ZNOTES.

ORG

UPDATED TO 2023-2025 SYLLABUS

CAIE AS LEVEL
PSYCHOLOGY
SUMMARIZED NOTES ON THE THEORY SYLLABUS
Prepared for Anh for personal use only.
CAIE AS LEVEL PSYCHOLOGY

Title: The Relation of Eye Movements During Sleep to

1. Biological Approach Dream Activity: An Objective Method for the Study of
Dreaming
Year: 1957
1.1. Introduction Psychology being investigated:
Our body follows two types of sleep: REM (rapid eye
Main assumptions of the biological approach: movement) sleep and nREM (non-rapid eye
Behaviour, cognition and emotions can be explained movement) sleep.
in terms of the working of the brain and the effect of nREM can be divided into 4 sleep stages.
hormones, genetics and evolution. In REM sleep, our eyes move rapidly under the lids.
Similarities and differences between people can be REM sleep is known as paradoxical sleep. It
understood regarding biological factors and their resembles wakefulness as our eyes move; we often
interaction with other factors. experience vivid (bizarre) thoughts in dreams, and
our brains are active. However, it is different from
1.2. Dement and Kleitman (Sleep and wakefulness as it is difficult to wake up; we are
Dreams) relatively insensitive to stimuli and paralyzed.
Ultradian rhythms- Basic Rest-Activity cycles that
occur almost every 90 minutes and are responsible
for the different stages of sleep we experience.
Dreams- Vivid and generally visual sequences of
imagery that occur during sleep in the REM stage.
Background
Aserinsky and Kleitman’s (1955) study observed
periods of rapid, conjugate eye movements during
sleep and found a high incidence of dream recall in
awakening participants and a low incidence when
awakened at other times.
Sleep and dreaming are hard to investigate because
the participant is necessarily asleep, and so cannot
communicate with the researcher. Even when awake,
only self-report data can be obtained about dream
content, which alone may be invalid as it is subjective.
The electroencephalograph (EEG) monitors the
electrical activity of the brain.
The electrooculogram (EOG) allowed the electrical
recording of eye movement patterns, their presence
or absence, and their size and direction (vertical or
horizontal).
The EEG detects and records tiny electrical charges
associated with nerve and muscle activity.
In REM sleep, EEG is relatively low voltage/amplitude
and high frequency.
In nREM sleep, EEG has either high voltage/amplitude
and slow (low frequency) waves or frequent ‘sleep
spindles’, short-lived high voltage, high-frequency
waves.

[Link] Copyright © 2024 ZNotes Education & Foundation. All Rights Reserved. This document is
authorised for personal use only by Anh at Vinschool on 20/11/24.
CAIE AS LEVEL PSYCHOLOGY

Aims Procedure
Overall aim: To investigate dreaming objectively by Research Method: Laboratory Experiment,
looking for the relationship between eye movements Observations, Self-reports and correlation
in sleep and the dreamer’s recall. Experimental design: Repeated Measures Design
Specific aims: Three approaches were used to test the three
To test whether dream recall differs between REM specific aims. (scroll above to find the three aims)
and nREM sleep. Sample: seven adult males and two adult females.
To investigate whether there is a positive Five of them were studied intensively, while the data
correlation between subjective estimates of gathered from the other four were minimal to
dream duration and the length of REM period. confirm the results.
To test whether eye movement patterns are Sampling technique: Opportunity sampling
related to dream content. (Whether these Participants studied in detail spent between 6-17
patterns represent the visual experience of nights with 50-77 awakenings. The four others spent
dream content or whether they are simply only one or two nights with 4-10 awakenings.
random movements arising from the activation of Participants were identified by their initials to
the CNS) maintain confidentiality.
Participants reported to the lab a little before their
usual bedtime.
They were instructed to eat normally but to abstain
from alcoholic or caffeine-containing beverages on
the day of the experiment.
Participants were fitted with electrodes on their
scalps and around their eyes.
Once they were in bed in a quiet, dark room, the
wires were gathered into a “ponytail” to allow
freedom of movement.
The EEG ran continuously to monitor the participant's
sleep stages and to inform the researchers when
they should be woken up.
Participants were woken by a doorbell that was loud
enough to rouse them from any sleep stage.
The doorbell rang at various times during the night,
and the participants indicated whether they had
been dreaming and described their dreams in a voice
recorder.
Analysis of dream narrative: This was only considered
a dream if a coherent, fairly detailed description of
the content existed. Vague, fragmentary impressions
were not scored as dreams.

[Link] Copyright © 2024 ZNotes Education & Foundation. All Rights Reserved. This document is
authorised for personal use only by Anh at Vinschool on 20/11/24.
CAIE AS LEVEL PSYCHOLOGY
METHOD DESIGN
Participants were woken Yes, dream recall significantly differs. In 79.6% of the
either from REM or nREM Natural experiment in a REM awakenings (152/191) participants could recall a
sleep, but were not told laboratory setting dream, whereas in only 6.9% of nREM awakenings
which stage they were in. (11/160), participants could recall their dreams.
They confirmed whether Therefore, participants are likelier to describe dreams
Aim
they had a dream and if so, when woken from REM than nREM frequently.
1 IV: REM or nREM sleep stage
reported the content into a
recorder. Results for Question 2: Is there a positive correlation
DV: whether the participants between subjective dream duration estimate and the
reported a dream, and if so, length of the REM period before waking?
the details
Participants were woken The data was used in both Participants had 88% accuracy in estimating they were
following 5 or 15 minutes of experimental and woken up after 5 minutes of dreaming.
REM sleep. correlational designs. Participants had 78% accuracy in estimating they were
They were asked if they Experimental analysis: IV - woken up after 15 minutes of dreaming.
thought they had been waking after 5 or 15 minutes The correlation between the two variables was positive,
Aim dreaming for 5 or 15 of REM sleep. DV - within the range of 0.4 to 0.71, as the r values showed a
2 minutes. participant’s choice
significant correlation.
Correlational analysis: two
Their dream narrative was variables were the Results for Question 3: Are eye movement patterns
recorded, and the number participant’s time estimate related to dream content?
of words was counted. and number of words in the
dream narrative Eye movements, as recorded on EEG, were related to
Participants were woken dreams' visual content.
after exhibiting a single eye- Natural experiment in a With only vertical (climbing up a ladder and looking
movement pattern for laboratory setting.
longer than a minute.
down) or only horizontal (watching two people throwing
tomatoes at each other) eye movements were rare, with
IV: eye-movement pattern
Aim type (mainly horizontal, only 3 dreams and 1 dream, respectively.
3 This was measured using mainly vertical, vertical & 10 dreams were reported to have little to no eye
electrodes and an EOG. horizontal, little or none) movement (watching something in the distance)
This could not be 21 dreams had mixed movements (talking to a group of
manipulated. people)
The dream content was
DV: report of dream content Conclusions
recorded.

Results Dreams are experienced in REM but not NREM sleep.

Dreaming is more likely at night's end, as the REM stages
General Results are longer.

Uninterrupted dream stages lasted for a range of 3 to 50 Strengths

minutes with an estimate average of 20 minutes.
Dream Stages are usually longer later in the night. High internal validity - definition of dream clearly
Dream stages had irregular bursts of 2-100 rapid eye operationalized, demand characteristics minimized by
movements. not telling participants about their EEG patterns,
laboratory experiment with limited effect of uncontrolled
Results for Question 1: Does dream recall differ in REM variables.
and nREM stages of sleep? High reliability - EEG shows quantitative data and is not
affected by the experimenter’s subjective view;
quantitative and qualitative data are collected.

Weakness’s

[Link] Copyright © 2024 ZNotes Education & Foundation. All Rights Reserved. This document is
authorised for personal use only by Anh at Vinschool on 20/11/24.
CAIE AS LEVEL PSYCHOLOGY

Low generalisability: only 9 participants may not Title: Sex differences in rhesus monkey toy preferences
represent the dream frequency of the general parallel those of children
population. Year: 2008
Low ecological validity: People used to caffeinated Psychology being investigated:
drinks could experience changes in sleep and dream There is a difference in male and female brain
patterns due to lack of those drinks; sleeping in a structure and hormones,, resulting in sex differences.
laboratory connected to electrodes could be Socialization is the method of learning behaviours
uncomfortable. that are socially accepted. These behaviours differ for
the two genders.
Ethics It has been difficult to determine if differences in
Deception: Participant WD was misled about whether he behaviour between females and males are more due
to biological factors or social differences due to
was woken in the NREM or REM stage.
socialization.
Issues and Debates Gender stereotype- bias of assigning particular traits
to a particular gender, for example- assigning
Application: EEG, which is used to detect dreaming, has aggression as a male-typed trait.
useful applications for assessing people with sleep and Play- Childhood behaviours are usually done for fun,
dream issues (for example- insomnia and nightmares) which may or may not involve social interaction and
The EEG can be used to monitor the different stages of objects called ‘toys’.
sleep individuals with insomnia (trouble falling asleep or
not sleeping enough) face and see patterns in their Background
dream stages (example- shorted REM sleep stages)- this
helps get a better understanding of the problem they are Infants are exposed to hormones during the prenatal
facing and according come up with a solution. stages of gestation, which impacts top preferences in
Parasomnias is a sleeping disorder involving unusual children.
behavior and dreams. EEG monitoring can be used to A few females have experienced a genetic condition
observe REM sleep stages for this disorder as well to which increases male hormones during foetal
understand how the unusaul dreams are related to sleep development- these girls are seen to prefer more ‘male’ '-
stages and dream sleep. type toys in comparison to other girls.
Nature versus Nurture: Mainly focuses on nature, Primates are similar to humans genetically and,
making obtaining evidence through EEG possible. therefore, can be used as a model to show if gender
differences in behaviour are due to biological or social
1.3. Hassett et al. (Monkey Toy factors.
Female and male primates have differences in
Preferences) hormones, just like humans.

Aims

[Link] Copyright © 2024 ZNotes Education & Foundation. All Rights Reserved. This document is
authorised for personal use only by Anh at Vinschool on 20/11/24.
CAIE AS LEVEL PSYCHOLOGY

To investigate whether toy preference in monkeys is Females did not have a preference for plush toys over
similar to those in children to test for a biological wheeled toys.
explanation for sex differences in toy choice. Females interacted with plush toys more than males did.
Procedure Male monkeys prefer 'masculine' wheeled toys for
Research method: A field experiment 'feminine' plush toys.
Experimental design: Independent Measures Design Rank on social hierarchy was positively correlated to the
Independent Variable (IV): Gender, Monkey’s rank on total frequency of interactions.
social hierarchy When compared to data from Berenbaum and Hines
Dependent Variable (DV): Frequency and duration of (1992), it was seen that rhesus monkeys and children
play with each toy type both showed higher preference marks in males than
Sample: 21 males and 61 female rhesus monkeys females.
living in natal groups at the Yerkes primate research Strengths
station in the USA. High internal validity: use of animals to eliminate
Sampling technique: Opportunity sampling the effect of socialization and another confounding
The natal group was housed in a 25*25-meter variable, behavioural categories were accurately
outdoor area with admission into a temperature- defined, counterbalancing of wheeled toy and plush
controlled indoor area. toy position.
High standardisation: The observation process was
Procedure the same for all monkeys, with a standard length of
25-minute sessions.
toys were divided into two categories based on their Weaknesses
properties: 'wheeled toys', which matched with toys Methodological differences: Differences in the
typically for boys, and 'plush toys' to match girl toys. children and rhesus monkeys were compared; the
Six-wheeled toys- wagon, truck, car, shopping cart toys offered were chosen for object properties rather
Seven Plush toys- teddy bear, Koala hand puppet than female or male-typed toys, and children were
For every group formed from the natal group, 7 trials assessed using different toys and only measuring the
occurred, all lasting for 25 minutes. duration of play, not frequency.
The rhesus monkeys were observed using two video Issues and Debates
cameras. Application: Help cause awareness regarding
For each of the 7 trials, all monkeys were initially indoors gender-neutral socialization. This would minimize the
while one plush toy and one wheeled toy were placed 10 divide between males and females early in childhood.
metres apart in the outdoor area. Individual versus Situational: illustrates a role of
Each video camera was focused on one of the toys, with biology that supports the individual side of the
the positions of wheeled and plush toys being debate; however, exposure to gender stereotyping in
counterbalanced between right and left locations. society counts for a situational explanation.
After the 25-minute trial, the toys were removed, and Nature versus Nurture: sex differences due to
two observers analyzed the videotape to achieve a biological aspects of brain structure and hormones
consensus that resulted in high inter-observer reliability. count for nature, but socialization in society is mainly
Specific behavioural categories were formed after due to nurture.
watching the animal interact with toys.
The exact time of each activity was also recorded, along
with the frequency of each behaviour.
1.4. Hölzel et al. (Mindfulness and Brain
A few behavioural categories include extended touch, Scans)
sitting on the toy, dragging, carrying in hand, turning the
entire toy, and sniffing.
For data analysis, each monkey's behaviour was
converted into an average frequency and duration.

Results

[Link] Copyright © 2024 ZNotes Education & Foundation. All Rights Reserved. This document is
authorised for personal use only by Anh at Vinschool on 20/11/24.
CAIE AS LEVEL PSYCHOLOGY

Results Conclusions:
No significant correlation between time spent on The concentration of grey matter increases in regions
body scans, yoga and sitting meditation in the hippocampus, posterior cingulate cortex (PPC),
Participants in the MBSR group significantly increased left temporoparietal junction (TJP) and cerebellum in
mindfulness scores on the 3 subscales (acting with those who practice an 8-week mindfulness-based
awareness, observing and non-judging) between pre stress reduction course (MBSR)
and post-testing Ethical Issues:
Specific areas of interest: Risk of not protecting participants from harm by not
In the specific area of interest- Left Hippocampus assisting control group participants until at least eight
there were positive changes in grey area weeks
concentration for the MBSR group between the pre Strengths:
and post-stages The increased external validity of findings derived
In the specific area of interest- the Left Hippocampus, from longitudinal studies stems from the extended
there were no changes in a grey area concentration duration, which helps stabilize fluctuating participant
for the control group between pre and post-stages. variables such as mood, attentiveness, and health,
No correlation between grey matter in specific areas among others, that could influence mindfulness.
and the amount of homework or changes in FFMQ High amounts of standardisation: for instance, a
scores fixed number of exercises to be performed and fixed
Whole-brain analysis: total duration- make the study highly replicable,
Four clusters of the brain showed a significant raising reliability.
increase in grey matter concentration for the MBSR
group between the pre and post-stages Weaknesses:
These four clusters showed a significant increase in Lack of generalisability of the sample as they were all
grey matter concentration for the control group similar due to already being enrolled in MBSR
relative to other brain area courses and having the same level of education.
(The four clusters were Posterior cingulate cortex, left The unknowns regarding the accuracy of the MRI and
temporoparietal junction and two parts of the the lack of objectivity in the interpretations of the
cerebellum) data produced decrease the internal validity.
No correlation between other parts of the brain and The lack of correlation between grey matter and time
the amount of homework or changes in FFMQ scores spent on mindfulness exercise homework shows that
the exercises did not directly cause brain changes,
which also decreases internal validity.
Issues and Debates:
Application to everyday life: Provides a method to
help people with temporoparietal junction (TPJ)
impairment, and the two areas of the cerebellum
where grey matter changes were observed can be
used for emotion regulation and healthy
psychological functioning.
Nature versus Nurture: The biological aspects are
highly determined by the processes of nature.
However, the study showed that nurture through
MBRS can affect those structures and processes.

2. Cognitive Approach
2.1. Introduction

[Link] Copyright © 2024 ZNotes Education & Foundation. All Rights Reserved. This document is
authorised for personal use only by Anh at Vinschool on 20/11/24.
CAIE AS LEVEL PSYCHOLOGY

Main assumptions of the cognitive approach:

behaviour and emotions can be explained in terms of 2.3. Baron-Cohen et al. (Eyes Test)
the role of cognitive processes such as attention,
language, thinking and memory
similarities and differences between people can be
understood in terms of individual patterns of
cognition

2.2. Andrade (Doodling)

[Link] Copyright © 2024 ZNotes Education & Foundation. All Rights Reserved. This document is
authorised for personal use only by Anh at Vinschool on 20/11/24.
CAIE AS LEVEL PSYCHOLOGY

Results
Group 1 performed significantly worse on eyes test
than the other groups.
Females scored higher than males on the eyes test,
although this result wasn’t very significant.
Group 1 scored higher on AQ test than group 3 and 4
participants.
No correlation between Eyes Test score and IQ
Negative correlation between Eyes Test and AQ
Conclusion
Revised eyes test was successful in being a more
sensitive test for social intelligence of adults. AQ test
and Eyes Test showed a significant negative
correlation as hypothesized showing that both can be
used as tests for severity of autistic traits.
Strengths
High internal validity due to changes made to the
Eyes test- 4 options, equal female and male eye pairs
shown, glossary provided to all participants.
Standardized procedure- images all of same size,
black and white, 4 options with three foils
Weakness
Low ecological validity: in real life setting, eyes are
not static and body language hints can help guess the
emotional state of people.
Low generalizability- only 15 males used in ASD group
so not generalizable to females with ASD. In student
comparison group, all students were from a highly
selective university (Cambridge university) which is
not representative of intellect of all regular students.
Ethics: if they were not able to guess the emotions, it
might cause distress or embarrassment leading to low
self-esteem and psychological harm.
Issues and Debates
Application: Plan support lessons or therapy for
students or people with AS/HFA
Reductionist: doesn’t take into account the full
picture of understanding emotions

2.4. Pozzulo et al. (Line-Ups)

[Link] Copyright © 2024 ZNotes Education & Foundation. All Rights Reserved. This document is
authorised for personal use only by Anh at Vinschool on 20/11/24.
CAIE AS LEVEL PSYCHOLOGY
Experimental Sex of Sex of Type of

3. Learning Approach Groups

1
Child
Male
Model
Male
Behaviour
AGGRESSIVE
2 Female Female AGGRESSIVE
3.1. Introduction 3 Male Female AGGRESSIVE
4 Female Male AGGRESSIVE
Main assumptions of the learning approach: NON-
5 Male Male
conditioning helps to explain changes in behaviour AGGRESSIVE
social learning helps to explain changes in behaviour. NON-
6 Female Female
AGGRESSIVE
NON-
3.2. Bandura et al. (Aggression) 7 Male Female
AGGRESSIVE
NON-
8 Female Male
AGGRESSIVE

[Link] Copyright © 2024 ZNotes Education & Foundation. All Rights Reserved. This document is
authorised for personal use only by Anh at Vinschool on 20/11/24.
CAIE AS LEVEL PSYCHOLOGY

3.3. Fagen et al. (Elephant Learning)

[Link] Copyright © 2024 ZNotes Education & Foundation. All Rights Reserved. This document is
authorised for personal use only by Anh at Vinschool on 20/11/24.
CAIE AS LEVEL PSYCHOLOGY
Behavior Description Number of sessions to average session time
Elephant
Distal end of trunk onto trainers outstretched pass trunk wash (minutes)
Trunk Here
palm. 1 25 10.29
Trunk held upwards either in a loose curl or 2 30 12.42
Trunk Up
dorsal aspect of the tip of the trunk. 3 35 13.27
Bucket Trunk gently placed inside a bucket. 4 35 11.11
Elephant gives strong, distinct exhale through
Blow
the trunk. \
Elephant holds the trunk still with the trunk Strengths
Steady
held in the position previously requested.
Use of behavioral checklist with detailed exact descriptions
which increases reliability.
Done is a naturalistic setting causing ecological validity to be
high.

Weakness
Small sample size- nor generalizable
Measurement of elephant’s performance was subjective.
Ethics
Low physical or psychological harm
Issues and Debate
Application to everyday life- Improves captive animal
welfare to improve health of elephants and reduce TB in
humans. Fagen’s technique can be easily replicated to
teach behaviors through positive reinforcement.
Individual versus Situational- the 5 elephants have
individual differences in the speed at which they learnt
the trunk wash.

3.4. Saavedra and Silverman (Button

Phobia)

[Link] Copyright © 2024 ZNotes Education & Foundation. All Rights Reserved. This document is
authorised for personal use only by Anh at Vinschool on 20/11/24.
CAIE AS LEVEL PSYCHOLOGY

4. Social Approach
4.1. Introduction
Main assumptions of the social approach:
behaviour, cognitions and emotions can be
influenced by other individuals
groups can influence behaviour, cognitions and
emotions or social contexts

4.2. Milgram (Obedience)

[Link] Copyright © 2024 ZNotes Education & Foundation. All Rights Reserved. This document is
authorised for personal use only by Anh at Vinschool on 20/11/24.
CAIE AS LEVEL PSYCHOLOGY
Experiment Independent Variables: Dependent Variables:
4.3. Perry et al. (Personal Space) The computerised
version of the
Comfortable
Title: Don’t stand so close to me: A behavioural and ERP
1. 1. Empathy: High vs. Low Interpersonal Distance
study of preferred interpersonal distance (CID) paradigm
Year: 2015 measures the preferred
Psychology being investigated: interpersonal distance.
Interpersonal Distance: It is the distance between 2. Treatment: Oxytocin
two people. The preferred interpersonal distance vs. placebo
varies due to the relationship with the other person 3. Condition: stranger,
and cultural and personal factors. authority, friend or ball
Empathy: A person’s ability to understand another Mean preferred distance
person's thoughts, feelings, and experiences. It has between 2 chairs and
2. 1. Empathy: High vs. Low
two dimensions: cognitive and affective empathy. angle between the two
Social Hormones: Oxytocin is a social hormone that chairs.
acts as a neurotransmitter and plays a role in social 2. Treatment: Oxytocin
vs. Placebo
bonding. However, research conducted shows that in
some situations, oxytocin can lead to envy, risk 3. Condition: position of
chairs vs. position of
aversion, and feelings of hostility. table and plant
Background
In 1966, based on the relationship between two
people, Hall created four zones of interpersonal
distance: Intimate distance, personal distance, social
distance, and public distance.
In 2012, Scheele found that administering oxytocin to
males in relationships increased their preferred
distance from an attractive female in the presence of
a female researcher.
The social salience hypothesis predicts that oxytocin
increases attention to social cues and affects how a
person processes those cues and responds
differently.
Aims
To investigate how oxytocin affects preferred
interpersonal distance for those scoring high or low
in empathy traits.
Procedure
Research Method: A laboratory experiment.
Experimental Design: Repeated measures.

[Link] Copyright © 2024 ZNotes Education & Foundation. All Rights Reserved. This document is
authorised for personal use only by Anh at Vinschool on 20/11/24.
CAIE AS LEVEL PSYCHOLOGY

Results Title: Good Samaritanism: An Underground

CID: Phenomenon?
Year: 1969
Preferred interpersonal distance. Oxytocin Placebo Psychology being investigated:
High empathy 23.29 26.11 Bystander Apathy: the phenomenon of observers of
Low empathy 30.20 26.98 an emergency not intervening.
Diffusion of responsibility (Latané and Darley): is a
*“Choosing rooms:* sociopsychological phenomenon whereby people are
less likely to offer help if other people are present
Preferred interpersonal distance
Oxytocin Placebo because they feel that the whole group is equally
between chairs (cm)
responsible, thus making themselves less personally
High empathy 78.07 80.58
responsible.
Low empathy 80.14 78.33 Background
Murder of Kitty Genovese
Ethical Issues Bystander behaviour
Deception- For experiment two, they were told that they Aims
To study bystander behaviour outside the laboratory
needed to choose a room to discuss "‘personal topics’-
in a realistic setting where participants would have a
this could cause distress about the future meeting.
clear view of the victim.
Strengths To see whether helping behaviour was affected by
four variables: the victim’s responsibility for being in a
High Levels of Standardisation increase its reliability. situation where they need help, the race of the
The computer allowed control of timings, and the rooms victim, the effect of modelling helping behaviour and
used in experiment 2 were always shown for 2 seconds. the size of the group.
High Validity: With a double-masked procedure for Procedure
oxytocin or placebo administration, the CID paradigm Research Method: Field Experiment and
has high controls regarding speed visuals. Observations
Experimental Design: Independent groups
Weaknesses IV: There were four IVs.
IRI self-report would be biased and subjective- impacted
by social desirability bias as being highly empathetic is
seen as a positive social trait.
Lacks generalizability beyond sample- only used males,
so the results may not be generalisable to females and
their interpersonal distance preferences.
Low ecological validity- used a computer stimulus where
the protagonists were animations not representative of
everyday behaviours.

Issues and Debates

Application: Oxytocin administration may not help

people with social deficits.
Individual versus situational- interpersonal distance
preference is impacted by an individual’s empathy level,
which supports the individual side, whereas the social
situation promotes oxytocin release.

4.4. Pilivan et al. (Subway Samaritans)

[Link] Copyright © 2024 ZNotes Education & Foundation. All Rights Reserved. This document is
authorised for personal use only by Anh at Vinschool on 20/11/24.
CAIE AS LEVEL PSYCHOLOGY

1. Critical area - early: the model stood in the critical

area and waited until passing the fourth station
before helping the victim (approximately 70 seconds
after the collapse).
2. Critical area - late: the model stood in the critical
area and waited until passing the sixth station before
helping the victim (approximately 150 seconds after
the collapse).
3. Adjacent area - early: the model stood in the
adjoining area and waited until passing the fourth
station before helping the victim. (approximately 70
seconds after the collapse).
4. Adjacent area - late: the model stood in the
adjoining area and waited until passing the sixth
station before helping the victim. (approximately 150
seconds after the collapse).
When the model intervened, he helped the victim
to a sitting position and stayed with him for the
remainder of the trial.
Two observers recorded a variety of observations.
Observer One:
Race, sex, and location of every rider seated
or standing in the critical area.
Total number of people in the carriage.
Total number of people who came to assist
the victim.
Race, sex and location of every helper.
Observer Two:
Race, sex and location of every passenger in
the adjacent area.
The time when help was first offered.
Both observers noted any comments made by
nearby passengers and also tried to elicit
comments from a passenger sitting next to
them.

[Link] Copyright © 2024 ZNotes Education & Foundation. All Rights Reserved. This document is
authorised for personal use only by Anh at Vinschool on 20/11/24.
CAIE AS Level
Psychology

© ZNotes Education Ltd. & ZNotes Foundation 2024. All rights reserved.
This version was created by Anh on Wed Nov 20 2024 for strictly personal use only.
These notes have been created by Aarohi Shah for the 2024-2026 syllabus.
The document contains images and excerpts of text from educational resources available on the internet and printed books.
If you are the owner of such media, test or visual, utilized in this document and do not accept its usage then we urge you to contact us
and we would immediately replace said media. No part of this document may be copied or re-uploaded to another website.
Under no conditions may this document be distributed under the name of false author(s) or sold for financial gain.
"ZNotes" and the ZNotes logo are trademarks of ZNotes Education Limited (registration UK00003478331).