Chapter Three Gases measurement &analysis

Chapter Three

Gases measurement and analysis

Many gases must be measured in quantity and quality for their suitability for a
process. Gases are not so easy to measure. The properties of gases, invisibility and
intangibility, mean that human senses are not useful. Instrumentation of a
more or less development level is essential to work with gases.

Mach number (Ma):

Mach number is defined as fluid velocity to sonic velocity.
𝑈
𝑀𝑎 =
𝑈𝑤

U = Fluid velocity (m/s).

US = Sonic velocity (343.2m/s) at 20°C or (334m/s) at 4°C.

Ma < 1 Subsonic flow.

Ma = 1 Sonic flow.
Ma > 1 Supersonic flow.

Velocity of Pressure Waves:

𝑈𝑤 = √𝛾 𝑃 𝜈 or 𝑈𝑤 = √𝛾 𝑅 𝑇

UW= Velocity of Pressure Wave (m/s). T = Temperature (K).

P = Pressure Wave (pa) R = Gas constant (286.689 J/Kg.K)
ν = Specific volume of Gas (m3/kg).

𝐶𝑃 𝐶𝑃
𝛾= 𝐶𝑃 − 𝐶𝑉 = 𝑅 𝛾=
𝐶𝑉 𝐶𝑃 −𝑅

γ = The ratio of the specific heats at constant Pressure and constant volume

1
Chapter Three Gases measurement &analysis

CP = Specific heat at constant pressure.

CV = Specific heat at constant volume.

Example: Calculate the sonic velocity in the air at temperature 273ºK where,
[Link] of air = 29Kg/Kmol, Cp = 0.993KJ/Kg.K, R= 8.314KJ/Kmol.K. Assume
sonic velocity equal to velocity of pressure wave in the air.

Solution
𝐾𝐽 103 𝐽 𝐾𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐽
𝑅 = 8.314 → 𝑅 = 286.689
𝐾𝑚𝑜𝑙 .𝐾 1𝐾𝐽 29 𝐾𝑔 𝐾𝑔 .𝐾

𝐶𝑃 0.993 ∗ 103
𝛾= = → 𝛾 = 1.405
𝐶𝑃 − 𝑅 (0.993 ∗ 103 − 286.689)

𝑈𝑤 = √𝛾𝑅𝑇

𝑈𝑤 = √1.405 ∗ 286.689 ∗ 273

Uw = 331.6 m/s → (sonic velocity) → (velocity of pressure wave)

Gas flow measurement

Venturi and orifice meters:

Probably the simplest way to measure a gas flow is to include a venturi or an
orifice plate. The flow is related to the square root of the pressure drop across
the device. The venturi can be regarded simply as a low-loss orifice and both
can be treated by similar theory.

Orifice meter

2
Chapter Three Gases measurement &analysis

Venturi meter

Note that the Q value obtained also depends on the absolute pressure of the
venturi/orifice via the density. Note also that Q will vary from gas to gas,
depending on the gas density. The constant Cd is a correction factor for the
particular geometry of venturi and is close to 1 for good venturi devices. Cd is less
than 1, typically 0.65 but varying with Reynolds number, for orifice
plates.
Venturi meters are preferred when accurate measurements are made, or when
a low net pressure drop is required; a good venturi will have very little energy
loss as the pressure lost in the constriction is nearly all replaced in the
diverging section downstream. Orifice plates are used for convenience; they
can be inserted into a flanged joint, for example, quickly and at minimal cost.
They have the disadvantage that they induce a high pressure drop and are not
in general so accurate.

(a) Orifice meter (b) Venturi meter

3
Chapter Three Gases measurement &analysis

Orifice meter:

Critical Pressure Ratio:

𝐾
2 𝐾+1
𝑟𝐶 = [ ]
𝐾+1
𝑃2
𝑟𝐶 =
𝑃𝑆

rC = Critical Pressure Ratio.

P2= Pressure after an Orifice (KN/m2).
PS= Pressure when Gas velocity = Sonic Velocity (Mach NO. = 1) (KN/m2).

Mass flow rate of discharge (kg/s):

A. Mass flowrate of discharge when cylinder pressure lower than PS (kg/s):

For (P2/P1) > (rc)
1. For the isothermal flow of an ideal gas:

𝐶𝑑 𝐴0 𝑃1
𝐺= √2𝑃1 𝜈1 ln
𝜈2 𝑃2

4
Chapter Three Gases measurement &analysis

2. For non-isothermal flow of an ideal gas:

𝐾−1
𝐶𝑑 𝐴0 𝐾 𝑃2 𝐾
𝐺= √2𝑃1 𝜈1 ( ) [1 − ( ) ]
𝜈2 𝐾−1 𝑃1

B. Maximum Mass flowrate of discharge when cylinder pressure in exceeds of

PS (kg/s) : For (P2/P1) < (rc)
1. For Isothermal flow of an ideal gas:

2. For Non Isothermal flow of an ideal gas:

𝑲+𝟏
𝑲𝑷𝟏 𝟐 𝑲−𝟏
𝑮𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝑪𝒅 𝑨𝟎 √ ( )
𝝂𝟏 𝑲 + 𝟏

𝑃.𝑀𝑤𝑡
G= Mass flowrate of discharge (kg/s). 𝜌=
𝑅.𝑇
Cd= Correction factor (Dimensionless unit)
ν1, ν2 = Specific volume of gas before and after an orifice respectively (m3/Kg) =1/ρ
ρ = Gas density (Kg/m3),
P1 , P2 = Pressure of gas before and after an orifice respectively (N/m2).
K= The ratio of the specific heats at constant Pressure and constant volume (CP/Cv)
(Non Isothermal).
A° = Area of Orifice (m2).
P2 = Pa= Atmospheric Pressure (N/m2).
ν2 = νa = 1/ρ
ρ2 = ρa = (m3/Kg).

P1 ν1 = P2 ν2 = Pa νa

5
Chapter Three Gases measurement &analysis

𝑮𝟏 𝑷𝟏
=
𝑮𝟐 𝑷𝟐

G1 , G2 = Mass flow rate at P1, P2 respectively.

P1 ,P2 = Pressure at two different conditions.

Example: Air at pressure of 1500KN/m2 and a temperature of 370K flows through

an orifice of 6.18 mm to atmospheric pressure. If the coefficient of discharge is
0.65 and ratio of the specific heats is 1.4, calculate the weight flowing per second.

Solution:
𝜋 2 𝜋
𝐴= 𝑑 = (6.18)2 = 30 𝑚𝑚2 = 30 ∗ 10−6 𝑚
4 4
𝐾 1.4
2 𝐾−1 2 1.4−1
𝑟𝐶 = [ ] =[ ] = 0.527
𝐾+1 1.4 + 1
𝑃2 101.3 𝐾𝑁
𝑃𝑆 = = = 192.2 2
𝑟𝐶 0.527 𝑚

𝑃1 = 1500 > 𝑃𝑆 = 192.2 (𝑐𝑦𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑒𝑥𝑐𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑃𝑆 )

𝑃1 𝑀𝑤𝑡 1500 ∗ 29 𝐾𝑔
𝜌1 = → → 14.14 3
𝑅. 𝑇 8.314 ∗ 370 𝑚
1 1 𝑚3
𝜈1 = → → 0.0707
𝜌1 14.14 𝐾𝑔
𝐾+1
𝐾. 𝑃1 2 𝐾−1
𝐺 = 𝐶𝑑 𝐴0 √( )[ ]
𝜈1 𝐾+1
1.4+1
1.4 ∗ 1500000 2 1.4−1
𝐺 = 0.65 ∗ 30 ∗ 10−6 √ [ ]
0.0707 1.4 + 1

G = 0.061 Kg/s (maximum of flowrate of gas)

6
Chapter Three Gases measurement &analysis

Pitot tube:
The principle of operation of a pitot tube is measured the point velocity of a
flowing fluid and not the average velocity so that in order to find the average
velocity, a traverse across the duct is necessary.

The point velocity is given by 𝑢 = √(2𝑔ℎ)

Where:
h: is the difference of head expressed in terms of the fluid flowing.

Velocity distribution:
For streamline flow the velocity distribution is shown in equation below
𝑢𝑆 𝑆2
= 1 − ( 2)
𝑢𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑟
Where:
us : is the point velocity at a distance (s) from the wall.
umax : is the point velocity at the axis.
r : is the radius of the pipe.

Example:
If a pitot tube is inserted in a circular cross-section pipe in which a fluid is in
streamline flow, calculate at what point in the cross-section it should be situated so
as to give a direct reading representative of the mean velocity of flow of the fluid.

Solution:
𝑢
the average velocity as 𝑢𝑎𝑣 = 𝑚𝑎𝑥
2

𝑢𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑢𝑠 𝑆2
= 2 = 1 − ( 2)
𝑢𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑢𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑟

This point in the cross-section of pipe it should be situated to give a direct reading
in pitot tube.

7
 Chapter Three Gases measurement &analysis

Example:
The flowrate of air at 298K in a 0.3m duct is measured with a pitot tube which is
used to traverse the cross-section. Readings of the differential pressure recorded on
a water manometer are taken with the pitot tube at ten different positions in the
cross-section. These positions are so chosen as to be the midpoints of ten
concentric annuli each of the same cross-sectional area. The readings are as
follows:

Position 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Manometer reading
18.5 18.0 17.5 16.8 15.7 14.7 13.7 12.7 11.4 10.2
(mm water)

The flow is also metered using a 15 cm orifice plate across which the pressure
differential is 50 mm on a mercury-under-water manometer. What is the
coefficient of discharge of the orifice meter Cd?

Solution:
Cross-sectional area of duct =
0.0707
Area of each concentric annulus = = 0.00707 m²
10
If the diameters of the annuli are designated etc.:

𝜋 2
0.00707 = (𝑑1 − 𝑑22 )
4
𝜋
0.00707 = (𝑑22 − 𝑑32 ) 𝑒𝑡𝑐 ..
4
The mid-points of each annulus may be calculated across the duct. For a pitot
tube the velocity may be calculated from the head h as:

8
Chapter Three Gases measurement &analysis

For position (1) h =18.5 mm of water:

𝐾𝑔
𝑀.𝑤𝑡 ( ) 273
𝐾𝑚𝑜𝑙
The density of the air = 𝑚3
∗
𝜈( ) 298
𝐾𝑚𝑜𝑙

𝜌(𝑎𝑖𝑟) ∗ 𝑔 ∗ ℎ(𝑎𝑖𝑟) = 𝜌(𝐻2 𝑂) ∗ 𝑔 ∗ ℎ(𝐻2 𝑂)

1000
ℎ(𝑎𝑖𝑟) = 18.5 ∗ 10−3 ∗ → ℎ = 15.6 𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑖𝑟
1.186

In the same way, the velocity distribution across the tube may be found. The
calculations being shown in the table opposite (volumetric flowrate Q = 1.107 m3/s).

Mass flowrate G = Q * ρ = 1.107 * 1.186 =1.313 kg/s

considering the orifice,
h=50 mmHg under water

[𝜌(𝐻𝑔) − 𝜌(𝐻2 𝑂)] ∗ 𝜌(𝐻2 𝑂) ∗ ℎ(𝐻2 𝑂) = 𝜌(𝑎𝑖𝑟) ∗ ℎ(𝑎𝑖𝑟)

And

from which CD = 0.61

9
Chapter Three Gases measurement &analysis

The velocity profile across the duct is plotted in below figure:

10
Chapter Three Gases measurement &analysis

Pressure measurement
Pressure is the ratio of a force to the area on which the force acts.
Pressure = Force / Area
Unit of pressure (SI) = N/m2 (Pascal) Pa.
Pressure conversion:
1 bar = 101325 Pa = 101.325 KPa
= 1 atm
= 760 mmHg (Torr)
= 14.7 Psi (lbf / in2)
= 1.0255 Kg/ cm2 (Industrial Unit)

Types of Pressure:
1. Atmospheric pressure (Pa)
2. Hydrostatic pressure (PH)
3. Absolute pressure (Pab)
4. Vacuum pressure (PVac)

Pab = P Gauge + Pa
Pab = 0 + 1 = 1 atm
Psia = Psig + 14.7

Fluid Pressure measurements:

1. Bourdon Gauge: used to measure fluid pressures from nearly perfect vacuums
to about 7000atm
2. Manometers: used to measure fluid pressures below about 3 atm (more accurate).
a- Open end manometer.
b- Differential manometer.
c- Sealed end manometer.
3. Barometer: Sealed end manometer is exposed to atmosphere.

11
Chapter Three Gases measurement &analysis

Bourdon Gauge
General manometer equation:

𝑃1 − 𝑃2 = 𝜌2 . 𝑔. ℎ2 − 𝜌1 . 𝑔. ℎ1 + 𝜌𝑓 . 𝑔. ℎ

= 𝜌. 𝑔. (ℎ2 − ℎ1 ) + 𝜌𝑓 . 𝑔. ℎ

= 𝜌. 𝑔. (−ℎ) + 𝜌𝑓 . 𝑔. ℎ

𝑃1 − 𝑃2 = (𝜌𝑓 − 𝜌). 𝑔. ℎ

- If both fluids are gases:

- If are expressed as heads of the manometer fluid then, 𝑃1 − 𝑃2 = ℎ

Example: The pressure gauge on a tank of CO2 used to fill soda – Water bottles read
51Psia. At the same time the Barometer reads 28in Hg. What is the absolute pressure in
the tank in Psig?
Solution:

Pressure gauge = 51 psia

12
Chapter Three Gases measurement &analysis

𝑃𝑎𝑏 = 𝑃𝑔𝑎𝑢𝑔𝑒 + 𝑃𝑎
= 51+13.76 → 64.8 psia
𝑃𝑠𝑖𝑎 = 𝑃𝑠𝑖𝑔 + 14.7
= 64.8 – 14.7 →psig = 50.1 Psig

Example: Air is flowing through a duct under a draft of 0.12inHg. The Barometer
indicates that the atmospheric pressure is 28.74inHg. What is the absolute pressure
(P1) of the gas in inches of Mercury (inHg)?

Solution:

Pa=P2=28.74 inHg

P1 - P2 = h

P1 = h + P2

P1 = - 0.12 + 28.74 → P1 = 28.6 inHg

Or: point A = point B

P1 + h = P2

P1 + 0.12 in Hg = 28.74 → P1 = 28.6 in Hg

Temperature Measurement
The Temperature of substance is a measure of the average kinetic energy processed
by the substance molecules.

13
Chapter Three Gases measurement &analysis

Temperature measuring devices:

There are different types of temperature devices of fluid:
1. Thermometer: volume of a fixed mass of fluid.
2. Thermocouple: based on voltage at the junction of two dissimilar metals.
3. Pyrometer: Spectra of emitted radiation.
4. Resistance thermometer (Thermistor): based on electrical resistance of a conductor.

Thermometer

14
Chapter Three Gases measurement &analysis

Thermocouple

Pyrometer Resistance thermometer

15
Chapter Three Gases measurement &analysis

Temperature Scales:
Scale Temp. of Freezing Temp. of Boiling Absolute Zero
Celsius (°C) 0 100 -273
Fahrenheit (°F) 32 212 - 460
Kelvin (°K) 273.15 373.15 0
Rankin (°R) 492 672 0

16
Chapter Three Gases measurement &analysis

Temperature conversion Formula:

T (°K) = T (°C) + 273.15
T (°F) = 1.8 T (°C) + 32
T (°R) = 1.8 T (K)
T (°R) = T (°F) + 459.67
1∆°C = 1 ∆K
1 ∆°F = 1 ∆°R
1 ∆°C = 1.8 ∆°F
1 ∆K = 1.8 ∆°R

Example: The heat capacity of Methane has the units J/mol.K and is given by the
relation : Cp (J/mol.K) = 34.31+5.469*102 T (K)

𝐽
𝐶𝑝 = ( ) = 34.31 + 5.469 ∗ 102 𝑇 (𝐾)
𝑚𝑜𝑙. 𝐾
Where: T is expressed in (°K). Modify the formula so that the resulting expression
gives units of Cal/mol.°R and T is in (°R). conversion of the unit for the overall
equation

1𝐾
1.8 𝑅

𝑐𝑎𝑙
𝐶𝑝 = [34.31 + 5.469 ∗ 102 𝑇(𝐾)] ∗ 0.1327
𝑚𝑜𝑙. 𝑅

17
Chapter Three Gases measurement &analysis

° (𝑅)
𝑇 ° (𝑅)
𝑇 = 1.8𝑇(𝐾) → 𝑇(𝐾) =
1.8

Gas Analysis

Description of the laboratory system:

The laboratory system consists of many items such as glasses which have different
sizes and other tools and instruments such as:-
1. Sample cylinder (Figure 1).
2. Gas chromatography (GC.) (Figure 2).
3. Computer.
4. Condenser immersed in an ice bath (Figure 3).

Steps Preparation and analysis of Gases Samples:

A. Gases sample preparation:

The gas samples are prepared by taking each sample from the drain valve which is
located on the stream line (pipe) by the sample cylinder, the pressure of the product
gases is reduced to 1 atm by back pressure regulator, as the following steps:
1. Purging any residual gases by opening the inlet and outlet valves of the
Sample cylinder. This process is carried out for 1 minute to ensure the
sample cylinder becoming empty.
2. Filling the sample cylinder with the process gas after removing all residual
gases for 1 minute then, closing the inlet and outlet valves, and then sent to a
gas chromatograph (G.C) for analysis.

18
Chapter Three Gases measurement &analysis

B. Analysis of gases samples

Gas chromatography description:

G.C is probably the most powerful single technique available to the analyst.
Although [Link] are most often seen in the laboratory. Automated GC analysers,
although complex, may run reliably for years with little intervention.

The GC concept is straightforward, a steady stream, typically of pure gas, the

‘carrier gas’ or ‘mobile phase’, is passed along a long thin tube, the ‘column’.

The tube is packed with a solid absorbent, the ‘stationary phase’, such that the gas
may still easily pass. The (small) sample for analysis is then injected swiftly as a
‘bolus’ into the gas stream. The components of the sample bolus are then
reversibly absorbed by the first part of the column, then released and carried a little
further up the column before being absorbed again.

In normal practice the carrier gas should not be one of the components to be
measured. Helium, hydrogen, nitrogen and air are probably the carrier gas should
at least be free from troublesome impurities like water (which slowly degrades
molecular sieve columns)

Complete GC gas analysis system.

19
Chapter Three Gases measurement &analysis

Flame ionisation detector for GC.

Gas chromatography analysis:

The method of G.C analysis can be summarized by the following steps:

1. The temperatures, heating procedures and operational scheme of the G.C

are all programmed and saved in a specified file through the Keyboard Panel
of the G.C.
2. Process gases are fed to the G.C by opening the sample cylinder valve.
3. Put the outlet valve of the G.C on close key, ready to do the experiment
after purging the gases from the G.C.

Type limitation and concentration of each gas:

The type of each gas has been limited by the calibration of the G.C by using
standard bottles of each gas (Air, N2, H2, CO, CO2, and CH4) to find the area of
each curve drawing by the G.C for each gas. A computer program compares
between standard curves with drawn curves of unknown gas to limited type of gas,
the concentrations of gases are limited by the following correlation:

Concentration of gas= (Factor*Area of curve of unknown gas)/Area of curve of air.

20
Chapter Three Gases measurement &analysis

Separation of a gas mixture on a Porapak column.

Figure (1) The sample cylinder of gases in the lab.

21
Chapter Three Gases measurement &analysis

Figure (2) The gas chromatography (G.C.) in the lab

Figure (3) Condenser immersed in an ice bath in the lab.

22