G10 End Term 1 Revision

Variation and Selection

Cell Division

Genes and Inheritance

Evolution and Natural Selection

 Variation and Selection
Definitions:
DNA
Gene
Allele
Chromosome
Homologous pair
Diploid and Haploid
Mitosis and Meiosis
Dominant and Recessive genes
 There are four nucleotides, or bases, in DNA:

adenine (A), cytosine (C), guanine (G), and thymine (T)

These bases
form specific
pairs:

A with T
G with C
 Genes
A gene is a sequence (chain) of DNA in a chromosome
that is a unit of heredity which is transferred from a
parent to offspring and responsible for a specific trait.

A gene is the basic

physical and functional
unit of heredity.
 Chromosomes
Each chromosome contains one double-stranded DNA
molecule. The DNA is folded and coiled so that it can be
packed into a small space. The DNA is coiled around
proteins called a histones.
Not all human cells have 46 chromosomes.
What cells do not have 46 chromosomes?
Gametes (sex cells)

How many chromosomes do they have?

23 chromosomes
What is the process called that makes these
types of cells?
Meiosis

What are cells called that only have one of each

chromosomes instead of pairs?
Haploid
 Homologous Pairs
Pairs of matching chromosomes are called
homologous pairs. They carry genes for the same
traits or characteristics and are arranged in the same
positions along the chromosomes.
There are 3 possible combinations of traits in your chromosomes.
 Cell Division
Definitions:
Interphase
Mitosis and Meiosis
Chromatids and Sister chromatids
Prophase
Metaphase
Anaphase
Telophase
Cytokinesis
Most of the cell’s life is
spent during interphase.
This is when the cell is
growing and functioning.

Cell division is only a

small part of the cell’s life.

**The focus of our lesson is on

cell division, but you should read
on interphase when you have
time.
Before mitosis starts…

The DNA is replicated during interphase. This forms

sister chromatids.

Sister chromatids are still 1

chromosome, but with double
the genetic material (2x DNA).

During cell division, the

chromosome is split at the
centromere.
Prophase - the first stage of cell division in both
mitosis and meiosis. Beginning after interphase,
DNA has already been replicated when the cell
enters prophase.

Ø Centrioles move to centrioles

opposite poles.

Ø Nuclear membrane
breaks down.

Ø Spindle fibers begin to

form.
Metaphase - the cell's chromosomes align
themselves in the middle of the cell through a
type of cellular "tug of war."

Ø Chromosomes line up in
the middle of the cell
Anaphase - the chromosomes are separated by
a structure called the mitotic spindle.

Ø The sister chromatids are

pulled apart at the centromere

Ø Identical chromosomes move to

opposite poles.
Telophase - the process that separates the
duplicated genetic material carried in the nucleus
of a parent cell into two identical daughter cells.

Ø Chromosomes are on
opposite sides of the cell.

Ø Nuclear membrane starts

to form.

Ø Cell begins to split.

 Cytokinesis

Cytokinesis is the physical

process of cell division, which
divides the cytoplasm of a
parental cell into two
daughter cells.

It occurs with both mitosis

and meiosis in animal cells.
Mitosis Meiosis I
 Genes and Inheritance
Definitions:
Trait
Phenotype and Genotype
Heredity
Punnett Square
Test Cross
Pedigree
Antibiotic
Antibiotic Resistant Bacteria
 Gregor Johann Mendel
“Father of Genetics”
• Austrian monk

• Studied the inheritance of

traits in pea plants

• Developed the laws of

inheritance

• Mendel's work was not

recognized until the turn of
the 20th century
 Punnett Square
Used to help solve genetics
problems.

Gametes (4)

B b

B BB Bb

b Bb bb
 Pedigree
A pedigree is a diagram that
depicts the biological
relationships between an
organism and its ancestors.

A pedigree is used for different

animals, such as humans, dogs,
and horses. Often, it is used to
look at the transmission of
genetic disorders.
 Autosomal dominant Autosomal recessive

A pattern of inheritance in which A pattern of inheritance in

an affected individual has which an affected individual
one copy of a mutant gene has two copies of a mutant
and one normal gene on a pair gene, so both genes are
of autosomal chromosomes. mutant.
Some diseases are based on the sex chromosomes.

Which chromosome carries Some of the women are carriers

the gene that causes the for the disease. This means that
disease? X or Y? the disease is recessive. But since
men only get one X chromosome,
X chromosome the disease is automatically
expressed.
Polygenetic Inheritance
We tend to focus on genetic traits controlled by a single gene
because they are easy to understand. In reality many traits
are determined by many genes working together. This is
called . This kind of incomplete
dominance controls our height, skin colour and hair colour.
Evolution and Natural Selection
Definitions:
Evolution
Natural Selection
Desirable Traits and Undesirable Traits
Mutation
Survival of the Fittest
Variation
Sex Chromosomes
Polygenic Inheritance
The giraffe has evolved and adapted to have a long neck.
This is so because giraffes acquired random traits (e.g.
longer neck) that gave them an advantage in their
environment, making them better able to survive.
Darwin came up with natural selection; the mechanism he
used to explain evolution.

Darwin observed that:

• In general, organisms produce more offspring than are

needed to keep the population stable

• Despite the over-reproduction, populations generally

remain the same size

• Individuals within the same species are not identical, they

show variation.
 Natural Selection Summary
• There is variation within the same species
• Changing the conditions of the environment (called
selection pressure) will favour one particular form of the
species (which now has an advantage)

• Because this particular form of the species has an

advantage, it will have better chances of surviving and
better chances of reproducing, therefore the genes that
gave the advantage will become more frequent in the
population.

• This originated the phrase: Survival of the Fittest

4. Variation that Increases
Reproductive Success is
more Common
a) What happens to organisms with the desirable traits?
Those with the most desirable traits survive and go on
to reproduce, so these traits are passed on to the next
generation.
b) What happens to organisms with the undesirable traits?
Those with the undesirable traits die and so these
traits are not passed on.

Remember: There is variation within a species.

Changing conditions within the environment (selection pressures)

favours one particular trait (the desirable trait), which has a
selective advantage.
 Mutations

How evolution works:

Mutations are the reason

we change and evolve.

A mutation is basically a
change in DNA code
which leads to a change
in characteristics.

Some mutations are

good and some
mutations are bad.
Antibiotics are
chemicals that kill or
reduce the growth of
microorganisms. They
are used in medicines to
treat bacterial infections,
although a few are
effective against fungal
pathogens.
 Antiobiotic Resistance
Bacteria reproduce very quickly, so this makes them a
good organism to observe and study natural selection.
Antibiotic resistance happens when germs like
bacteria and fungi develop the ability to defeat the drugs
designed to kill them.

That means the germs are

not killed and continue to
grow.

Infections caused by
antibiotic-resistant germs
are difficult, and sometimes
impossible, to treat.
 Antibiotic resistance
1 – A random mutation gives the bacteria resistance to a
particular antibiotic.

2 – The bacteria acquires an advantage over the other

bacteria.

3 – The resistant bacteria survives and reproduces while

the non-resistant bacteria die.

4 – Bacteria can have up to 72 generations within 24

hours.
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