traditional solids, liquids
and gases. It is made from a gas that has lost its electrons due to heat.
Plasma was first identified as "radiant matter" by Sir William Crookes in 1879. Irving
Langmuir assigned the term "Plasma" in 1928.
Composition: Plasma may be formed by heating and ionizing a gas. It is a collection of
charged particles that respond strongly and collectively to electromagnetic fields, taking the
form of gas like clouds or ion beams.
⚫ Plasma is distinct from a gas because it possesses unique properties.

⚫ Plasma has neither a definite volume nor a definite shape.

⚫ Free electrical charges (not bound to atoms or ions) cause plasma to be electrically

conductive.

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 Chemistry
For example, Flame, interstellar nebulae, aurora borealis, lightning stars, and even the
empty vastness of space are all examples of the plasma state of matter. You can find plasma
inside fluorescent lights and neon signs.
Since the particles in plasma are electrically charged (generally by being stripped of
electrons), it is frequently described as an "ionized gas". In plasma, electrons are away from
their nuclei, forming an electron "sea". This gives it the ability to conduct electricity.
◼ Bose-Einstein condensate-BEC (5th state of matter)
A Bose-Einstein condensate is a gaseous superfluid
phase formed by atoms cooled to temperature very
near to absolute zero.
Satyendra Bose and Albert Einstein, had predicted it in
the 1920. They didn't have the equipment and facilities
Bose and A. Einstein
to make it happen in the 20s. The first such condensate was
produced by Eric Cornell, Ketterle and Carl Wieman in 1995, using a gas of rubidium
atoms cooled at 170 nanokelvins (nK).
As in plasma, atoms are super-hot and super excited, the atoms in a Bose Einstein
condensate (BEC) are total opposites. They are super-unexcited and super-cold atoms.
The BEC forms at super low temperatures. At zero Kelvin, all molecular motion stops.
When you get to a temperature near absolute zero, atoms begin to clump. The result of this
clumping is the BEC. A group of atoms takes up the same place, creating a "super atom".
There are no longer thousands of separate atoms. They all take on the same qualities and
become one blob.
Some important quantities and the units
Quantity Unit Symbol
Mass Kilogram kg
Length Meter m
Temperature Kelvin K
Weight/force Newton N
Volume Cubic meter m3
Density Kilogram kg/m3
/Cubic meter
Pressure Pascal Pa

Some Important Relations

1kg = 1000g
1m = 100 cm
1m3 = 106 cm3 or 103 L (litre)
103cm3 = 1L

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