Environmental Science - MIDTERM

Lesson 1: Levels Of Organization Studied in Biology

From the smallest to the largest
1. Atoms: Smallest unit of matter that cannot be broken down into anything simpler by chemical means
2. Molecules: smallest unit of most compounds formed by chemical bonding of atoms
3. Organelles: specialized structures that perform important cellular functions within cells
4. Cells: smallest unit of life, collection of living matter enclosed by a barrier that separates them from
their surroundings
5. Tissues: group of similar cells that performs a particular function
6. Organs: groups of tissues that work together to perform closely related functions
7. Organ systems: group of organs that work together to perform closely related functions
8. Organisms: living things composed of cells
Species: a group of organisms so similar to one another that they can breed and produce fertile
offspring
9. Population: group of individuals of the same species that live in the same area
10. Community: group of different populations that live together in a defined area
11. Ecosystem: group of organisms that live in a particular place together with their nonliving environment
12. Biome: groups of ecosystems that have the same climate and similar dominant communities
13. Biosphere: part of the earth in which life exists, including land, water, air, & atmosphere

Lesson 2: Energy Flow in Ecosystem

All energy in ecosystem comes from the sun.

First law of thermodynamics: Energy cannot be created or destroyed (but it can be transformed into stored
energy & heat)
Second law of thermodynamics: Energy is lost as energy is transformed.
In an ecosystem, when energy is transformed, some energy is lost as heat.

ENERGY PATHS: 3 ways to illustrate

1. Food Chain: shows the path of energy from one organism to
the next
○ energy flows from producers to consumers
○ arrows point to who is eating
○ usually, decomposers are left out

2. Food Web: shows all feeding relationships in an ecosystem (made up

of many food chains)
 Food Chains/Webs & Energy Pyramids:
○ producers form the base of the pyramid
○ consumers form the upper layers

Energy Pyramids:
○ A level of the energy pyramid is called a trophic level
○ Each trophic level represents the energy for those organisms

Trophic Levels
○ Energy is lost with each trophic
• 90% is released into the environment as heat
• 10% of the energy is used

All organisms in an ecosystem need energy from food to live. An energy pyramid shows how much food
energy is passed from one organism to another through food chains. Producers have the largest spot at the base
of the pyramid. Altogether only 10% of the food energy at each level gets passed up to the next.

Lesson 3: Biological Interaction Among Animals

INTERACTION: The relationships among organisms of different species living in the same location. Interaction
is a necessity for any living being to survive. Ecological interactions also have negative and positive interactions.

INTRASPECIES
 happens in same animal species
INTERSPECIES
 happens in different animal species

FORMS OF INTERACTIONS
COOPORATION
 benefits both animals
COMPETITION
 benefits only one animal

TYPES OF INTERACTIONS
1. NEUTRALISM
The relationship between two species which do interact but do not affect each other.
E.g.: White-tailed deer have no effect on snakes, and snakes have no effect on deer.

2. COMPETITION
Competition is a biological interaction between two or more organisms of the same or different species where
the species compete with each other for different resources.
Two types:
• Intraspecific Competition
A competition between the members of the same species that compete for limited resources.
E.g.: two male deer competing for mates.
• Interspecific Competition
A competition between two individuals of different species competing for the same resources.
E.g.: lions and leopards that vie for similar prey
• Direct Competition
The species living in an ecosystem directly influence each other by affecting the availability of resources in the
ecosystem.
E.g.: zebras compete with each other when the grass and leaves in the environment become scarce.
• Indirect Competition
The species influence the availability of resources indirectly.
E.g.: Zebra present near the pond might affect other zebras that occur away from the pond by decreasing the
amount of water in the river. species do not interact with each other but are related by means of a resource.

3. AMENSALISM
One species causes harm to another organism without any cost or benefits to itself.
E.g.: a goat feeds on the same type of shrub as an insect (such as a beetle). The goat is unharmed when it
consumes the shrub, however, the beetle loses significant quantities of food and may accidentally be eaten by
the goat.

4. PARASITISM
One organism is benefitted at the expense of the other. Benefitted organism is called the parasite, while the one
that is harmed is called the host.
E.g.: Tapeworms are found attached to the insides of the intestines of animals such as cows, pigs, etc. They feed
on the host’s partly digested food, depriving it of the nutrients.

5. PREDATION
One of the species kills (predator) and feeds on the other (prey).
E.g.: owls hunting mice
6. COMMENSALISM
One of the species is benefitted without either harming or benefitting the other.
E.g.: a bird making a nest in a tree

7. PROTOCOOPERATION
Partnership between two separate species organisms in which both benefits, but the relationship is not
necessary.
E.g.: cattle egrets (birds) that feed upon the insects stirred up by the feeding cattle.

8. MUTUALISM
A relationship in which both species are mutually benefited. The species with this relationship is termed as
symbionts.
E.g.: Lichens are mutualistic association between algae and fungi. Algal part produces food by photosynthesis
and supplies that to the fungal part. The fungal part adsorbs water and minerals from soil and supplies those to
the algal part. In this association, both the organisms are benefited.

INTERACTION TYPE EFFECT ON SPECIES A EFFECT ON SPECIES B

Neutralism 0 0
Competition - -
Amensalism - 0
Parasitism + -
Predation + -
Commensalism + 0
Protocooperation + +
Mutualism + +

Lesson 4: Terrestrial Ecosystem

Terrestrial Ecosystem
 A land-based community of organisms and the interactions of biotic and abiotic components in a given
area.
 Distinguished from aquatic ecosystems by the lower availability of water, making water a critical
limiting factor.
 Greater temperature fluctuations on both diurnal and seasonal bases compared to aquatic ecosystems.
 Greater availability of light due to the atmosphere being more transparent than water.
 Gases such as CO₂, O₂, and N₂ are more readily available.
 Comprises 28% of the world’s surface.

6 Primary Terrestrial Ecosystem:

1. Tundra
 2. Taiga
3. Temperate Deciduous Forest
4. Tropical Rain Forest
5. Grassland
6. Desert

- Animals that we see on our everyday life, (Birds, mammals of all shapes and sizes, and insects)
What animals live there?

- Plants that we already know, flowering plants (roses, sun flowers, etc.). Mosses, and different types of
What plants live there?

trees.

- Non-living components of an ecosystem affecting the life of organisms.

Abiotic Components

 Temperature
 Light
 Water
 Soil
 Rocks
 Sulphur
 Carbohydrates
 Humic substances
 Lipids
 Proteins
 Nitrogen

Temperature:
 Most life thrives in a narrow temperature range (0°C to 50°C).
 Active metabolism is limited below 0°C and enzymes denature above 50°C.
 Some species have extraordinary adaptations for extreme temperatures
 Types of vegetation:
 Megatherms – high temperature throughout the year
 Mesotherms – alteration of low and high temperature season
 Microtherms – temperature always remains comparatively lower
 Hekistotherms - temperature remains low throughout the year

Sunlight:
 Provides light and warmth, essential for all ecosystems.
 Powers photosynthesis in plants, the main producers in terrestrial ecosystems.
 Aids visibility among organisms.
 Crucial for plant growth and vitamin D formation in mammals; regulates calcium and phosphorus levels.

Wind:
 Helps plants to disperse seeds over long distances.
 Organisms disperse to find new habitats rich in needed resources.
 Strong winds can be very destructive.

Water:
 Essential for life; critical for digestion and food absorption.
 Supplies oxygen and nutrients to cells.
 Acts as a natural air conditioning system.

Biotic Components
 Living Component of the Animal World:
  Ranges from microscopic animals to small insects and larger animals such as fish, amphibians, reptiles,
birds, and mammals.
o Autotrophs:
 The producers.
o Heterotrophs:
 The consumers.
 Also referred to as phagotrophs or macroconsumers.
 Mainly herbivores (primary consumers) that feed directly on plants.
 Carnivores that feed or prey upon other animals.
 Primary carnivores feed on herbivorous animals.
 Secondary carnivores feed on primary carnivores.
o Saprotrophs:
 The decomposers or reducers.
 Break down complex organic compounds of dead matter from plants and animals.
 Secrete digestive enzymes into dead and decaying plant and animal remains to digest the
organic material.
 Enzymes act upon the complex organic compounds of the dead matter.

Classification of Terrestrial Communities on the Basis of Habitat

 Terrestrial Organisms are found living on the surface of earth, below it or in the sky. Therefore, on
the basis of habitat, they are divided into 3 categories:
I. Subterranean Communities
 Animals which live about 5 to 6 inches deep inside the Earth
 Microbiota, Mesobiota, and Macrobiota Subterranean Communities
II. Surface Communities
 Communities which live on earth
 Tropical: Climate is warm.
 Temperate: Summer are warm and winters are cold.
 Alpine: Snowfall takes place.
III. Aerial Communities
 Organisms which fly in the sky
 Insects, moths, birds and bats are main sky flier.

Types of Terrestrial Ecosystem

1. Tundra:
o Finnish word “tuntria,” meaning treeless plain.
o Coldest of all biomes.
o Notable characteristics:
 Frost-molded landscapes.
 Extremely low temperatures.
 Little precipitation.
 Poor nutrients.
 Short growing seasons.
o Major nutrients: nitrogen and phosphorus.
o Types of Tundra:
 Artic Tundra:
 Desert-like environment with low precipitation (less than 10 inches/year).
 Long cold winters and short cool summers.
 Located in Northern Alaska, Canada, and Siberia.
 Alpine Tundra:
 In Latin word means high mountain.
 Found in mountain regions worldwide at altitudes around 10,000 feet.
 No trees, located just below the snow line of a mountain.
2. Taiga:
 o Also known as boreal forest (Russian word for forest).
o Largest biome in the world.
o Located near the top of the world, just below the tundra biome.
o Characterized by:
 Very cold winters with only snowfall.
 Warm, rainy, and humid summers.
o Common plant species: coniferous trees (e.g., pine trees).

3. Temperate Deciduous Forest:

o Located in Eastern US, Canada, Europe, China, and Japan.
o Leaves change color in autumn, fall off during winter, and grow back in spring.
o Temperature ranges from -30°C to 30°C, with a yearly average of 10°C.
o Rainfall ranges from 750 to 1,500 mm per year.
o Experiences four seasons: spring, summer, fall, winter.
o Common vegetation: broadleaf trees like oaks, maples, beeches.

4. Tropical Rainforest:
o Hot, moist biome found near Earth’s equator.
o Largest tropical rainforests are in South America, Africa, and Southeast Asia.
o Receives 60 to 160 inches of precipitation evenly distributed throughout the year.
o Constant warmth and abundant moisture support high biodiversity.
o Home to over 15 million species of plants and animals.
o Hot and humid conditions favor bacteria and microorganisms, leading to rapid decomposition.
o Nutrients are quickly consumed by fast-growing plants, leaving the soil infertile and acidic.

5. Grassland Biome:
o Large, rolling terrains of grasses, flowers, and herbs.
o Plant growth determined by latitude, soil, and local climates.
o Average annual precipitation supports grasses and some trees.
o Drought and fire prevent large forests from growing.
o Grasses survive fires by growing from the bottom; stems regrow after being burned.
o Soil is often too thin and dry for trees to survive.
 Types of Grasslands:
o Tall-Grass:
 Humid and very wet.
o Short-Grass:
 Dry, with hotter summers and colder winters than tall-grass prairies.
 Seasons:
o Winter temperatures: as low as -40°F.
o Summer temperatures: as high as 70°F.
o Two seasons: growing season (100 to 175 days, no frost) and dormant season (too cold for
growth).
 Growing Season:
o In tropical and subtropical grasslands: determined by the length of the rainy season.
o In temperate grasslands: determined by temperature (plants grow when daily temperature
reaches about 50°F).
 Rainfall:
o Temperate grasslands: 10-30 inches per year.
o Tropical and subtropical grasslands: 25-60 inches per year.
o Rainfall affects tree competition with grasses; upper soil layers moist part of the year, deeper
layers always dry.

6. Desert:
 o Barren area with little precipitation, hostile for plant and animal life.
o Lack of vegetation exposes ground to denudation.
o About one-third of the world’s land surface is arid or semi-arid.
o Classified by precipitation, temperature, causes of desertification, or geographical location.
 Hot Deserts:
o Warm year-round, very hot in summer (over 100°F during the day).
o Temperatures drop below freezing at night.
o Rainfall is rare and brief.
o Ground is usually rocky or sandy.
o Located just north and south of the equator.
o Largest hot desert: Sahara Desert in northern Africa (over 3 million square miles).
o Other examples: Arabian, Mohave, and Sonoran deserts.
 Cold Deserts:
o Cool year-round, very cold in winter (often below freezing).
o Heavy snow in winter, most rainfall in spring.
o Ground can be solid ice or rocky/spongy soil.
o Located on coasts near oceans, closer to the poles.
o Largest cold desert: Antarctica (over 5 million square miles, driest, coldest, and windiest place
on earth). A desert with no camels or sand dunes.
o Other examples: Gobi, Great Basin, and Namib deserts.

Lesson 5: Freshwater Ecosystem

WHAT IS FRESHWATER ECOSYSTEM?

Freshwater refers to the water found in lakes, ponds, streams, and any other body of water other than the sea. It
supports a range of plant and animal ecosystems whose composition is shaped by the availability of food,
oxygen (O), temperature, and sunlight.

• WHAT ARE THE MAJOR FRESHWATER ECOSYSTEMS?

• Lake
• Reservoir
• Pond
• Streams
• River
• Inland Wetland

Lake:
o Standing freshwater ecosystem.
o Formed from direct precipitation, surface runoff, or groundwater flow.
o Water fills basin-like depressions from volcanic activity, glaciation, and meteorite impacts.
 Four Distinct Zones of Lakes:
o Littoral Zone:
 Shallow, nutrient-rich water near the shore.
 Contains rooted aquatic plants and abundant aquatic life dependent on plants.
o Limnetic Zone:
 Open water surface layer receiving sufficient sunlight for photosynthesis.
 Contains floating phytoplankton, plant-eating zooplankton, and fish.
o Profundal Zone:
  Deep water zone not penetrated by sunlight.
 Inhabited by fish adapted to cooler, darker water, and lower levels of dissolved oxygen.
o Benthic Zone:
 Supports bloodworms and other decomposers.
 Decomposers live on dead plant debris, animal remains, and animal wastes.
 Two Distinct Layers of Lakes:
o Epilimnion:
 Upper layer with warm water exposed to the atmosphere.
 High levels of dissolved oxygen.
o Hypolimnion:
 Lower layer of colder, denser water.
 Lower concentration of dissolved oxygen.
 Thermocline:
o Main transition zone separating epilimnion and hypolimnion.
o Temperature drops sharply.
o Acts as a barrier to the downward transport of dissolved oxygen and nutrients.
o Oxygen can become so depleted in the hypolimnion that it cannot support cold-water fish-like
trout and whitefish.

 Major Types of Lakes:

o Oligotrophic Lake:
 Low supply of plant nutrients.
 Usually deep with crystal clear water.
 Cool to cold temperatures.
 Small populations of phytoplankton and fish.
o Eutrophic Lake:
 Large or excessive supply of plant nutrients.
 Usually shallow with cloudy, warm water.
 Large populations of phytoplankton and zooplankton.
 Diverse fish populations.
 Eutrophication occurs due to natural erosion and runoff.
o Mesotrophic Lakes:
 Intermediate levels of nutrient enrichment.

Reservoir:
o Large, deep, human-created bodies of standing freshwater.
o Built primarily for water storage behind dams.
o Water volume determined by needs for hydroelectric power, irrigation, or domestic
consumption.
o Examples: Pantabangan Dam, La Mesa Dam.

Ponds:
o Small, shallow, usually human-created impoundments of freshwater.
o Used for watering livestock, raising freshwater fish, or recreation (e.g., fishing).
o Consist mostly of a littoral zone with rooted plants from shore to shore.
o No distinct temperature zones.
o Photosynthesis occurs at all depths during daylight unless surface water is clogged with algae.

Streams:
o Relatively small, flowing bodies of freshwater.
o Empty into rivers.
Rivers:
o Large natural streams of water flowing in a channel to the sea, a lake, or another stream.
o Flow downhill due to gravity.

Streams and Rivers:

o Surface water from precipitation that does not infiltrate or evaporate flows into streams and
rivers.
o This runoff eventually flows downhill to oceans, contributing to the hydrologic cycle.
o Watershed or Drainage Basin: the entire land area delivering water, sediment, and dissolved
substances via streams to a major river and ultimately to the sea.
o Important resources for water impounding, reservoirs, and dams for hydroelectric power plants.
 Two Major Stream Zones:
o Shallow Water Zone (Rapid Zone):
 Characterized by shallow water with enough current velocity to keep the bottom clean of
silt and loose materials.
o Deeper Water (Pool Zone):
 Reduced current velocity allows silt and loose materials to settle at the bottom,
providing favorable conditions for burrowing animals.

Inland Wetland:
o Land that remains flooded with freshwater all or part of the year.
o Located away from coastal areas.
o Includes bogs, marshes, swamps, and river-overflow lands.

Lesson 6: Marine Ecosystem

What is marine ecosystem?

 Marine ecosystems are aquatic environments with high levels of dissolved salt, such as those found in or
near the ocean.
 Marine ecosystems are defined by their unique biotic (living) and abiotic (nonliving) factors.
 Marine ecosystems are the largest of Earth's aquatic ecosystems and these systems contrast with
freshwater ecosystems.

Why marine ecosystem is important?

 Because it is the sources of ecosystem services, food and jobs for significant portions of the global
population.
 It is significant source of oxygen for our planet and storage of carbon dioxide.

Salinity:
 It is a limiting factor that affects the distribution and growth of various plants and animals.

Neritic Zone
 Coastal seas along edges of continents and above continental shelves
 Large numbers of phytoplankton
 Green in color – high productivity
 Produces 90% of world’s annual harvest of fish and shellfish
Open Sea
 Great increase in water depth
 Divided into 3 vertical zones based on the penetration of sunlight
 Temperature decreases with water depth

THE 3 VERTICAL ZONES OR STRATA

1. EUPHOTIC ZONE
What is Euphotic Zone?
• The euphotic zone is the layer closer to the surface that receives enough light for photosynthesis to occur.
Beneath lies the disphotic zone, which is illuminated but so poorly that rates of respiration exceed those of
photosynthesis. The upper surface of the ocean which is of 200 meters (656 feet) is called the euphotic, also
known as the "sunlight," zone.

Why is the euphotic zone so important to ocean life?

The ocean life in the Euphotic zone includes sharks, jellyfish, sea turtles, coral, and zooplankton. The reason
why there are so many various lives in this zone is because of its access to sunlight. Direct sunlight causes
photosynthesis, which allows many opportunities for life.

2. BATHYAL ZONE
IS COOLER, DARKER, LAYER WHERE THERE IS SOME PENETRATION BY SUNLIGHT BUT NOT ENOUGH TO
SUPPORT PHOTOSYNTHESIS.

Why is bathyal zone important?

The bathypelagic ocean waters are an open-ocean ecosystem characterized by the lack of sunlight and primary
producers, and trophic networks relying on the subsidies of nutrients from epipelagic and mesopelagic waters.
Thermohaline circulation provides other resources such as oxygen.

3. ABYSSAL ZONE
What is abyssal zone?
the biogeographic realm consisting of the deep sea, lacking higher plant life because of the absence of light, and
occupied chiefly by carnivorous animals that are often blind or have special luminous organs and are
structurally adapted to withstand the great pressures of this level.

Abysso-pelagic Zone: This zone is also called the Abyssal Zone or the Abyss – derived from the Greek word
meaning “bottomless sea.” It refers to waters directly above the continental rise (at about 3000 meters) down to
about 6000m.

Why is abyssal zone important?

This is because abyssal and hadal waters are the reservoir for the salts from decomposed biological materials
that settle downward from upper zones, and the lack of sunlight prevents their uptake by photosynthesis.

Examples:
 Black swallower, Tripod fish, Angler fish, Giant squid, Gulper eel, Dumbo octopus

What are ESTUARIES?

 Partially enclosed bodies of water where freshwater from streams and rivers mix with saltwater from
the ocean/sea
 Transitions point from land to sea and from fresh to salt water
 Tidally driven, but sheltered from the full force of the ocean’s wind and waves by reefs, barrier islands,
sand, or mudflats
 Transition zones between the marine-dominated systems of the ocean and the upland river system
 Among the most biologically productive ecosystems on earth
Why are estuaries important?
 Habitats for a variety of marine life, birds, and mammals. Safe place for small creatures to grow to
maturity, such as fish and shrimps.
 Migrating birds often make estuaries their winter homes and resting spot
 Plants help against erosion
 Filter water
 Absorb flood water
 Valuable natural laboratories for scientists and students

Few animals can live their entire lives in estuaries. Most move into estuaries at certain times of the year or
during certain parts of their life cycle.

Examples:
 Cockles: have strong shells to protect them from wave action, drying out, and beaks of predators
 River otter: carnivorous and feed off a lot of the fish and crustaceans living estuaries
 Mud shrimp: feed on the waste material found in the mudflats of estuaries
 Turtle: one of the few species that spend its entire life in the estuary

COASTAL WETLANDS
 Coastal areas covered by saltwater for all or part of the time
 Functions include: habitat and nesting for fish and wildlife
: flood and erosion control
: filter out pollutants
: recreation

Importance of coastal wetlands

 Breeding grounds for waterfowl and wildlife
 Recreation and important food sources for humans
 Dilute, filter, and settle out sediments, excess nutrients, and pollutants
 Protection from floods
 Nurseries and habitats for shrimp, fish, and other types of aquatic wildlife