DEPARTMENT: SCIENCE LABORATORY

TECHNOLOGY
COURSE: GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF
CHEMISTRY
CODE: STC 111
COURSE UNIT: 2
LEVEL: ND1
1:0 THE STRUCTURE OF ATOMS, MOLECULES AND THEIR COMPOSITION
Atomic theory is the scientific theory that matter is composed of discrete units called atoms. It
proposes that these atoms are indivisible, indestructible, and have unique properties that
define the element they belong to. While the basic idea of atoms has been around for
centuries, the modern atomic theory we know today is built upon a series of key experiments
and theoretical advancements.
Some key experiments that laid the foundation for our current understanding of atoms:

1. John Dalton's Law of Definite Proportions (1803): Through experiments on chemical

reactions, Dalton proposed that:
 All matter is composed of tiny particles called atoms.
 Atoms of a specific element are identical in mass and properties.
 Atoms of different elements can combine in whole-number ratios to form compounds.

O + H2 -> H2O
16. 2. 18

2. Michael Faraday's Laws of Electrolysis (1833)

Michael Faraday's experiments showed that the amount of a substance deposited during
electrolysis is proportional to the charge passed. This suggested that electric charge is
quantized, meaning it comes in discrete units, hinting at the existence of charged subatomic
particles like electrons.

3. Bohr’s Atomic Model (1913)

Niels Bohr proposed that electrons exist in specific energy levels or orbitals around the
nucleus. Electrons can absorb or release energy by jumping between these orbitals, explaining
the discrete nature of atomic spectra.

Energy States of the hydrogen atom in Bohr Model

1. Energy Level
The energy levels in the Bohr model are numbered (n) starting from 1 (closest to the nucleus)
and increase towards infinity. The lower the n value, the more stable the electron and the
lower its energy.

=-

where:
 En is the energy of the electron in the nth energy level
 n is the principal quantum number

2. Quantization of angular momentum: The angular momentum of the electron in its orbit is
quantized, meaning it can only have specific discrete values given by:
L=nℏ
where:
 L is the angular momentum
 n is the principal quantum number, a positive integer (1, 2, 3, ...)
 ℏ is the reduced Planck constant

3. Stationary orbits: The electron orbits the nucleus in circular orbits without radiating
energy. These orbits are called stationary orbits.

Different main energy levels of an atom

The main energy levels of an atom are also known as electron shells or principal energy
levels. They are denoted by letters (K, L, M, N, ...) or principal quantum numbers (n = 1, 2, 3,
...). Each energy level has a specific amount of energy associated with it, and electrons
occupy these levels in a fixed order based on their energy state.

Here are the first four main energy levels of an atom:

1. K shell (n = 1): This is the closest energy level to the nucleus and has the lowest
energy.
It can hold a maximum of 2 electrons.

2. L shell (n = 2): The second energy level from the nucleus. It can hold a maximum of
8 electrons.

3. M shell (n = 3): The third energy level from the nucleus. It can hold a maximum of 18
electrons.

4. N shell (n = 4): The fourth energy level from the nucleus. It can hold a maximum of
32 electrons.

HUND'S RULE
It is an empirical rule used in atomic and molecular physics to predict the most stable electron
configuration (ground state) for atoms or molecules with partially filled subshells.

HEISENBERG UNCERTAINTY PRINCIPLE

It states that it is impossible to know both the exact position and momentum of a particle with
perfect accuracy at the same time. In simpler terms, the more precisely you know one
property, the less precisely you can know the other.
Here's the core of the principle:
Δx * Δp ≥ h/(4π)
where:
Δx is the uncertainty in the particle's position
Δp is the uncertainty in the particle's momentum
h is the Planck constant (a fundamental constant in quantum mechanics)
THE FOUR QUANTUM NUMBERS
1. Principal Quantum Number (n)
 Significance: Dictates the energy level the electron occupies. Higher n means higher
energy and larger distance from the nucleus. Imagine it as electron shells or floors in an
atomic building.
 Range: Positive integers starting from 1 (n = 1, 2, 3, ...).

2. Azimuthal Quantum Number (l)

 Significance: Defines the subshell (orbital shape) within the main energy level. Each n
value can have multiple sublevels with different shapes (s, p, d, f...). Imagine it as
apartments within each floor having unique layouts.
 Range: 0 to n-1 (e.g., for n = 2, l = 0, 1).

3. Magnetic Quantum Number (ml)

 Significance: Specifies the orientation of the subshell in space. Each sublevel can have
multiple orientations due to the electron's angular momentum. Imagine it as the specific
room number within each apartment, denoting its position.
 Range: -l to +l (e.g., for l = 1, ml = -1, 0, 1).

4. Spin Quantum Number (ms)

 Significance: Represents the intrinsic spin of the electron, akin to its "rotation." Electrons
can spin "up" or "down," influencing their magnetic properties.
 Range: +1/2 or -1/2.

S AND P ORBITALS
S and p orbitals are two fundamental types of orbitals in atoms, each with a distinct shape that
influences how electrons behave and interact

S orbital
 Shape: Spherical, resembling a cloud evenly distributed around the nucleus in all
directions. This is the simplest orbital and can only hold two electrons.
 Image: Imagine a basketball surrounding the nucleus.

P orbitals
 Shape: Dumbbell-shaped with three lobes pointing perpendicularly away from each
other. Each p subshell contains three p orbitals, oriented along the x, y, and z axes in
space.
 Image: Picture three dumbbells positioned strategically around the nucleus, each
pointing along a different axis.

ISOTOPES
Isotopes can be defined as the atoms of the same element with the same number of protons
but different numbers of neutrons.
Example: Carbon has 3 isotopes:
Carbon-12 (6 protons, 6 neutrons)
Carbon-13 (6 protons, 7 neutrons)
Carbon-14 (6 protons, 8 neutrons)

Uses of Isotopes
1. Medicine: Stable isotopes are used in a variety of medical imaging techniques, such
as PET scans and MRIs. For example, the isotope fluorine-18 is used in PET scans to
image the brain and heart.

2. Environmental studies: Stable isotopes can be used to study environmental

processes, such as climate change and water pollution. For example, the isotope ratio
of oxygen in water can be used to determine the age of the water.

3. Industry: Stable isotopes are used in a variety of industrial applications, such as food
irradiation and food preservation. For example, the isotope cobalt-60 is used to
irradiate food, which kills bacteria and other pathogens.

ATOM
Atom is a building block of matter, used to determine the characteristics of an element.
Atoms contain up of 3 basic components known as subatomic particles, consisting of protons
(positively charged), neutrons (no charge), and electrons (negatively charged).

 The center of an atom is called the nucleus and is made up of both protons and
neutrons. This part of the atom is able to determine a wide range of properties, such
as the atomic number and atomic mass.
 Protons have a positive charge.
 Neutrons have a neutral charge (no charge).
 Electrons have a negative charge, and are far away from the nucleus.
 Nucleus: The region located in the center of an atom, containing both protons and
neutrons.
 Electron Shells: The region located on the outermost area of the atom only containing
electrons.
 Atomic Structure: The arrangement of protons, neutrons, and electrons in an atom
forms its atomic structure

ATOMIC NUMBER
The atomic number of an element is the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom. It is
represented by the symbol Z and is a fundamental property of an element that determines its
chemical identity and behavior.
Number of protons and electrons: In a neutral atom, the number of protons is equal to the
number of electrons. This means that the atomic number also determines the number of electrons
in the atom's outer shell, which are responsible for its chemical bonding behavior.
MASS NUMBER
The mass number of an atom, denoted by the symbol A, is the sum of the number of protons and
neutrons in its nucleus.

VALENCY
Valency refers to the combining power of an atom. It essentially tells you how many other
atoms a single atom of an element can bond with to form a molecule. This ability to bond
stems from the number of electrons an atom possesses in its outermost shell, also known as
the valence shell.

CHEMICAL BONDING
Chemical bonding is the force that holds atoms together to form molecules, crystals, and other
stable structures. It's all about the dance of electrons between atoms, driven by their desire to
achieve a stable, low-energy configuration.

Types of Chemical bonding

1. Ionic Bonding: This occurs between metals and nonmetals. Metals tend to lose
electrons (forming cations) to achieve a stable configuration, while nonmetals tend to
gain electrons (forming anions). The electrostatic attraction between these oppositely
charged ions forms an ionic bond. For example, sodium (Na) loses an electron to
become Na⁺, which then attracts the Cl⁻ ion of chlorine, forming the ionic compound
NaCl (table salt).

2. Covalent Bonding: This occurs between nonmetals who share electrons to achieve a
stable configuration with a full valence shell (usually 8 electrons). The shared
electrons form a "cloud" around the atoms, holding them together. Examples include
water (H₂O), where oxygen shares two electrons with each hydrogen, and methane
(CH₄), where carbon shares four electrons with each hydrogen.

3. Metallic Bonding: This occurs in metals, where a "sea" of delocalized electrons freely
move throughout the metal lattice. The positive metal ions are attracted to this
electron sea, creating a cohesive force that holds the metal together. This metallic
bonding explains the conductivity and malleability of metals.

4. Intermolecular Forces: These are weaker forces that attract individual molecules to
each other, influencing properties like boiling point and viscosity. They include:

 Hydrogen bonding: A special type of dipole-dipole interaction where a hydrogen

atom is attracted to the lone pair electrons of a highly electronegative atom like
oxygen or nitrogen. This plays a crucial role in water's unique properties.

 Dipole-dipole interactions: When molecules have uneven charge distributions,

 creating positive and negative ends, they can attract each other like tiny magnets

Energy considerations in ionic bonding and lattice energy

Ionic Bonding
 Formation: When an atom loses electrons to become a positively charged cation and
another atom gains electrons to become a negatively charged anion, they are attracted
to each other by electrostatic forces (Coulomb's law). This attraction releases energy,
making the combined state (ionic bond) more stable than the individual atoms.
 Energy: The energy released during ionic bond formation is called the ionization
energy for the atom losing electrons and the electron affinity for the atom gaining
electrons. The overall energy change (ΔE) is negative, indicating energy release and
stability.

Lattice Energy
Lattice energy is the amount of energy required to completely separate one mole of a solid
ionic compound into its gaseous ions. It represents the overall stability of the ionic lattice.
 Relationship to Ionic Bonding: Lattice energy reflects the combined strength of all the
individual ionic bonds within the crystal lattice. Stronger ionic bonds (due to higher
charges or smaller ions) lead to higher lattice energies, indicating a more stable ionic
compound.
 Energy Relationships: the lattice energy is directly proportional to the product of the
charges of the ions and inversely proportional to the distance between them
(according to Coulomb's law).
Lattice energy and the energy released during ionic bond formation are not the same, but they
are related. The lattice energy considers all the ionic interactions in the crystal, while the bond
formation energy focuses on a single bond.

VAN DER WAAL'S FORCES

Van der Waals forces are weak intermolecular forces that arise from the temporary
fluctuations in the electron distribution of atoms or molecules. They are named after the
Dutch physicist Johannes Diderik van der Waals, who first proposed their existence in 1873.

Types of Van der waal's forces

1. London dispersion forces: These are the weakest type of van der Waals force and
occur in all molecules, even nonpolar ones. They arise from the temporary, uneven
distribution of electrons within a molecule. When this happens, one end of the
molecule becomes slightly positive and the other end becomes slightly negative. This
creates a temporary dipole, which can then induce a dipole in a neighboring molecule.
The attraction between these induced dipoles is what creates London dispersion
forces.
2. Dipole-dipole forces: These forces occur between molecules with permanent dipoles.
The positive end of one dipole is attracted to the negative end of another dipole,
 creating a force of attraction. Dipole-dipole forces are stronger than London
dispersion forces, but they are still relatively weak.
3. Hydrogen bonding: This is a special type of dipole-dipole interaction that occurs
between a hydrogen atom covalently bonded to a highly electronegative atom, such as
oxygen or nitrogen. The hydrogen atom has a partial positive charge, which is attracted
to the lone pair electrons of the electronegative atom. Hydrogen bonding is the strongest
type of van der Waals force and is responsible for many of the unique properties of water,
such as its high boiling point and surface tension.

2:0 THE ARRANGEMENT OF ELEMENTS IN THE PERIODIC TABLE

Building up periods I and II

Period I
The Birth of Atoms, contains only two elements: hydrogen (H) and helium (He).
Both elements reside in the first energy level (n=1), which can hold a maximum of two
electrons.
1. Hydrogen (H)
 Has one proton and one electron, filling its first energy level completely.
 Highly reactive due to its desire to acquire another electron to achieve a stable
helium-like configuration.

2. Helium (He)
 Has two protons and two electrons, completely filling its first energy level.
 Achieves a stable, noble gas configuration, making it unreactive and inert.

Period II
Filling the Second Shell, contains eight elements: lithium (Li), beryllium (Be), boron (B),
carbon (C), nitrogen (N), oxygen (O), fluorine (F), and neon (Ne).
Electrons start filling the second energy level (n=2), which can hold a maximum of eight
electrons.

1. Lithium (Li)
 Has three protons and three electrons.
 Fills its first level with two electrons and places the third electron in the second level.
 Still seeks to lose one electron to attain a stable configuration.

Beryllium (Be)
 Similar to lithium, with four protons and four electrons.
 Fills both the first and second levels with two electrons each.
 Achieves a stable configuration and becomes inert.

Boron (B)
 Has five protons and five electrons.
  Fills the first level with two electrons and places the remaining three in the second
level.
 Exhibits some metallic and nonmetallic properties.

Carbon (C)
 A fundamental element in organic chemistry, with six protons and six electrons.
 Fills the first level with two electrons and distributes the remaining four across the
second level in a unique 2s²2p² configuration.
 Forms diverse covalent bonds due to its ability to share electrons, leading to countless
organic molecules.

Nitrogen (N)
 Has seven protons and seven electrons.
 Similar to carbon's configuration, with five electrons in the second level (2s²2p³).
 Shows essential roles in biological processes like protein and DNA formation.

Oxygen (O)
 Highly electronegative element with eight protons and eight electrons.
 Fills the first level with two electrons and the second level with six (2s²2p⁴).
 Forms important compounds like water (H₂O) and carbon dioxide (CO₂) through
covalent bonding.

Fluorine (F)
 The most electronegative element, with nine protons and nine electrons.
 One electron shy of a full second level (2s²2p⁵).
 Highly reactive due to its strong desire to gain one electron, forming compounds like
fluoride salts.

Neon (Ne)
 Marks the end of period II with ten protons and ten electrons.
 Completely fills its first and second levels with two and eight electrons, respectively
(2s²2p⁶).
 Achieves a stable noble gas configuration and becomes inert.

Period III
Filling the Third Shell and Beyond
This period contains eight elements: sodium (Na), magnesium (Mg), aluminum (Al), silicon
(Si), phosphorus (P), sulfur (S), chlorine (Cl), and argon (Ar). All elements reside in the
ground state, signifying their most stable electron configuration.

1. Sodium (Na): Has 11 protons and 11 electrons. Three electrons occupy the third level
(3s¹), giving it a valence of 1 and placing it in group 1 (alkali metals).

2. Magnesium (Mg): Has 12 protons and 12 electrons. Two electrons fill the third level
 (3s²) and it gains stability, becoming an alkaline earth metal (group 2) with a valence
of 2.

3. Aluminum (Al): Has 13 protons and 13 electrons. Three electrons fill the third level
(3s²3p¹). It exhibits metallic properties and belongs to group 13 (boron group).

4. Silicon (Si): Has 14 protons and 14 electrons. Four electrons occupy the third level
(3s²3p²). It's a metalloid with semiconductor properties, found in group 14 (carbon
group).

5. Phosphorus (P): Has 15 protons and 15 electrons. Five electrons fill the third level
(3s²3p³). It shows nonmetallic characteristics and belongs to group 15 (nitrogen
group).
6. Sulfur (S): Has 16 protons and 16 electrons. Six electrons occupy the third level
 (3s²3p⁴). It exhibits diverse bonding behaviors and belongs to group 16 (chalcogens).
7. Chlorine (Cl): Has 17 protons and 17 electrons. Seven electrons fill the third level
(3s²3p⁵). Highly electronegative due to its desire for one electron, placing it in group
17 (halogens).

8. Argon (Ar): Has 18 protons and 18 electrons, completely filling both the third level
(3s²3p⁶) and an inner 3d sublevel. This noble gas configuration makes it stable and
unreactive.

ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATIONS WITHIN THE GROUPS

Within groups (columns) of the periodic table, elements share similar electron configurations
in their valence shells, leading to consistent chemical properties and behaviors. Here's a
breakdown of the key trends

Outer mostly Shell and Valence Electrons:

1. Electrons: each group is primarily defined by the number of electrons in the
outermost energy level (valence shell) of its elements. This number determines the
group number (except for helium in group 18).
For example, all elements in group 1 (alkali metals) have one valence electron (e.g., Li:
1s²2s¹), giving them similar reactivity tendencies. They readily lose this electron to achieve a
stable noble gas configuration (e.g., He: 1s²).

2. Subshells and Variations:

While the overall valence electron count is crucial, some groups, particularly in later periods,
exhibit variations due to filling of subshells within the valence shell.
For example, group 17 (halogens) all have seven valence electrons (e.g., Cl: 1s²2s²2p⁶3s²3p⁵).
However, the distribution within the 3p subshell (p⁵ vs. p⁶) leads to slight differences in their
reactivities.

3. Transition Metals and Exceptions:

Groups 3-12 (transition metals) have a more complex electron configuration due to the filling
of d-sublevels within their valence shells. This adds another layer to their properties and
behaviors.
Some groups, like group 18 (noble gases), have unique configurations that deviate from the
typical pattern, reflecting their stability and inertness.

THE FIRST D-ORBITAL TRANSITION SERIES

The first d-orbital transition series, also known as the 3d-series or 4th period transition metals,
encompasses elements from scandium (Sc) to zinc (Zn) in the periodic table

1. Scandium (Sc): Has one electron in the 3d sublevel (3d¹). Mostly exhibits a +3
oxidation state.
2. Titanium (Ti): Has two electrons in the 3d sublevel (3d²). Common oxidation states
are +2 and +4.
3. Chromium (Cr): Has an anomalous configuration with five electrons in the 3d
sublevel (3d⁵). Common oxidation states are +2, +3, and +6.
4. Manganese (Mn): Has five electrons in the 3d sublevel (3d⁵). Exhibits numerous
oxidation states from +2 to +7.
5. Iron (Fe): Has six electrons in the 3d sublevel (3d⁶). Common oxidation states are +2
and +3.
6. Cobalt (Co): Has seven electrons in the 3d sublevel (3d⁷). Common oxidation states
are +2 and +3.
7. Nickel (Ni): Has eight electrons in the 3d sublevel (3d⁸). Mostly exhibits a +2
oxidation state.
8. Copper (Cu): Has an anomalous configuration with ten electrons in the 3d sublevel
(3d¹⁰). Primarily shows a +1 oxidation state.
9. Zinc (Zn): Has a full 3d sublevel (3d¹⁰). Mainly exhibits a +2 oxidation state.

PERIOD IV
The group IV in the periodic table includes:
1. Potassium (K): Highly reactive alkali metal, essential for nerve and muscle function.
2. Calcium (Ca): Abundant alkaline earth metal, crucial for bones and teeth, nerve
transmission, and muscle function.
3. Scandium (Sc): First transition metal, used in alloys for high-strength applications.
4. Titanium (Ti): Strong, lightweight metal used in aircraft and medical implants.
5. Vanadium (V): Used in steel alloys and catalysts.
6. Chromium (Cr): Adds strength and corrosion resistance to steel, used in pigments.
7. Manganese (Mn): Essential for various enzymes and steel production.
8. Iron (Fe): Most abundant metal on Earth, essential for oxygen transport in blood.
9. Cobalt (Co): Used in magnets, batteries, and pigments.
10. Nickel (Ni): Used in stainless steel, alloys, and catalysts.
11. Copper (Cu): Excellent conductor of heat and electricity, used in wires, cables, and
electronics.
 12. Zinc (Zn): Essential for immune function, used in galvanization and alloys.
13. Gallium (Ga): Liquid metal at room temperature, used in semiconductors and
thermometers.
14. Germanium (Ge): Used in semiconductors and optical fibers.
15. Arsenic (As): Highly toxic metalloid, used in semiconductors and pesticides
(historically).
16. Selenium (Se): Essential for antioxidant function, used in photocells and glass.
17. Bromine (Br): Liquid halogen, used as a disinfectant and flame retardant.
18. Krypton (Kr): Noble gas, used in light bulbs and lasers.

General properties of non-metallic elements

1. Poor conductors of heat and electricity: Unlike metals, they don't readily allow the
flow of heat or electricity, making them valuable insulators.
2. Reactive: They readily gain electrons to form negative ions, leading to diverse
chemical reactions and compound formation.
3. Diverse physical states: They exist in various forms at room temperature, including
gases (hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen), liquids (bromine), and solids (carbon, sulfur,
phosphorus).
4. Essential for life: Carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, and oxygen are the building blocks of
organic molecules, essential for biological processes.

Types of Non-Metallic Elements

Main Group Elements
 Hydrogen: Often classified separately due to its unique properties, it plays a vital role
in water and organic molecules.
 Nitrogen, Oxygen, Phosphorus, Sulfur: Crucial for life, forming proteins, nucleic
acids, and other biological molecules.
 Halogens (Fluorine, Chlorine, Bromine, Iodine): Highly reactive, forming salts and
being used as disinfectants and bleaches.
 Noble Gases (Helium, Neon, Argon, Krypton, Xenon, Radon): Inert gases with stable
electron configurations, used in lighting, lasers, and anesthesia.

Other Non-Metals
 Carbon: The star of organic chemistry, forming the backbone of countless molecules,
from fuels to diamonds.
 Silicon: Abundant in the Earth's crust, used in semiconductors and electronics.
 Selenium and Tellurium: Rare elements with semiconducting properties and various
industrial applications.

NOBLE GASES
The noble gases, also known as inert gases or aerogens, occupy a unique space in the periodic
table
Individual Members:
 Helium (He): The lightest noble gas, known for its lifting power in balloons and its
use in cryogenics and deep-sea diving.
 Neon (Ne): Responsible for the vibrant red glow in neon signs, also used in lasers and
plasma displays.
 Argon (Ar): The most abundant noble gas in Earth's atmosphere, providing an inert
shield for life and used in welding and light bulbs.
 Krypton (Kr): Emits a blue-green light in fluorescent lamps and finds applications in
lasers and high-power particle accelerators.
 Xenon (Xe): Offers high anesthesia potency and is used in powerful flashlamps and
rocket propellants.
 Radon (Rn): Radioactive and highly hazardous, used in cancer treatment and studied
for its role in earthquakes.

Electronic Configuration for the first 20 elements

S/N Elements Symbol Electronic Configuration

1. Hydrogen H 1s

2. Helium He 1s2

3. Lithium Li 1s2 2s

4. Beryllium Be 1s2 2s2

5. Boron B 1s2 2s2 2p

6. Carbon C 1s2 2s2 2p2

7. Nitrogen N

8. Oxygen O

9. Fluorine F

10. Neon Ne

11.

12.

13.

14.

15.

16.

17.
 18.

19.

20.

THE TREND IN THE PERIODIC TABLE

ATOMIC SIZE
Atomic size, often referred to as atomic radius, describes the average distance between the
center of an atom's nucleus and the outermost shell of its electrons.

IONIZATION ENERGY
Ionization energy, also known as ionization potential, is the minimum amount of energy
required to remove the most loosely bound electron from an isolated gaseous atom in its ground
state. It is measured in electronvolts (eV) or joules per atom (J/atom)

ELECTRON AFFINITY
Electron affinity, often denoted by Ea, is the amount of energy released when an electron is
added to a neutral atom in the gaseous state to form a negative ion.

3:0 CHEMICAL THERMODYNAMICS