AGRICULTURAL

ENGINEERING
Seventh edition

68 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

 Copyright © 2020 by Agri Coaching Chandigarh
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Agri Coaching Chandigarh 69

 About Agri Coaching Chandigarh:

We guide the students in a way that focuses on the concepts and not just facts. Conceptual
along with factual study is always important for the students so as to be able to answer or solve
any type of question related to the subject. Agri Coaching Chandigarh is moving towards
attaining excellence in the field of competitive exams such as NABARD, IBPS-AFO, RRB-
SO, ADO, AAO, ADA, BHU, Pre-PG, Supervisor and others competitive exams and we are
always ready to shape your knowledge and concepts as per the exam you are willing to appear
for.
हमारा लक्ष्य हमारे छात्रों का मार्ग दर्ग न कुछ इस तरह से करना है कक उनका संघर्ग हमेर्ा उन्हें चयन कक
तरफ ले जाये। क्योंकक किना मार्ग दर्ग न के अभाव में व्यकि कदर्ाहीन नाव की तरह हो जाता है। क्योंकक
छात्र के चयन मे दो िातें सवाग किक महत्वपर् ू ग होती है। प्रथम -छात्र द्वारा ककिन पररश्रम एवं दूसरा, जो प्रथम
के ही समान महत्व रखता है –
“कुर्ल मार्ग दर्ग न”, जो छात्रों के हार्ग वकग को स्मार्ग वकग में तब्दील कर दे ।
“सुप्तस्ये कसंहस्य मुखे नहीं प्रकवर्कन्त मर्
ृ ा:”
अथाग त् , सोए हु ए कसंह के मुख में अपने आप कहरर् प्रवेर् नहीं करता । उसी प्रकार ककसी भी सफलता प्राकप्त
हे तु छात्र का प्रयत्नर्ील होना कनतांत आवश्यक है । ”ककिन पररश्रम” ही सफलता का प्रथम सोपान
(सीढ़ी) है ।
अक्सर यह कवकदत होता है कक प्रकतभार्ाली से प्रकतभार्ाली छात्र ककिन पररश्रम के उपरांत भी प्रकतयोर्ी
परीक्षाओं में सफलता से वंकचत रह जाते हैं । ऐसा कुर्ल मार्ग दर्ग न के अभाव के कारर् होता है । इस
आलोक में प्रकतयोर्ी परीक्षाओं के कनत्य पररवकतग त हो रहे र्ैली को समझकर छात्रों का उकचत मार्ग दर्ग न
कर उन्हें सही कदर्ा में पररश्रम हे तु प्रेररत कर सफलता प्राकप्त कराना हमारा मल
ू आिार है ।

70 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 71
 Index

[Link]. Topic Page No.

1 General introduction 73
2 Tractor 74
3 Status of farm power in India 75

4 Selected equipment for seedbed preparation 76

5 Harvesting and threshing 78
6 Concept of farm mechanization 79
7 Classification of heat engines 82
8 Power transmission system 84
9 Two stroke and four stroke engines 85
10 Various plough 89
11 Implements for intercultural operations 91
12 Sprayers 91
13 Protected cultivation 95
14 Threshing & WINNOWING 100
15 Grain drying & storage 101
16 Fruits and vegetables cleaning 103
17 Food standards and regulations 105
18 Occurrence of groundwater 106
19 Surveying 108
20 Top engineering facts 114

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GENERAL INTRODUCTION

Agricultural engineering is the engineering discipline that studies agricultural production and
processing. Agricultural engineering combines the disciplines of mechanical, civil, electrical
and chemical engineering principles with a knowledge of agricultural principles according
to technological principles.

SOURCES OF FARM POWER:

1) HUMAN POWER-An average man can develop maximum power of about 0.1 hp for doing
farm work. A strong man can develop maximum power of about 75 watts (about 0.1 hp) for
doing farm work. The average human power availability in sustained working are as follows:

Male : 60 watts
(0.06 kW)

Female : 48 watts
(0.048 kW)

Children : 30 watts
(0.030 kW)

2) ANIMAL POWER
➢ Power developed by an average pair of bullocks about 1 hp for usual farm work.
➢ The average force a draft animal can exert is nearly one-tenth of its body weight.
➢ 1 HP=750 watt
3) MECHANICAL POWER:

These engines are two types:

(a) Spark ignition engines (Petrol or Kerosene engine)
(b) Compression ignition engines (Diesel engines)

The thermal The thermal

efficiency of petrol efficiency of diesel
engine varies from 25 engine varies from 32
to 32 per cent to 38 per cent

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 TRACTOR

Tractor are available in following classes, depending upon horsepower (hp):

20 to 30 hp – About 25% of the total production of tractors in India.

31 to 40 hp – About 60% of the total production of tractors in India.

41 to above – About 15% of the total production of tractors in India.

❖ Tractor production started in India in 1961. The first tractor manufacturer “M/S Eicher
Goodearth” Produced “Eicher” tractors at Faridabad.
❖ Average command area of a tractor (26.1 kW) is about fifteen hectares. For calculating power
availability from tractor on the farm, a weighted average of 26.1 kW power per tractor is
considered.

SELECTION OF TRACTOR:

1. LAND HOLDING: Under a single cropping pattern, it is normally recommended to

consider 1 hp for every 2 hectares of land. In other words, one tractor 20 – 25 hp is suitable
for 40 hectares farm.
2. CROPPING PATTERN: Generally, 1.5 hectare/hp has been recommended where
adequate irrigation facilities are available and more than one crop is taken. So, a 30 – 35 hp
tractor is suitable for 40-hectare farm.

POWER TILLER

For calculating power availability from power tiller on the farm, a weighted average of 7 kw
per unit is considered. Average command area of a power tiller (7.46 kw) is five hectares,
where one pair of bullocks can command about two hectares only.
✓ Came in the world - 1920
✓ Introduced in India - 1963 ( AFO 2018)
✓ Japan is the first country to use power tiller on large scale.
✓ Tyre pressure: 1.1 to 1.4 kg/cm2 or 15.5 to 20 psi

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STATUS OF FARM POWER IN INDIA

❖ About 75% farm holding belong to small and marginal farmers.

❖ About 25% belong to semi, medium and large farm holders.

AVERAGE COMMAND AREA

One pair of
draught animals:
2 ha
Power tiller (7.46
kw): 5 ha

Tractor (26.1
kw):15 ha

For 1000 hectares of cultivated land, the bullocks, power tiller and tractors are generally
required as follows:

Bullocks: 500 Power

Tractor:67
pairs tiller:200

Studies have shown that about 54% energy in crop production comes from direct sources
like:

Mechanical Electrical
power power

Human Draught
power animals

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 The remaining 46% power comes from indirect sources like:

Fertilizers Chemicals

Farm
Seeds yard
manures

ANIMAL DRAWN IMPROVED IMPLEMENTS

❖ The field capacity of traditional implements is about 0.3 – 0.4 ha/day and thus work output
is low.

Q. What is the field capacity (ha/day) of indigenous plough?

(a)1.5 (b) 1.0 (c) 2.5 (d) 0.4 (e) 0.1

ROTAVATOR: Tractor drawn rotavator is an energy efficient equipment, it saves 32-35%

time and energy in heavier soils.

SELECTED EQUIPMENT FOR SEEDBED PREPARATION

S. No. NAME OF IMPLEMENT WORK CAPACITY

ha/h h/ha
Tractor operated
1. M.B Plough 0.20-0.25 4-5
0.30-0.35 3-4
2. Disc Plough 0.20-0.25 4-5
0.30-0.35 3-4
3. Disc Harrow (16 disc) 0.40-0.50 2-2.5
4. Cultivator (9-11) 0.40-0.50 2-2.5
5. Rotavator 0.2 5
6. Sweep cultivator 0.35 3-3.5

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 Note:

➢ Field capacity can be asked in exam in different units.

➢ In India working hour per day is 8.

SELECTED EQUIPMENT FOR SOWING AND PLANTING

S. No Name of the implement Work Capacity

Ha/h h/ha
A. Power tiller operated
1. Seed-cum-fertilizer drill 0.164 6 – 6.5
0 – 21 5 – 5.5
B. Tractor operated
1. Seed-cum-fertilizer drill 0.75 1.25 – 1.5
2. No-trill-drill 0.75 1.25 – 1.5
3. Strip-till-drill 0.25 4–5
4. Sugarcane cutter planter 0.25 4
1. Potato planter 0.25 4

WEEDING AND INTERCULTURAL EQUIPMENT

S. No. Name of the implement Work Capacity

Ha/h h/ha
Power tiller operated
1. 3 tyned cultivator/sweep 0.2 5
D. Tractor operated
1. 9 – 11 tyned tiller 0.45 2 – 2.5
2. 5 tyned sweep 0.45 2 – 2.5

WEEDING AND INTERCULTURE

❖ Khurpi is the most versatile hand hoe for removal of weeds.

❖ It takes 300 – 700 man-hours to cover one hectare, depending upon crop, soil and weed
infestation.
❖ Use of long handle weeders (wheel hoe and peg type weeders) reduce this weeding time to
25 – 110 hours per hectare.

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 EQUIPMENT FOR SPRAYING AND DUSTING OPERATIONS

S. NO. NAME OF THE WORK CAPACITY

IMPLEMENT ha/h h/ha
A. Manually operated
1. Hand compression sprayer 0.095 10.5
2. Lever operated Knapsack 0.095 10.5
sprayer
3. Foot sprayer 0.165 6
4. Duster 0.25 4
5. Controlled Droplet sprayer 0.22 5
B. Power operated
1. Knapsack sprayer cum-duster 0.22 5
2. Stationary power operated 0.35 3
sprayer
C. Tractor operated
1. Tractor operated sprayer 0.5 2
D. Self-propelled
1. High clearance sprayer 0.5-1.0 1-2

HARVESTING AND THRESHING

❖ Harvesting and threshing consumes about 10-35% of the total energy for farming.

EQUIPMENT FOR THRESHING OPERATION

S. NO. NAME OF THE IMPLEMENT SIZE WORK CAPACITY

A. Power operated
1. Power operated thresher 5-10 hp 200-500
2. Paddy thresher 5-15 hp 200-1000
3. Maize thresher 5-15 hp 500-2000
4. Groundnut thresher 10-15 hp 500-1000

❖ Most of the farmers use threshers, which are operated by 5 – 15 hp engine or electric
motors
❖ Reaper binder: The harvesting capacity is 0.25 – 0.35 ha/h.

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 ❖ Olpad thresher: Olpad thresher is said to have its origin at a small place named Olpad in
Gujarat state.
❖ Groundnut Thresher: It can be run by 5 hp electric motor. Its capacity may be 400 kg
pods/hr.
❖ Threshing efficiency: The threshed grain received from all outlets with respect to total grain
input expressed as percentage by mass.

Paddy Thresher: The capacity may be 250 – 1000 kg/hr.

ROTO TILLAGE

❖ There is saving of 60 – 70 percent operational time and 55 – 65 percent fuel consumption

with single rotavation, compared to conventional method of seedbed preparation.

SUGARCANE SETT CUTER PLANTER

❖ It is operated by a 45 hp tractor.
❖ It can cover about 0.20 ha/h in smooth field.

RICE SEEDER

❖ The seed rate depends on the rate of revolution of drums and is normally 50 -70 kg/ha.

POTATO PLANTER

➢ The field capacity of two ridges varies from 0.20 to 0.40 ha/h with
➢ Depth of planting of 100 – 200 mm.

RICE TRANSPLANTER

❖ Self-propelled rice trans planter (8 rows, single wheel, driven by 3 hp diesel engine) with
three persons transplant nearly one hectare a day using mat type seedlings.

CONCEPT OF FARM MECHANIZATION

❖ The main concept of farm mechanization is to apply the principles of engineering and
technology to do the agricultural operations in a better way to increase crop yield.
❖ This includes the development, application and management of all mechanical aids for field
operation, water control, material handling, storage and processing.
❖ Mechanical aids include:
➢ Hand tools,
➢ Animal drawn implements,
➢ Power tillers,

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 ➢ Tractors,
➢ Engines,
➢ Electric motors,
➢ Grain processing and
➢ Hauling equipment’s.
❖ The level of farm mechanization in India stands at about 40-45%.
❖ This level of farm mechanization is still low as compared to the countries such as the U. S.
(95 %), Brazil (75%) and China (57%).
❖ Use of improved implements has potential to increase productivity up to 30 per cent and
reduce the cost of cultivation up to 20 per cent.

GOV CONTRIBUTION TO INCREASE LEVEL OF FARM MECHANIZATION

❖ Sub Mission on Agricultural Mechanization (SMAM)

➢ Centrally sponsored scheme for promotion of farm mechanization.
➢ launched by the Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers Welfare in the year 2014-15 for a
period of five years.
➢ Increasing the reach of farm mechanization to small and marginal farmers and to the regions
where availability of farm power is less
NOTE – Subsidies under this scheme will be added your current affairs part.

EMERGING TRENDS IN FARM MECHANIZATION

Small engines 1 to 3 hp for handheld and knapsack power operated equipment for pruning, hedge
trimming, tree felling, cutting of bushes, tea harvesting, spraying and dusting are preferred.

CALORIFIC VALUE OF FUELS

S. NO. FUEL CAORIFIC VALUE THERMAL EFFICIENCY

(%)
1. Biogas 4500 kcal/m3 60
2. Cow dung cakes 2130 kcal/kg 11
3. Petrol 11100 kcal/kg 25-32
4. Diesel 10550 kcal/kg 32-38

Sr. No Name of fuel Calorific value, kcal/kg

1 Light Diesel Oil (L.D.O) 10300
2 High speed diesel oil (HSD) 10550

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 3 Power kerosene 10850

RENEWABLE ENERGY

➢ It is the energy mainly obtained from renewable sources of energy like sun, wind, biomass
etc.
➢ Biogas energy, wind energy and solar energy are used in agriculture and domestic purposes
with suitable devices.
➢ This type of energy is inexhaustible in nature.

WIND ENERGY

❖ The minimum wind speed of 10 km/hr is considered to be useful for working windmills for
agricultural purpose.

GEOTHERMAL ENERGY

➢ On an average, the temperature of the earth increases by 300C per kilometer as one moves
inward.
➢ The first commercial geothermal power station was erected in Larderello in Italy in 1904.
➢ In India, geothermal resources in the form of steam and hot water are known to exist along
Ladakh and in parts of Himachal Pradesh.
TIDAL ENERGY

➢ They arise twice a day.

➢ The first commercial tidal power station in the world, was constructed in France in 1965,
across the mouth of La Rance estuary.
➢ In India, tidal power could probably be generated in Kutch and in Hoogly River.
WAVE ENERGY

➢ Wave energy plant using OWC method is being built in Kerala.

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 CLASSIFICATION OF HEAT ENGINES

1. Based on combustion of fuel:

External combustion engine

Internal combustion engine

a) External combustion engine-

➢ Here, the working medium, the steam, is generated in a boiler, located outside the engine
and allowed into the cylinder to operate the piston to do mechanical work.

b) Internal combustion engine-

➢ In internal combustion engine, the combustion of fuel takes place inside the engine
cylinder and heat is generated within the cylinder.

➢ This heat is added to the air inside the cylinder and thus the pressure of the air is
increased tremendously.

➢ This high-pressure air moves the piston which rotates the crank shaft and thus
mechanical work is done

2. Based on fuel used:

Diesel engine – Diesel is used as fuel

Petrol engine – Petrol is used as fuel

Gas engines – propane, butane or methane gases are

used

3. Based ignition of fuel-

Spark ignition engine (Carburetor type engines)

Compression ignition engine (injector type engines)

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a) Spark ignition engine – a mixture of air and fuel is drawn into the engine cylinder. Ignition
of fuel is done by using a spark plug.

➢ The spark plug produces a spark and ignites the air- fuel mixture.
➢ Such combustion is called constant volume combustion (C.V.C.)

b) Compression ignition engine –

➢ In compression ignition engines air is compressed into the engine cylinder.

➢ Due to this the temperature of the compressed air rises to 700-900 oC. At this stage diesel
is sprayed into the cylinder in fine particles.
➢ Due to a very high temperature, the fuel gets ignited. This type of combustion is called
constant pressure combustion (C.P.C.) because the pressure inside the cylinder is almost
constant when combustion is taking place.

4. Based on working cycle-

Four stroke cycle engine

Two stroke cycle engine

a) Four stroke cycle engine- When the cycle is completed in two revolutions of the
Crankshaft, it is called four stroke cycle engines.
b) Two stroke cycle engine- When the cycle is completed in one revolution of the Crankshaft,
it is called two stroke cycle engines.

POINTS ABOUT IC ENGINE:

❖ The end of the connecting rod connecting the piston is called small end.
❖ The other end of the connecting rod connecting the crank shaft is called big end.
❖ When piston is moved up and down, the motion is transmitted to the crank shaft by the
connecting rod and the crank shaft makes rotary motion.
❖ The crankshaft rotates in main bearings which are fitted the crankcase.
❖ A flywheel is provided at one end of the crankshaft for smoothing the uneven torque
produced by the engine.
❖ There is an oil pump at the bottom of the engine which contains lubricating oil for lubricating
different parts of the engine. The oil pressure in hydraulic pump caries from 150 to 200
kg/cm2.

As per ASAE standard PTO speed is 540 ± 10 rpm when operating under load.

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 ➢ It is estimated that a tractor engine requires to be operated at full load approximately 25 to
30 percent of the operating time. Most of the time, the engine is required to be operated
between 50 to 70% of the full load.
➢ The minimum specific fuel consumption occurs at speed of 1650 rpm.

POWER TRANSMISSION SYSTEM

A power transmission system usually consists of the following parts:

❖ Clutch – The device that connects or disconnects two torque transmitting devices.
❖ Transmission – A device for transmitting power at a multiplicity of speed and torque.
❖ P.T.O. Drive – The parts that transmit torque from the engine to the PTO spline on the rear
of the tractor.
❖ Differential – The device, usually in the axle housing, that allows the two wheels on an axle
to rotate at different speeds.
❖ Brake – The device, usually in the axle housing, that stops the motion of the tractor.
❖ Axle – The shaft and connecting parts that transmits torque from the differential or final gear
reduction to the wheels.

Engine –Crankshaft – flywheel – clutch – transmission box – differential – final drives –

axle – drive wheels.

WORKING PRINCIPLE OF I.C. ENGINE/ FOUR STROKE CYCLE ENGINE / TWO

STROKE CYCLE ENGINE:

❖ The sequence of events taking place inside the engine is as follows:

Suction Compression Exhaust

Power stroke
stroke stroke stroke

1. Admission of air or air-fuel mixture inside the engine cylinder (Suction).

2. Compression of the air or air fuel mixture inside the engine (compression).
3. Injection of fuel in compressed air for ignition of the fuel or ignition of air-fuel mixture
by an Electric spark plugs to produce thermal power inside the cylinder (power).
4. Removal of all the burnt gases from the cylinder to receive fresh charge (exhaust).

84 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

TWO STROKE CYCLE ENGINE (PETROL ENGINE):

❖ In two stroke cycle engines, the whole sequence of events i.e., suction, compression, power
and exhaust are completed in two strokes of the piston i.e., one revolution of the crankshaft.
❖ There is no valve in this type of engine. Gas movement takes place through holes called ports
in the cylinder.
❖ The crankcase of the engine is airtight in which the crankshaft rotates.

TWO STROKE AND FOUR STROKE ENGINES

No. Four stroke engines Two stroke engines

1 One power stroke for every two One power stroke for each revolution of
revolutions of the crankshaft. the crankshaft.
2 There are inlet and exhaust valves in the There are inlet and exhaust ports instead
engine. of valves.
3 Crankcase is not fully closed and airtight. Crankcase is fully closed and airtight.
4 Top of the piston compresses the charge. Both sides of the piston compress the
charge.
5 Size of the flywheel is comparatively Size of the flywheel is comparatively
larger. smaller.
6 Fuel is fully consumed. Fuel is not fully consumed.
7 Weight of engine per hp is high. Weight of engine per hp is
comparatively low.
8 Thermal efficiency is high. Thermal efficiency is comparatively
low.
9 Removal or exhaust gases easy. Removal of exhaust gases
comparatively difficult.
10 Torque produced is even. Torque produced is less even.
11 For a given weight, engine would give For same weight, two stroke engines
only half the power of two stroke engine. give twice the power that of four stroke
engines.
12 All types of speed are possible (high and Mostly high-speed engines are there.
low).
13 It can be operated in one direction only. It can be operated in both directions
(clockwise and counterclockwise).

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 Piston rings are of two types:
1. Compression ring and
2. Oil ring
➢ Oil ring: It control the distribution of lubrication oil in the cylinder and the piston.

➢ Crankshaft:It is the main shaft of an engine which converts the reciprocating motion
of the piston into rotary motion of the flywheel.
❖ Usually, the crankshaft is made of drop forged steel or cast steel.
➢ Flywheel is made of cast iron.
❖ Its main functions are stores energy during power stroke and returns back the energy
during the idle strokes, providing a uniform rotary motion of flywheel, pressure surfaces
for the clutch plate and Sometime the flywheel serves the purpose of a pulley for
transmitting power.
➢ Crankcase provides a reservoir for the lubricating oil. It is a mounting unit for such
accessories as the oil pump, oil filter, starting motor and ignition components.
➢ Camshaft is a shaft which raises and lowers the inlet and exhaust valves at proper times.
❖ The speed of the camshaft is exactly half the speed of the crankshaft in four stroke
engines.
❖ Camshaft operates the ignition timing mechanism, lubricating oil pump and fuel pump.
❖ It is mounted in the crankcase, parallel to the crankshaft.
➢ Scavenging: The process of removal of burnt or exhaust gases from the engine cylinder is
known as scavenging.

COMPARISON OF DIESEL ENGINE WITH PETROL ENGINE:

No. Diesel engine Petrol engine

1 It has got no carburetor, ignition coil and It has got carburetor, ignition coil & spark
spark plug. plug.
2 Its compression ratio varies from 14:1 to Its compression ratio varies from 5:1 to 8:1.
22:1
3 It uses diesel oil as fuel. It uses petrol (gasoline) or power kerosine
as fuel.
4 Only air is sucked in cylinder in suction Mixture of fuel and air is sucked in the
stroke. cylinder in suction stroke.
5 It has got ‘fuel injection pump’ and It has got no fuel injection pump and
injector injector, instead it has got carburetor and
ignition coil.
6 Fuel is injected in combustion chamber Air fuel mixture is compressed in the
where burning of fuel takes places due combustion chamber when it is ignited by
to heat of compression. an electric spark.

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 7 Thermal efficiency varies from 32 to Thermal efficiency varies from 25 to 32%
38%
8 Engine weight per horse-power is high. Engine weight per horsepower is
comparatively low.
9 Operating cost is low. Operating cost is high.
10 Compression pressure inside the Compression pressure varies from 6 to 10
cylinder varies from 35 to 45 kg/cm2 kg/cm2 and temperature is above 260°C.
and temperature is about 500°C.

IMPORTANT PROPERTIES OF FUEL

S. No. Name of fuel Specific gravity Calorific value (kcal/kg)

1. Light diesel oil (L.D.O) 0.920 10300
2. High speed diesel oil (HSD) 0.820 10550
3. Power kerosene 0.827 10850
4. Petrol 0.730 11100

❖ The commercial diesel fuels have got cetane rating varying from 30 to 60.
❖ Best result is obtained when carburetor is so adjusted that air-fuel ratio is about 15:1.

TERMINOLOGY CONNECTED WITH ENGINE POWER:

➢ Bore- Bore is the diameter of the engine cylinder.

➢ Stroke - It is the linear distance traveled by the piston from Top dead Centre (TDC) to
Bottom dead Centre (BDC).
➢ Stroke-bore ratio -The ratio of length of stroke (L) and diameter of bore (D) of the
cylinder is called stroke-bore ratio (L/D). In general, this ratio varies between 1 - 1.45 and
for tractor engines, this ratio is about 1.25.
➢ Swept volume - It is the volume (A x L) displaced by one stroke of the piston where A is
the cross-sectional area of piston and L is the length of stroke.
Watt = Joule/sec. (4.2 Joules = 1 Calorie).
In metric unit the power can be expressed in kg.m/sec.
➢ Horsepower (HP) - It is the rate of doing work. Expressed in horsepower
Conversion factors from work to power
4500 kg m of work /minute = 1.0 hp
75 kg. m of work /second = 1.0 hp.
➢ Indicated horsepower (IHP) - It is the power generated in the engine cylinder and received
by the piston. It is the power developed in a cylinder without accounting frictional losses.

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 ➢ Brake horsepower (BHP) - It is the power delivered by the engine at the end of the
crankshaft. It is measured by a dynamometer.
➢ Power take-off horsepower (PTO HP) - It is the power delivered by a tractor through its
PTO shaft. In general, the belt and PTO horsepower of a tractor will approximately be the
same. The PTO hp is around 80-85% 0f tractor engine power.
➢ Drawbar horsepower (DBHP) - It is the power of a tractor measured at the drawbar of a
tractor. It is that power which is available for pulling loads. It is around 50-55 % of engine
power.
➢ Frictional horsepower (FHP) - It is the power required to run the engine at a given speed
without producing any useful work. It represents the friction and pumping losses of an
engine.
IHP = BHP + FHP
➢ Wheels: Usually 2 to 4 ply pneumatic tyres are used in power tillers. The pressure of the
tyre ranges from 1.1 to 1.4 kg/cm2.
➢ White cast iron: It may be used for bearings of disc harrow gangs or wheel bearings for
implements. It may be used for mould boards also.
➢ Ductile cast iron: It may be used for gears, sprockets and plough shares.
➢ Low carbon steel: Low carbon steel contains less than 0.25% carbon. It is also called Mild
steel. It is used for nuts, bolts and other simple components of agricultural implements.
➢ Medium carbon steel: It contains 0.25% to 0.6% carbon. It is used for shafts, gears, axles
etc.
➢ High carbon steel: High carbon steel contains 0.6 to 1.5% carbon. It is used for plough
shares, blades, shovels, disc, coulters and cutting tools etc.
➢ Soft Centre steel: Mould board is usually made of this type of steel.

➢ Carburetor-

✓ The process of preparing air-fuel mixture away from the engine cylinder is called
carburetion.
✓ And the device in which this process takes is called carburetor.
✓ Carburetor is used to mix the air and fuel thoroughly, to atomize the fuel, to regulate the
air- fuel ratio at different speeds and loads on the engine, to supply correct amount of
mixture at different speeds and loads.

88 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

INDIGENOUS PLOUGH/ COUNTRY PLOUGH:

➢ Forms V shaped furrows with 15-20 cm top width and 12-15 cm depth. Its field capacity is
around 0.4 ha per day of 8 hours.
➢ A farmer has to walk about 66 km on foot while ploughing 1 ha land once by bullocks with
a country plough having 15 cm furrow width.

MOULD BOARD PLOUGH:

❖ Available for animals, power tiller and tractor operation.

❖ The shares are made of chilled cast iron or steel.
❖ MB plough, for tractor pull can work in per day 1.5- 2.0 ha.

➢ Harrows, rollers and pulverizes, rotary tillers, tools for mulching and fallowing, cage wheels
etc. Are secondary tillage implements.

TRACTOR MOUNTED MOULD BOARD PLOUGH

Two or three bottom plough is operated by a tractor of 35 – 50 hp and its field capacity varies
from 0.25 to 0.35 ha/h.

➢ Animal Drawn Potato Planter:

The effective field capacity is about 0.1 ha/h.
➢ Tractor Mounted Cultivator Seed Planter:
The effective field capacity is about 0.63 ha/h.
➢ Tractor Mounted Seed Fertilizer Drill cum Planter:
Its effective field capacity is about 0.30 ha/h.
➢ Tractor Mounted Ridge Seeder:
The field capacity is about 1 ha/h.
➢ Tractor Mounted Direct Rice Seeder:
The effective field capacity is about 0.68 ha/h.
➢ Tractor Mounted No –Trill Ferti seed drill:
Effective field capacity is about 0.46 ha/h.
➢ Power Tiller Operated Till Plant Machine:
It consists of main frame with standard hitch, seed/ fertilizer boxes, transport wheel, drive
wheel field capacity is about 0.18 ha/h.
➢ Star Weeder:
The effective capacity is about 0.007 ha/h.
➢ Animal Drawn Reaper:
The output of the machine is about 0.2 ha/h.
➢ Tractor Mounted 2 row Potato Digger:

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 89

 The effective field capacity is about 0.3 ha/h.

DISC HARROW:

❖ Disc harrows have concave discs of size varying from 35-70 cm diameter.

❖ The spacing between the discs on the gang bolt ranges from 15 to 25 cm for light duty and
25 to 30 cm for heavy duty harrows.

Field efficiency :
About 70%.

Draft: About 400 N

Labour
requirement: 8 man
– h/ha

❖ Spike Tooth Harrow: It usually operates at shallow depth up to 5 cm.

❖ Spring Tooth Harrow:
➢ It works up to a depth of 150 mm in the field.
➢ The sections vary in width from 0.9 to 1.7m, adapted for use in rough and stony ground,
also called as quack grass, and Bermuda grass eradicator,
❖ Scraper:
The field capacity is in the range of 0.10 to 0.15 cubic meters.
❖ ACME HARROW:
Also known as blade harrow, curved knife-tooth harrow, pulverizer
❖ PATELA:
Wooden plank used for smoothening the soil and crushing the weeds.
❖ POWER HARROW – TRACTOR DRAWN:
Field capacity is around 1.5 ha/day.
➢ POTATO PLANTER (SEMI-AUTOMATIC): It may plant in 2-4 rows, Field capacity is
0.15-0.35 ha/hr.
➢ POTATO PLANTER (AUTOMATIC SEED DROPPING): It can plant in 2-4 rows.
Capacity is 6000- 14000 potatoes /hr.
➢ SELF PROPELLED PADDY TRANSPLANTER: Picks up 3 or 4 seedlings in each fork
at a time from the mat and plant them in the puddled soil, row to row spacing of 28 cm to

90 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

 30 cm and plant to plant spacing of 14 to 16 cm, planting capacity of the machine is about
0.05 to 0.1 hectare per hour Power requirement is about 1.2 to 1.8 HP petrol engine.

IMPLEMENTS FOR INTERCULTURAL OPERATIONS

➢ Hand hoe: Depth 2-3 cm thereby weeds are cut, and soil is stirred, coverage is 5-7 cents
per day.
➢ Star type weeders: Suitable for weeding in dry lands, coverage is 0.05 ha/day.
➢ Peg type weeders: Suitable for weeding in dry lands, coverage is 0.05 ha/day.
➢ Wheel hoe: Tool for weeding and intercultural in row crops, coverage is 0.05 ha/day.
➢ Different types of cultivators are Disc cultivator, Rotary cultivator, Tine cultivator,
Tractor Drawn Cultivator, Trailed type cultivator, Mounted Cultivator.
➢ ANIMAL DRAWN CULTIVATOR:
✓ Sweep: By skimming action under the soil at a shallow depth of 2 to 3 cm, the sweep
blades cut the weeds. The coverage is 1.75 to 2.5 ha/day.
✓ Junior hoe: Coverage is 1.5 ha per day.
➢ ENGINE OPERATED WEEDER: It consists of a 3-hp engine (petrol start kerosene
run), field capacity is 0.75 – 1.0 ha per day, Depth of cut is 8-12 cm.

SPRAYERS

➢ COMPONENTS OF A SPRAYER: Pump, Tank, Agitator (device to stirs the solution),

Air chamber, Pressure gauge, Pressure regulator, Valves, Cut-off valve, By-pass valve,
Relief valve, Strainer, Nozzles, Spray gun, Spray boom, Over-flow pipe.

TYPES OF SPRAYERS

High volume sprayer (more than 400 litres /ha)

Low volume sprayer (5 to 400 litres/ hectare)

Ultra low volume sprayer (ULV) spray (less than 5

litres /ha)

Capacity Pressure Application Coverage

Rate

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 Hand atomiser 0.15 -0.30 45-100 l/ha
kg/cm2
Hand 10-12 L (filled 2-3.5 kg/cm2 45-100 l/ha
compression 75-80 %)
sprayer
Knap sack 10-15 L 3-12 kg/cm2 500 l/ha 0.5- 1 ha/day
(Hand
operated)
Rocker sprayer 14-18 kg/cm2 70-90 l/h (with 1.5 ha/day
one nozzle)
Foot and pedal 17-21 kg/cm2 110-135 l/hr 1 ha/day
operated (with one
nozzle)
Knap sack 12 L (Chem
motorised mist tank)
Blower cum
duster (1.2- 3
HP High speed
Engine)

Power sprayer 250-350 Pounds Deliver sol up to

(3 HP engine) 15 metre

❖ DUSTER: A duster essentially consists of ,

1. Hopper 2. Agitator
3. Feed control 4. Fan or blower
5. Delivery nozzle

❖ Harvesting tools and equipment are sickle, mower, Shoe, Ledger plate, Wearing plate,
Knife.
❖ COMBINE: It is a machine, which performs the functions of a reaper, thresher and
winnower.

THE FUNCTIONAL COMPONENTS ARE:

1. Header 2. Reel 3. Cutter bar 4. Elevator canvas 5. Feeder canvas 6. Feeding drum 7.
Threshing drum 8. Concave 9. Fan [Link] sieve 11. Grain sieve 12. Grain auger 13. Tailing
auger 14. Grain elevator and 15. Grain container.
➢ Combine harvester: A combine may be self-propelled type and PTO driven type,

92 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

➢ Self-propelled type: This engine gives power for operating all the mechanisms as well as
for pulling the weight of the combine. Size varies from 2-4 m.
➢ PTO driven type: The power requirement of the combine may be taken on 8 HP/m width
of cut for pulled type machine and 12 HP/m width of cut for self-propelled machines.

RELATIVE DIFFICULTY IN TRANSPLANTING VARIOUS VEGETABLES:

NO. Easy to transplant Medium difficulty Difficult to transplant

1 Broccoli sprouts Cauliflower Watermelon
2 Brussels Celery Muskmelon
3 Cabbage Egg plant Squash
4 Tomato Onion Cucumber
5 Lettuce Pepper

AVERAGE FIELD SPEEDS, FIELD EFFICIENCIES, AND EFFECTIVE FIELD

CAPACITIES OF SOME FARM MACHINERY:

Machine Field Efficiency Effective Field Capacity

(%) (A/h)
Plow 85 4.8
Subsoiler 85 5.2
Chisel Plow 85 6.4
Offset Disk 85 6.8
Field Cultivator/Seedbed Conditioner 85 10.8
Planter, seed only 65 5.9
Sprayer 65 9.5
Mower Conditioner 83 6.3
rotary
Combine, soybeans* 73 5.0
self-propelled Forage Harvester 3 25
rows

ESTIMATING DRAFT REQUIREMENTS:

IMPLEMENT DRAFT PER UNIT WIDTH (KN/m)

Disc plough 5.0-6.0
Chisel plough 4.5-5.5
Blade plough 4.0-4.5
Scarifier 4.0-4.5

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 93

 Cultivator 3.0-3.5
Planter 2.5-3.5

ESTIMATION OF DRAWBAR POWER:

𝐩𝐮𝐥𝐥 (𝐤𝐍)
Drawbar power = x speed* (km/hr)
𝟑.𝟔 (𝐜𝐨𝐧𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐭)

POINTS TO BE REMEMBERED

❖ The cheapest source of energy is renewable energy.

❖ Power available from a farm labour is 0.1 hp
❖ Solar energy is a Renewable energy.
❖ 1915-1919- Power take off was introduced
❖ 1936- 1937 – Diesel engine was used in tractor and pneumatic tires were introduced
❖ 1960-1961 – Tractor manufacturing was started in India by first manufacturer M/s Eicher
Good Earth
❖ 1981- Auto tractors were started.
❖ 1982- Universal Tractors was established
❖ Sowing behind the plough can be done by a device known as malobansa
❖ With ultra-low volume sprayer one hectare of crop can be treated in around 2.5 hour
❖ Width of operation in self-propelled paddy harvester is 1.0 metre, coverage is 1.5 ha/day.
❖ Self-propelled harvesting units- citrus harvester can harvest 200-400 trees in one hour. It
can harvest 95% of the crop from the tree.
❖ Tractor operated turmeric harvester has field capacity of the unit is 1.6 ha per day. It
saves 70 per cent in cost and 90 per cent in time when compared to manual digging and
extent of damage caused to the rhizomes is very much less (2.83 per cent).
❖ Nursery stock vegetable Trans-planter can plant at spacing as close as 5-8 cm in the row.
Planters are available to plant 2-6 rows at a time with 15-20 cm row spacing.
❖ CHISEL PLOUGH: Can efficiently work up to 60-70 cm depth. 10 to 15 horsepower (7
to 11 kW) per shank will be required.

94 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

PROTECTED CULTIVATION

Green House: A greenhouse is a framed or an inflated structure covered with a transparent or

translucent material in which crops could be grown under the conditions of at least partially
controlled environment and which is large enough to permit persons to work within it to carry
out cultural operations.

Greenhouse Effect: Phenomenon of increase in the ambient temperature, due to the formation
of the blanket of carbon dioxide is known as greenhouse effect.

➢ In general, the percentage of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is 0.035% (345 ppm).
➢ During the daytime, the shorter wave radiation enters into the greenhouse and gets reflected
from the ground surface.
➢ This causes the increase in the greenhouse temperature.
➢ It is desirable effect from point of view of crop growth in the cold regions.

GREENHOUSE TYPE BASED ON SHAPE:

1. Lean-to type greenhouse: A lean-to design is used when a greenhouse is placed against the
side of an existing building
➢ It is typically facing south side and a total width of 7 to 12 feet.
2. Even span type greenhouse: The even-span is the standard type and full-size structure, the
two roof slopes are of equal pitch and width
➢ Several single and multiple span types are available for use in various regions of India.
➢ For single span type the span in general, varies from 5 to 9 m, whereas the length is
around 24 m.
➢ The height varies from 2.5 to 4.3 m.
3. Uneven span type greenhouse: This type of greenhouse is constructed on hilly terrain and
now-a-days as it is not adaptable for automation.
4. Ridge and furrow type greenhouse: Designs of this type of use two or more A-frame
greenhouses connected to one another along the length of the eave.
➢ The eave serves as furrow or gutter to carry rain and melted snow away.
➢ Effectively used in northern countries of Europe and in Canada and are well suited to the
Indian conditions.
5. Saw tooth type Greenhouse: These are also similar to ridge and furrow type greenhouses
accept that, there is provision for natural ventilation in this type.

GREENHOUSES FOR ACTIVE COOLING:

❖ During summer season, it is desirable to reduce the temperatures of greenhouse than the
ambient temperatures, for effective crop growth.

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 95

 ❖ This greenhouse is designed in such a way that it permits a roof opening of 40% and in some
cases nearly 100%.
1. Wooden framed structures: In general, for the greenhouses with span less than 6 m, only
wooden framed structures are used (Pine wood)
2. Pipe framed structures: Pipes are used for construction of greenhouses, when the clear
span is around 12m
3. Glass greenhouses: Only glass greenhouses with glass as the covering material existed
prior to 1950.
4. Plastic film greenhouses: Flexible plastic films including polyethylene, polyester and
polyvinyl chloride are used as covering material in this type of greenhouses. The best
quality ultraviolet (UV) stabilized film can last for four years only.
5. Rigid panel greenhouses: Polyvinyl chloride rigid panels, fibre glass-reinforced plastic,
acrylic and polycarbonate rigid panels are employed as the covering material. High grade
panels have long life even up to 20 years.
6. Shading nets: They are characterized of high tear resistance, low weight for easy and
quick installation with a 30-90% shade value range.

LIGHT:

Green house crops are subjected to light intensities varying from 129.6klux on clear summer
days to 3.2 Klux on cloudy winter days. Photosynthesis does not increase at light intensities
higher than 32.2klux.

➢ UV light is available in the shorter wavelength range, i.e less than 400nm. Large of
quantities of it is harmful to the plants.
➢ Glass screens are opaque to the most UV light and light below the range of 325nm.
➢ Visible and white light has wavelength of 400 to 700nm.
➢ Far red light (700 to 750nm) affects plants, besides causing photosynthesis.

Relative humidity: For most crops, the acceptable range of relative humidity is between 50 to
80%.

Ventilation: Air temperatures above 35 0C are generally not suited for the crops in green house.

Carbon dioxide: Most crops will respond favorably to Co2 at 1000 to 1200 ppm.

EQUIPMENT REQUIRED FOR CONTROLLING GREENHOUSE ENVIRONMENT:

1. Fan-and Pad cooling system: The fan and pad evaporative cooling system has been
available since 1954 and is still the most common summer cooling system in green houses.

96 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

 2. Fog cooling system: The fog evaporative cooling system, introduced in green houses in
1980, mean size of less than 10 microns using suitable nozzles.
3. Natural ventilation: The ventilators on the roof as well as those on the side wall accounts,
each about 10% of the total roof area.
4. Computers: Computer systems can provide fully integrated control of temperature,
humidity, irrigation and fertilization, CO2, light and shade levels for virtually any size
growing facility. to realize saving of 15 to 50% in energy, water, chemical and pesticide
applications.

PLANNING OF GREEN HOUSE FACILITY:

❖ Structural design: Greenhouse structures should be designed to resist a 130 km/h wind
velocity.
❖ Covering materials:

Covering material Life span

1. Glass and acrylic sheet 20 years
2. Polycarbonate and fiberglass-reinforced polyester sheet 5-12 years
3. Polyethylene 2-6 months
4. Polyethylene stabilized for UV rays 2-3 years

The ideal greenhouse selective covering material should have usable life of 10 to 20 years.

MATERIALS FOR CONSTRUCTION OF GREEN HOUSES

a) Wood: Wood and bamboo are generally used for low cost poly-houses.
b) Glass: Widely used glass for greenhouse is:

(i) Single drawn or float glass (thickness of 3 to 4 mm)

(ii) Hammered and tempered glass (thickness of 4 mm) the most widely used

c) Polyethylene film: Polyethylene film was developed in the late 1930s in England and spread
around the middle of this century. Plastic film greenhouses are popular because the cost of
heating them is approximately 40% lower compared to single-layer glass or fiberglass-
reinforced plastic greenhouses.
d) Polyvinyl chloride film: PVC films are UV light resistant vinyl films of 0.2 to 0.3 mm and
are guaranteed for 4 to 5 years respectively. In Japan, 95% of greenhouses are covered with
plastic film, out of which 90% are covered with vinyl film.
e) Tefzel T 2 film: The most recent addition of greenhouse film plastic covering is Tefzel T 2
film (ethylene tetrafluoroethylene).

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 97

f) Polyvinyl chloride rigid-panel: PVC rigid panels showed much promise as an inexpensive
covering material (almost 40% of cost of long-lasting fiberglass reinforced plastics), has the
life of 5 years. PVC rigid panels are not in use.
g) Fiberglass-reinforced plastic (FRP) rigid panel: FRP was more popular as a greenhouse
covering material in the recent past. Some grades give 5 to 10 years, while better grades
can last up to 20 years.
h) Acrylic and polycarbonate rigid-panel: These panels have been available for about 15
years for greenhouse use. Acrylic panels are available in thickness of 16 and 18 mm and
have 83% of PAR light transmission.
i) Design criteria and constructional details of greenhouses: The floor area of service
buildings required for small firms is about 13% of the greenhouse floor area, (An average
10%)

IRRIGATION SYSTEM USED IN GREENHOUSES

❖ Rules of Watering:
➢ Use a well-drained substrate with good structure
➢ Water thoroughly each time- As a rule, 10 to 15% excess of water is supplied
1. Hand watering: The most traditional method of irrigation is hand watering and in present
days is uneconomical.
2. Perimeter watering:
➢ Perimeter watering system can be used for crop production in benches or beds.
➢ A typical system consists of a plastic pipe around the perimeter of a bench with nozzles
that spray water over the substrate surface below the foliage.
➢ Either polythene or PVC pipe can be used.
➢ Nozzles are made of nylon or a hard plastic and are available to put out a spray are of
180°, 90° or 45°.
3. Overhead sprinklers:
➢ While the foliage on the majority of crops should be kept dry for disease control purposes,
a few crops do tolerate wet foliage.
➢ A total height of 0.6 m is sufficient for bedding plants flats and 1.8 m for fresh flowers.
A nozzle is installed at the top of each riser.
➢ Nozzles vary from those that throw a 360° pattern continuously to types that rotate around
a 360° circle. Trays are sometimes placed under pots to collect water that would otherwise
fall on the ground between pots and wasted.
➢ The trays also have drain holes, which allow drainage of excess water and store certain
quantity, which is subsequently absorbed by the substrate.
4. Boom watering:

98 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

 ➢ Boom watering can function either as open or a closed system and is used often for the
production of seedlings grown in plug trays.
➢ Precision of watering is extremely important during the 2-to-8-week production time of
plug seedlings. A boom watering system generally consists of a water pipe boom that
extends from one side of a greenhouse bay to the other
➢ The boom is propelled by an electric motor.
5. Drip Irrigation:
➢ Drip irrigation, often referred to as trickle irrigation.
➢ Drip irrigation is the best means of water conservation. In general, the application
efficiency is 90 to 95%, compared with sprinkler at 70% and furrow irrigation at 60
to 80%.

SPRINKLER IRRIGATION LIMITATIONS:

❖ Power requirements are usually high, since sprinkler operate with a water pressure of 0.5
kg/cm2 to 10 kg/cm2.
❖ PERFORATED PIPE SYSTEM
➢ It is suitable for lower pressure of about 0.5 to 2.5 kg/cm2.
➢ The laterals may design to operate under pressure as low as 0.15 to 0.2 kg/cm2 and as high
as 1 to 1.75 kg/cm2.
❖ EMITTERS:
➢ The discharge rate of “emitters” usually ranges from 2 to 10 litres per hour.
❖ EMERGING TRENDS IN FARM MECHANIZATION
➢ Small engines 1 to 3 hp for handheld and knapsack power operated equipment for pruning,
hedge trimming, tree felling, cutting of bushes, tea harvesting, spraying and dusting are
preferred.

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 THRESHING

Post-harvest Technology: It refers to the process and treatments carried out on agricultural
products after it is harvested. It starts from the selection of proper harvest and ends with
marketing.

1) Threshing: Process of detaching grains from ear heads or from the plants.

Manual – capacity varies from 30 to 50 kg/h

Power - capacity varies from 300 to 500kg/h

❖ Some important points:

➢ In case of angle bar type threshing cylinder, the clearance between cylinder and concave
unit at the entrance is from 13 mm to 19 mm and reduces to 6 to 9 mm only.
➢ In case of rasp bar type cylinder usually 6 to 8 bars are spirally fixed on the cylinder.

WINNOWING

Particulars Capacity Operated by Important Points

Grain Winnower 625 kg/ h 1 hp motor Winnow paddy
(Already threshed by
a paddy thresher)

Paddy winnower 1 hp motor

Paddy cleaner 150 kg/h 1 hp electric motor Efficiency- 91 %

SHELLER – MAIZE

1. Maize Sheller:-
➢ The capacity of the unit is 500 kg of cob/h.
➢ It is operated by a 1 hp electric motor.
2. Husker Sheller for maize:-
➢ Used for removal of sheath and shelling of cob.
➢ The capacity of the unit is 100 quintals per day.
➢ It is operated by 7.5 hp electric motor.

100 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

GRAIN DRYING

1. Thin layer drying:-

➢ Up to 20 cm thickness of grain bed is taken as thin layer.
➢ All commercial dryers are designed based on thin layer drying principles
2. Deep bed drying:-
➢ Rate of airflow per unit mass of grain is small.

GRAIN STORAGE

Storage structures:

❖ Storage- to maintain the quality of grain after harvest for

➢ Maintaining the supply of grain.
➢ Taking advantage of higher prices.

Two methods of grain storage:

Bag storage

Loose in bulk storage

Bulk Type Shape/ Capacity Grains Particular

Structure Points
Bukhari Type Cylindrical 3.5-18 t Wheat, gram, Rat proofing
paddy, maize & cones
sorghum
Morai type Inverted 3.5-18 t paddy, maize &
truncated cone sorghum
Kothar type Box 9-35 t paddy, maize & 5 cm thick
sorghum wooden planks
and beams
Mud Kothi Rectangular but 1-50 t Made from mud
(Mud bin) cylindrical is mixed with
also common dung and straw
Bag storage 25-500 t

IMPROVED STORAGE STRUCTURE

Storage structure Capacity Particular point

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 101

 Pusa bin
Brick and cement bin 1.5- 60 t
Bunker storage Long term storage of large
volume of grains
CAP (Cover and Plinth) 24 t ➢ Used for cover and plinth
storage structure structure
➢ Rectangular in shape
➢ Open storage: Serves the
storage of food grains in
bags for short period.

102 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

FRUITS AND VEGETABLES CLEANING

1. Fruit and Vegetable Cleaning Machine:

➢ Capacity: 20 kg/batch
➢ Power requirement : 1 person
➢ RPM: 20 – 30 rpm
➢ Fruit and vegetable: Most fruits & vegetable inclusive mango & tomato
➢ Foreign matter removal: Field Soil, Dust and surface microorganism, Fungicide /
insecticide, Sap, Black spots etc.
2. Multifunctional cleaning machine
3. Fruit cleaning machine:
➢ The equipment is suitable for cleaning of ball-shape or oval-shape fruits and vegetables.
➢ The fruits and vegetables rotate continuously in all directions randomly.
➢ Brushing and spraying is in effect at a same time.
4. Brush Type Vegetable & Fruit Cleaning Machine:
5. Surf Type Fruit Cleaning Machine:
➢ The equipment is mainly composed of water cabinet, material turning device, fan and lifter
etc.
➢ It is widely used for soft washing of fruit and vegetable raw materials. The lifter can be made
of complete stainless steel and engineering plastic.

GRADING

1. Divergent roller type fruit sorting machine for lemon and sapota- MPKV, Rahuri.
2. Divergent rails/slit size mango grader- CISH, Lucknow.
3. Fruit and vegetables grade for tomato and mango:

Capacity – 500 kg
/ha

Power requirement-
½ hp electric motor

Efficiency- 85-90 %

4. Potato grader: Capacity – 5 to 30 tonnes/ hr

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 103

 5. Onion grader: Capacity - 8 to 30 tonnes/ hr

SIZE REDUCTION

Unit operation in which the average size of solid pieces of food is reduced by the
application:

Impact forces
Compression
Grinding

RELATED TERMS:

❖ Homogenization or Emulsification
➢ Reduction in size of globules of immiscible liquids
❖ Atomization
➢ Size reduction of liquids by droplets
❖ Extrusion, Agglomeration or Forming
➢ Size enlargement
❖ Milling efficiency: Product of coefficient of hulling (E hulling) and coefficient of
wholeness of kernel (E wk)
❖ Coefficient of hulling: Percentage of the hulled grains obtained from the total amount of
grain input.
❖ Coefficient of Wholeness of kernel: Ratio of the amount of kernel, crushed grains and
mealy waste obtained by any milling system.

104 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

FOOD STANDARDS AND REGULATIONS

❖ Prevention of Food Adulteration Act, 1954

❖ Plant Quarantine (Regulation of Import into India) Order, 2003
❖ Meat Food Product Order, 1973
❖ Milk And Milk Product Order, 1992
❖ Bureau Of Indian Standards Act, 1986
❖ Standards On Weight And Measurement Act, 1976
❖ Livestock Importation Act, 1898
❖ AGMARK Act ,1937
❖ The Infant Milk Substitutes, Feeding Bottles and Infant Foods Act ,1992
❖ Export (Quality Control and Inspection) Act, 1963
❖ Essential commodities Act, 1955
❖ Indian Explosives Act, 1884
❖ Energy Conservation Act, 2001
❖ The Food Safety and Standards Act, 2006

THE FOLLOWING LAWS WERE CONSOLIDATED:

1. The Prevention of Food Adulteration Act, 1954 (37 of 1954)

2. The Fruit Products Order, 1955
3. The Meat products Order, 1973
4. The Vegetable Oil Products (Control) Order, 1947
5. The Edible Oils Packaging (Regulation) order, 1998
6. The Solvent Extracted Oil, De oiled Meal, and Edible Flour (Control) Order, 1967
7. The Milk and Milk Products Order, 1992
8. Any other order issued under the Essential Commodities Act, 1955 (10 of 1955) relating to
food.

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 105

 OCCURRENCE OF GROUNDWATER

➢ In order to understand the occurrence of groundwater and its vertical distribution, let’s first
consider the hydrological zones present below the ground
➢ The zone between the ground surface and the top of capillary fringe is called unsaturated zone
(or, zone of aeration) which consists of voids (pores or interstices) partially filled with water
and partially with air.
➢ Water is held at a pressure less than the atmospheric pressure in the unsaturated zone.
➢ The zone between bottom of the unsaturated zone and top of the water table is called capillary
zone.
➢ the zone extending from the water table to an impermeable layer is called saturated zone (or,
zone of saturation), wherein all voids are completely filled with water.
➢ In saturated zone water is held at a pressure greater than the atmospheric pressure.

AQUIFER AND CONFINING LAYERS

➢ Aquifer is defined as “a single geologic formation or a group of geologic formations that can
transmit and yield water in usable quantities”
➢ Aquiclude is defined as a geologic formation that can store significant amount of water but
does not have the capability to transmit a significant amount of water. Clay is an ideal example
of aquiclude.
➢ Aquitard is defined as a geologic formation that can store some water as well as can transmit
water at a relatively low rate compared to aquifers. Sandy clay is an ideal example of aquitard.
➢ Aquifuge is defined as a geologic formation that can neither store nor transmit water. Solid
granite is an ideal example of aquifuge.

FURTHER AQUIFER CAN BE BASICALLY CLASSIFIED INTO THREE TYPES:

(a) unconfined aquifer,

(b) confined aquifer, and
(c) leaky aquifer.

Sometimes, fourth type of the aquifer is known as ‘perched aquifer’,

(a) Unconfined Aquifers Aquifers which are bounded by a free surface (known as ‘water
table’) at the upper boundary and a confining layer at the lower boundary are called
unconfined aquifers.
(b) Confined Aquifers Aquifers which are bounded both above and below by impervious or
semi-pervious layers are called confined aquifers and the water present in these aquifers are

106 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

 under pressure (Aquifers 2 and 3 in Fig. 3.1). Confined aquifers are sometimes also called
‘pressure aquifers’ or ‘artesian aquifers.

(c) Leaky Aquifers If an aquifer (confined aquifer or unconfined aquifer) loses or gains water
through adjacent semi-permeable layers, it is called a ‘leaky aquifer’ ,Therefore, the terms
‘leaky confined aquifer’ and ‘leaky unconfined aquifer’ are widely used depending on
whether the leaky aquifer is confined or unconfined.

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 107

 SURVEYING

➢ Surveying is the art of determining the relative positions of different objects on the surface
and below the surface of the earth by measuring the horizontal and vertical distances between
them and by preparing a map to any suitable scale.
➢ To prepare a topographical map which shows the hills, valleys, rivers, villages, towns, forests
etc. of a country.
➢ To prepare an engineering map showing details of engineering works such as roads, railways,
reservoirs, irrigation canals, etc.
The general principles of surveying are:

a. To work from the whole to the part, and

b. To locate a new station by at least two measurements (linear or angular) from fixed
reference points.

CLASSIFICATION OF SURVEYING

Generally, surveying is divided into two major categories: plane and geodetic surveying

(a) PLANE SURVEYING is a process of surveying in which the portion of the earth being
surveyed is considered a plane.
(b) GEODETIC SURVEYING is a process of surveying in which the shape and size of the
earth are considered

Chain Surveying The principle of chain surveying is triangulation. This means that the area
to be surveyed is divided into a number of small triangles which should be well conditioned.

Types of Chains used in Surveying

Depending upon the length of the chain, these are divided into following types,

1. Metric chains- Metric chains are the most used chain in India. These types of chains come
in many lengths such as 5, 10, 20 and 30 meters. Most used is 20m chain. Tallies are
provided at every 2m of the chain for quick reading. Every link of this type of chain is 0.2m.
The total length of the chain is marked on the brass handle at the ends.
2. Steel band or Band chain-These types of chain consist of a long narrow strip of steel of
uniform width of 12 to 16 mm and thickness of 0.3 to 0.6 mm. this chain is divides by brass
studs at every 20cm or instead of brass studs, band chain may have graduated engraving as
centimeter

108 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

3. Gunter’s chain or surveyor’s chain - Gunter chain comes in standard 66ft. This chain
consists of 100links, each link being 0.66ft or 7.92inches. The length 66ft is selected because
it is convenient in land measurements.
10 square Gunter’s chains = 1 Acre
10 Gunter chains = 1 Furlong
80 Gunter chains = 1 mile
4. Engineer’s chain- This chain comes in 100ft length. Its consist of 100 links each link being
1ft long. At every 10 links a brass ring or tags are provided for indication of 10 links.
Readings are taken in feet and decimal.
5. Revenue chain- The standard size of this type of chain is 33ft. The number of links are 16,
each link being 2 ft. This chain is commonly used in cadastral survey.

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 109

 USEFUL LIFE HOURS & EFFICIENCY OF VARIOUS IMPLEMENTS

S. No. Name of machine Useful Useful life Recommend Recommended

life Years average average field
Hours speed efficiency (%)
(Km/hr)
1 Tractor 10000 10 - -
2 Power tiller 8000 10 - -
3 Stationery engine 10000 10 - -
4 Electric motor 15000 15 - -
5 Combine (self 3000 6 2-3.5 75
propelled)
6 Combine 2000 7 2-3 70
(mounted and
drawn)
7 Plough 3000 10 4.5 80
8 Disc harrow 3000 10 6 80
9 Seed drill 2500 10 5 70
10 Seed cum fertilizer 2000 8 5 70
drill
11 Planter 2000 10 5 70
12 Cultivator 4000 10 6 80
13 Towed scraper 2000 10
14 Power sprayer 2000 8
15 Seed cleaner 2500 5
16 Trailer 3600 12
17 Power thresher 2500 8
18 Centrifugal pump 10000 10
19 Power chaff cutter 5000 8
20 Rotavator 2400 8 2.5 80
21 Ridger 1500 12 4.5 90
22 Puddler 2500 10 5 75
23 Cane crusher 10000 10

FIELD CAPACITY OF VARIOUS IMPLEMENTS:

Particulars Capacity
Field capacity of Traditional implements 0.3-0.4 ha/day

Indigenous plough (Country Plough) 0.4 ha/day

110 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

MB Plough (35-50 HP) (2-3 Bottom 0.25- 0.35 ha/h
Plough)
Two Row Potato Planter 0.2- 0.3 ha/ h
Animal Drawn Potato Planter 0.1 ha/h
Tractor operated Potato Planter 0.25 ha/h
Potato Planter capacity of two ridge 0.2-0.4 ha/h
Tractor Mounted Two row Potato digger 0.3 ha/h

Tractor Mounted 1 Row Potato digger 0.15 ha/h

Power Tiller operated Potato digger 0.4 ha/h
Engine operated Rotary Tiller 0.75-1 ha/day
Potato Planter (Semi-automatic) (2-4 row) 0.15-0.35 ha/h

Automatic seed Dropping (2-4 row) 6000-14000 potato/hr

Sugarcane sett cutter planter 0.2 ha/h
Tractor Mounted sugarcane cut planter 0.25 ha/h

Tractor mounted cultivator seed planter 0.63 ha/h

Tractor mounted seed cum ferti drill 0.75 ha/h

Tractor mounted seed ferti drill cum 0.30 ha/h
planter
Tractor mounted strip till drill 0.25 ha/h
Tractor mounted No Till- ferti seed drill 0.46 ha/h

Tractor mounted No till drill 0.75 ha/h

Power tiller operated Till Plant machine 0.18 ha/h

Tractor mounted Ridge seeder 1 ha/h

Tractor mounted Direct rice seeder 0.68 ha/h
Star weeder 0.007 ha/h
Tractor operated turmeric harvester 1.6 ha/day
Animal drawn reaper 0.2 ha/h
Harvesting capacity of reaper binder 0.25-0.35 ha/h
Self-propelled paddy harvester 1.5 ha/day
Self-propelled citrus harvester 200-400 trees/hr
Tractor drawn power harrow 1.5 ha/day
Manual Rice planter 0.25 ha/day
Self-propelled Paddy Transplanter 0.05 to 0.1 ha/h
Tractor mounted inclined plate planter (6 0.6 ha/h
row)

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 111

 Rice Transplanter (8 row, 3 hp diesel 1 ha/day
engine)
Orchard sprayer (35 hp tractor) 0.20- 0.50 ha/h
Self Propelled High clearance sprayer (20 0.20 ha/h
HP diesel)
Ultra Low Volume sprayer 2.5 h/ha

Hand Hoe 5-7 cents/day

Star Type weeder 0.05 ha/ day
Peg Type weeder 0.05 ha/ day
Wheel Hoe 0.05 ha/ day
Sweep (Animal Drawn) 1.75- 2.5 ha/day
Junior Hoe (Animal Drawn) 1.5 ha/day
Engine Operated Weeder (3 HP engine) 0.75- 1 ha/day

DEPTH OF VARIOUS IMPLEMENTS

Depth Particular
5 cm Spike Tooth Harrow
15 cm Spring Tooth Harrow (Quack Grass and
Bermuda grass eradicator)
2-3 cm Hand Hoe
2-3 cm Sweep
8-12 cm Engine Operated Weeder (Depth of cut)
8-12 cm Engine Operated Rotary Tiller
30 cm Power Tiller operated Potato digger
60-70 cm Chisel Plough
0.10- 0.15 m 3 Scraper

USEFUL LIFE:

Particular Years (Useful Life)

Glass and Acrylic Sheet 20 years
Poly carbonate and fibre reinforced 5-12 years
Polyethylene 2-6 months
Polyethylene stabilized for UV rays 2-3 years
Ideal green house selective covering 10-20 years
material
PVC film 4-5 years
PVC rigid panel 5 years

112 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

Fibre glass Reinforced plastic (FRP) rigid Avg 5-10 years
panel
But Better grade can be up to 20 years
Acrylic Poly carbonate rigid panel 15 years
Thickness 16-18 mm
PAR light Transmission 83 %

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 113

 TOP ENGINEERING FACTS

➢ An average man can develop the maximum power of about 0.1hp.

➢ An average pair of bullocks can develop the maximum power of about 1hp.
➢ The average force that a draft animal can exert approximately 1/10 of its body weight.
➢ Of the total energy produced in India, the share of thermal power is about 56%.
➢ Of the total energy produced in India, the share of hydro-electrical power is about 36%.
➢ Percent of methane gas in biogas varies from 45 to 70%.
➢ Biogas contains hydrogen sulphide gas and hydrogen gas.
➢ Percent of CO2 in biogas is about 32 to 45%.
➢ Conservation of biomass is in the absence of O2.
➢ Ratio of cow dung and water for making slurry to feed the bio-gas plant is 4:5.
➢ Capacity of bio-gas plant varies from 2 to 150 m3.
➢ For better biogas production, the pH of slurry should be between 7 to 8.
➢ Thermal efficiency of biogas is about 60%.
➢ Calorific value of L.P.G is about 27700 kcal/m3.
➢ Thermal efficiency of cow dung is about 11%.
➢ The angle between centre line of tyre and vertical line is called chamber angle.
➢ The angle between centre line of king pin of tractor and the vertical line is called caster
angle.
➢ The horizontal distance between the front and rear wheels of a tractor is called wheelbase.
➢ Ground clearance of tractor is measured under maximum permissible load condition.
➢ In tractors, the weight transfer is affected by wheelbase and hitch height.
➢ In tractors, the weight transfer is greater when pull is higher.
➢ The desi plough cuts the soil in the shape of V.
➢ The M.B plough cuts the soil in the shape of L.
➢ The diameter of disc plough in standard disc plough varies from 60 to 90 cm.
➢ Disc angle of a quality disc plough varies from 43 to 45⁰.
➢ In a good quality disc plough, the tilt angle varies from 15 to 20⁰.
➢ When a plough works round the strip of ploughed land, then it is said to be gathering.
➢ When a plough works round the strip of unploughed land, then it is said to be casting.
➢ The soil mass, which is cut, lifted and threw during ploughing is called furrow slice.
➢ The undisturbed soil surface left besides the furrow is called furrow wall.
➢ The top portion of turned soil mass is called crown.
➢ In case of ‘centre to side ploughing’, the ridge left at the centre of field is called back
furrow.
➢ In ‘centre to side ploughing’, the back furrow is formed at centre of the land strip.
➢ Open trench left between two adjusted strips of land after ploughing is called dead furrow.

114 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

➢ The unploughed land left at the end of field for turning the tractor is called head land.
➢ One-way ploughing is done by reversible plough.
➢ A tandom disc plough consists of 4 gangs.
➢ A single bottom ridding plough is also called sulky plough.
➢ The useful life of centrifugal pump is 10 years.
➢ The useful life of disc harrow is 10 years.
➢ The useful life of cultivator is 10 years.
➢ The useful life of rotavator is 8 years.
➢ The useful life of power tiller is 10 years.
➢ For multi crop thresher, the h.p. of prime mover should be from 5 to 20.
➢ The working capacity of multi-crop thresher is 200 to 2500 kg/h.
➢ The cutting platform of combine consists of reel and concave.
➢ While working, the reel of combine revolves Infront of the cutter bar.
➢ In combine, the delivery of cut crop to the cylinder is done by conveyer.
➢ In combines, the most common type of conveyer being used is table conveyer.
➢ In combine, the threshing of crop is done between concave and cylinder.
➢ Stationery diesel engine are used for pumping water flour mill, oil ghanis, cotton gins, chaff
cutter, sugarcane crusher threshers and winnowers etc.
➢ Where the wind velocity is more than 32 km/hr windmills can be used for lifting water.
➢ Average capacity of a windmill would be about 0.5 HP.
➢ Heat engine is a machine for converting heat developed by burning fuel into useful work .
➢ Engine is a mechanical device which generates thermal energy and transform it into
mechanical energy.
➢ External combustion engine (ECE)> Is the type of engine in which combustion of fuel
takes place outside the engine cylinder.
➢ Internal combustion engine (ICE)> In this engine the power generates by the complete
combustion of fuel inside the cylinder.
➢ In diesel engine specific fuel consumption is about 0.2kg/BHP/hour
➢ In petrol engine specific fuel consumption is about 0.29kg/BHP/hour.
➢ diesel engine develops more torque when it is heavily loaded while petrol engine does not
develop torque.
➢ Under a single cropping pattern, it is normally recommended to consider 1HP for every 2
hectares of land.
➢ 1.5 HP/hectare is recommended when adequate irrigation facilities are available, and
more than one crop is taken .
➢ Estimating the cost of tractor power .
a. Fixed cost includes.>{[Link] . [Link] on capital 3. Housing. 4. Insurance. 5.
Taxes}

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 115

 b. Operational cost includes .>[Link]. 2. Lubricants. 3. Repair. 4. Wages.
➢ The centre of pull or resistance- It is the point where all the force on a plough is act.
➢ Disc plough is note suitable for covering surface trace and weeds affectively as mould
board plough does.
➢ Disc angle varies B/W 42 and 45.
➢ Tilt angle varies B/W 15 and 25.
➢ Tractor drawn disc plough weigh B\W 180 and 540 kg/disk
➢ Animal drawn disk plough weighs about 30kg/disk.
➢ In tractor drawn plough the diameter of the disk blades varies B/W 60 and 90cm.
➢ Draft is the horizontal component of the pull parallel to the line of motion.
➢ Drafts depends upon:
a. Sharpness of cutting edge.
b. Working speed.
c. working width.
d. working depth.
e. Type of implement.
f. Soil condition
g. Attachment.
➢ Unit draft is the draft per unit cross sectional area of the furrow.
➢ Theoretical field capacity~ It is the rate of field coverage of the implement based on 100%
of time at the rated speed and covering 100% of its rated width.
➢ Effective field capacity > It is the actual area covered by the implement based on its total
time consumed and its width .
➢ Field efficiency > It is the ratio of effective field capacity and theoretical field capacity
expressed in percent.
➢ The blade harrow popularly known as > Bakhar.
➢ Blade harrows generally used in clay soils for preparing seedbeds of both kharif and rabi.
➢ Compression ratio = Swept volume + clearens volume/clearens volume.
➢ Efficency of rotavator is about 1.5-2.0ha/day.
➢ Working capacity manual of rice trans planter varies from 0.3-0.4ha/day.
➢ The planting capacity manual of rice trans planter is about 0.05-0.1ha/day.
➢ Combine harvester in its primitive form was introduced in Germany and USA in late 19th
century and become popular in next decade.
➢ On an average about 800 combines are added every year of Indian farms.
➢ Function of combine harvester: 1 cutting the standing crops.2 feeding the cut crops to
threshing unit. 3 threshing the crops . 4 cleaning the grains from straw.5 collecting the grains
in a container.

116 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

➢ Hand operated sprayer suitable for small holdings operating at pressure ranging from 1 to
7kg/cm2.
➢ Power operated sprayer suitable for treating a large area . they are operated at pressure
ranging frome 20 to 55kg/cm2.
➢ Low volume sprayer ~ Volume ranges B/W 5 to 400 liters per hectare is used.
➢ Rear mounted implements are attached to tractors with 3-point hitch.
➢ Government has decided to enhance farm power availability from 2.02 kW per ha (2016-
17) to 4.0 kW per ha by the end of 2030.
➢ The thermal efficiency of a heat engine is the percentage of heat energy that is transformed
into work. Thermal efficiency is defined as. The efficiency of even the best heat engines is
low; usually below 50%
➢ 4500 kg m of work /minute = 1.0 hp; 75 kg m of work /second = 1.0 hp; Roughly, 1.0 hp =
746 watts
➢ 1890: The word tractor appeared first on record in a patent issued on a tractor or traction
engine invented by George H. Harris of Chicago
➢ 1906: Successful gasoline tractor was introduced by Charles w. Hart and Charles H. Parr of
Charles City, Iowa
➢ 1908: First Winnipeg tractor trails were held
➢ 1911: First tractor demonstration was held at Omaha (Nebraska)
➢ 1915-1919: Power takes off was introduced.
➢ 1920-1924: All purpose was developed
➢ 1936- 1937: Diesel engine was used in tractor and pneumatic tires were introduced
➢ 1950-1960: Manufacturing of diesel tractors on extensive basis throughout the world was
taken up
➢ 1960-1961: Tractor manufacturing was started in India by first manufacturer M/s Eicher
Good Earth.
➢ 1962-1970: Manufacturers like Tractor and Farm Equipment, Madras, Hindustan tractors at
Baroda, Escorts Tractors at Faridabad and International Harvester in Bombay started work
during this period
➢ 1971: Escorts Tractor Ltd. Started producing Ford Tractors 1973- Manufacture of HMT
Tractor was started
➢ 1974: Manufacture of Pitti and Kirlosker Tractor was started 1975- Harsha Tractors was
established
➢ 1981: Auto tractors were started
➢ 1982: Universal Tractors was established
➢ 1983-2003: GTCL tractors, M.M Tractors, Sonalika, VST, L&T, Bajaj Tractors were
produced.
➢ Speed range: Low speed engine- < 350 rpm, High speed engine->1000 rpm.

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 117

 ➢ Remote sensing and GIS applications can be employed for land use planning and
watershed development works.
➢ In India, portable type sprinkler system is most used.
➢ In tractor 3-point hitch is operated by hydraulic system.
➢ Sandy and hard compacted soil is not suitable for operating rotavator.
➢ Depth of penetration of disc harrow is altered by gang angle.
➢ Working life of tractor drawn cultivator is 2500 hours.
➢ Mechanization level is measured in terms of-kW/ha [AAE, Odisha-2019]
➢ The tillage in which plant residue are left on or near the surface of field- Mulch tillage
[AAE, Odisha-2019]
➢ capacity of tractor drawn harrow in 1 hac 2.0 hac/hr. (IBPS-2019)
➢ Dropping of seeds in furrow lines in continuous flow and covering them by soil is called as-
Drilling [AAE, Odisha-2019]
➢ An average man can develop maximum power of about – 74.6W
➢ In tractor, the three-point hitch is operated by- Hydraulic system
➢ Refrigerant used in cryogenic freezing- Liq. Nitrogen [AAE, Odisha-2019]
➢ MB PLOUGH, for tractor pull can work in 1.5 to 2.0 Ha. Per day. (AFO 2017)
➢ No till planter used for sowing. (AFO 2017)
➢ According to nabard what is the average farm mechanization level (%) in India: 40-45
➢ The flywheel is mounted on (Pre PG-2018): Rear end of crankshaft
➢ MB plough, for tractor pull can work in per day (2 bottom): 1.5- 2.0 ha per day
➢ Which tillage implement requires minimum draft per unit width: Planter & Cultivator
(AFO-2018)
➢ What is the Capacity of High-volume sprayer: More than 400 (AFO-2018)
➢ What is the HP power required for power sprayer: 3 HP (AFO-2018)
➢ Geologic formation that can neither store nor transmit water is called: Aquifuse (AFO-2021)
➢ Length of gunter’s chain is: 66 ft (FEO MP 2017)
➢ In which type of tillage 15-30 % residue left on the soil surface: Reduce tillage (IBPS AFO
2019)
➢ What is the RPM of rotary tiller: 180-200 (IBPS AFO 2018)
➢ The carburetor of an engine is used to mix fuel with: Air (AICL-2017)
➢ What is the power extracted by PTO: 75-85 (AFO-2018)
➢ The cross-sectional area of one cylinder of an engine multiplied by its stroke is: Swept
volume (ADO-2015)
➢ An advanced method of minimum tillage in which primary tillage is completely avoided and
secondary tillage is reduced to row zone/seed bed zone only: Zero tillage (AFO 2021)
➢ Zero tillage got successful because of: Herbicides (AFO 2021)
➢ Primary + secondary tillage implement: Rotavator (AFO 2021)

118 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

➢ Which is used in rear of tractor transmission part for attaching combine harvester, mover
thresher etc to tractor: PTO (AFO 2021)
➢ Which of the following is renewable source of energy: Biomass (NABARD 2021)
➢ Which of the following machine is used to chop fodder: Chaff cutter (NABARD 2021)
➢ Total head of the pipeline represents which among the following: Suction height+ Delivery
height + resistance due to friction (metre) (RRB SO 2021)
➢ A 2×25 cm plough is move at speed of 5 km/hr, how much time will it take to plough the
field of size 300×300 metres if field efficiency of instrument is 60 % : 60 hrs (RRB SO
2021)
➢ For cultivating land of around 40 ha. for monocropping what HP tractor is preferred: 25 HP
(AFO-2018).
➢ In which year power tiller is introduced in India: 1963 (AFO-2018)
➢ In India, walking type tractors are fitted with _____hp engine: 8-12
➢ Tyre Pressure:
• Rear: 0.8-1.5 kg/cm2
• Front: 1.5-2.5 kg/cm2
• Pneumatic Tyre Life: 6000 hours for drawbar work
➢ Production of machineries in India: Pumping Sets> Sprayers& Dusters> Tractors> Power
Tillers> Combine harvester
➢ The length of a Gunter's Chain is - 66 feet
➢ The extra high-speed engines used in knapsack sprayers are powered by-Petrol
➢ The injector and fuel pump are the heart of Diesel
➢ In Otto cycle Heat is added at Constant volume
➢ In food preservation most commonly used radiation is gamma rays.
➢ Filtration system of drip irrigation system:-
• Sand filter – to remove organic and inorganic material
• Hydro cyclone filter – to remove high density particles
• Disc filter – to remove organic material and algae
➢ SI engines (petrol) develop 85% of rated power, CI engines (diesel) develop 100% of rated
power on biogas.
➢ The most popular covering material replacement for glass in case of greenhouse is
Polyethylene.
➢ The consistency of rainfall is determined by double-mass curve.
➢ The nature of hydrograph depends on the characteristics of Rainfall and watershed
➢ The K-factor in Universal Soil Loss Equation (USLE) is measured on unit plot of size 22 m
long with 9% slope.

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 119

 ➢ The National Watershed Development Project for Rainfed Areas (NWDPRA) was initiated
in 1986-87.
➢ Function of governor in tractor engine: -
• increase the speed of engine under increased load condition
• Decrease the speed of engine when load decreases
• regulate the fuel supply.
➢ Nozzle used for spraying of weedicide is Flat fan nozzle.
➢ The tilth angle of standard disc plough varies from 15-25
➢ Disc angle of disc plough is 40-45҆⁰
➢ Power tiller is most suitable for the cultivation of Paddy
➢ Implement used for seedbed preparation as well as sowing by attached seed drill called:
Cultivator
➢ Semi-mounted implements are attached with: Two-point hitch
➢ Rear mounted implements are attached with: Three-point hitch
➢ The IHP of an engine is always: More than BHP
➢ the essential component of water-cooling system in tractor: Radiator
➢ the single most important factor affecting drip irrigation-Spray volume
➢ Which causes more wastage of herbicides by drift-Ultra low volume sprayer
➢ The depth of penetration of disc Harrow is increased by -Gang angle
➢ Penetration of disc plough can be improved by- Decreasing tilt angle
➢ Hydraulic brake is based on which law - Pascal's law
➢ The dog clutch is used in- power tiller
➢ The tractor coefficient is maximum when- The field is dry
➢ Specific gravity of diesel- <1
➢ Groundnut thresher is type of – spike tooth
➢ Capacity of tractor drawn pulse seeder – 1 [Link] day
➢ India's first digital flower auction center is located in – Bengaluru
➢ In comparison of 4 – stroke and 2 - stroke engine, the fuel consumption in 4 – stroke engine
is less
➢ crown wheel is a part of – differential
➢ The component of Mouldboard plough which penetrates into the soil and makes a horizontal
cut below the soil surface – Share
➢ The portion of the piston below the piston pin which is designed to absorb the side movement
of the piston – Skirt.
➢ Otto cycle is related to – Petrol engine\Kerosene engine
➢ In Vertical disc plough tilth angle of disc is zero
➢ Chisel plough penetrate to the depth of 25-35 cm.

120 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

➢ Sub soiler penetrate at the depth of 60-70 cm
➢ Use of gasket is = prevent leakage
➢ Type of furrow opener recommended for use in hard and trashy ground & also in wet and
dry soil is single disc type
➢ Most mechanized crop in India is wheat.
➢ Which harrow is also called "Bakhar":- Blade harrow
➢ Air blast sprayer is used for – Orchards
➢ The cold chisels are made by – Forging
➢ Adiabatic process heat is constant in the system.
➢ At compression stroke both valves are fully closed .
➢ Dibbling is usually practiced for vegetables.
➢ For mechanical harvesting of sugarcane by sugarcane harvester the crop should be planted
in 120 cm row spacing or 120-130 cm paired row trench method
➢ The trough angle for paddy and most other grains in belt conveyor is 20 degrees
➢ The diameter of tube-wells for irrigation and water supply usually ranges from 15-45 cm
➢ the fuel which should be used for easy starting of an engine in cold weather is petrol
➢ Inward sloping bench terraces are most effective for high rainfall area.
➢ Adiabatic process heat is constant in the system.
➢ Dibbling is usually practiced for vegetables
➢ Hand operated sprayer are operated at a pressure of 1-7 kg/cm².
➢ Power tillers are popularly available in 6-12 hp range.
➢ Highest ownership of tractor is in Punjab(31%) followed by Gujrat.
➢ TAFE (tractor) and farm equipment limited is India’s second and world’s third largest tractor
manufacturer volumes
➢ Capacity of power harrow is 2.5 ha/day.
➢ Correct sequence of Power Transmission
➢ Clutch- Gear box- Differential- Final Drive.
➢ To increase thermal efficiency of a petrol engine, designer has to increase the Compression
Ratio.
➢ Dead furrow is made by one way MB Plough.
➢ Scouring refers to the movement of soil on tool surface.
➢ Vertical section of M.B. Plough- Depth of Ploughing.
➢ Horizontal Section of M.B. Plough-Width of Ploughing.
➢ Weight of hull is 18-22% of Paddy grain.
➢ V shaped sweeps are best suited for -stubble mulch tillage
➢ The most used and least efficient power outlet of tractor is drawbar in the rear.
➢ Universal soil loss equation was proposed by wishmerier and smith

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 121

 ➢ In order the plants in every corner should receive maximum light; the green house axis is
placed in east – west direction.
➢ Laterals is the component of drip irrigation system, which requires major cost
➢ In India portable sprinkler system is most commonly used.
➢ Sprinkler irrigation method can be used for almost all crops except paddy and jute.
➢ The density of granular material can be determined by pycnometer.
➢ The latent heat of vaporization of water is 540 kcal.
➢ The most commonly used pumps in tractor hydraulic system are Gear type
➢ The top portion of furrow slice is known as crown.
➢ Maximum torque in a tractor is generated at Less than rated RPM.
➢ The vertical difference between the center line of the pump and the point of free delivery of
water is called as Static head
➢ The minimum wind speed 10km/hr required for agricultural purpose.
➢ Name the devices used to measure the flow of water In an irrigation channel - weirs &
notches. Orifices, - Parshall flumes & meter gates
➢ Helical blade puddler, Green manure trampler and Cage wheel are Implements for Wetland
operations
➢ Part of the sowing machine which conveys the seeds or fertilizer from the delivery tube to
the furrow is called as BOOT
➢ The useful life of a wheel type tractor is 10 years

No matter if it seems impossible now

No matter if it takes time
No matter if you have to wake up all night
Just remember that the feeling of SUCCESS is the
best thing in the entire world.

122 Agri Coaching Chandigarh