PROGENOTE & PROKARYOTES AND EUKARYOTES

PROGENOTE

The current literature uses the term progenote in two different ways: 1) it signifies an
organizational level in evolution when prokaryotic organization preceded cells; or 2) it is
used to denote the last common ancestor of all extant life. In some scenarios that describe
early cellular evolution, it was assumed that the last common ancestor was at a
preprokaryotic level of organization; however, subsequent analyses of the molecular
evolution of different cellular components suggest that the last common ancestor was a
prokaryote. Based on this realization, the term progenote should be more properly used to
denote a hypothetical preprokaryotic stage in cellular evolution, distinct from the last
common ancestor.

In 1977 Woese and Fox definedprogenote as a hypothetical stage in the evolution of cells
where typical prokaryotic cellular organization preceded organisms:

Eucaryotes did arise from procaryotes, but only in the sense that the procaryotic is an
organizational, not a phylogenetic distinction. In analogous fashion procaryotes arose from
simpler entities. The latter are properly called progenotes
The term progenote was introduced to describe a pre-prokaryotic stage of cellular
organization, an alternative meaning of the term progenote originated. Woese and Fox
argued that the last common ancestor of bacteria and the eukaryotic nucleocytoplasmic
component was a progenote. Later, this argument was extended to also include a third line of
descent, the archea or archebacteria. Woese and collaborators suggested that the three
domains or kingdoms might have evolved independently from the progenote, that the
optimization of the transcriptional and translational machinery occurred in parallel in the
three lines of descent, and that the last common ancestor might be equally related to each of
the three domains.

Determining the properties of the last common ancestor is an important matter.

Horizontal Gene Transfer and the fusion of formerly independent lineages have turned the
tree of life into a net of life. Characters found in all three cellular lineages might have been
present in the last common ancestor, but these shared characters also might have evolved
much later in one of the lineages and spread into the other two domains by horizontal
transfer. The congruence of many molecular phylogenies suggests that the last common
ancestor had DNA and RNA polymerases, complex ribosomes made of both rRNA and
proteins, and membranes already used for chemiosmotic coupling . However, if molecular
phylogenies reflect horizontal gene transfer more than shared ancestry, recurring patterns
might result from frequent gene transfers between some organisms and make the nature of the
last common ancestor hard to discern. The use of ancient duplicated genes allows resolving
the deep tripartite division of life into two successive bifurcations . The current majority
consensus considers that the archea is a sister group of the eukaryotes. According to this
view, the last common ancestor was a prokaryote that had a DNA genome, elaborate
transcriptional and translational machinery, and strong coupling between geno- and
phenotype. Although DNA replication and transcription appear to have been further
optimized independently in the three domains, the last common ancestor appears to have been
a prokaryote, not a progenote. Therefore, to avoid confusion, the last common ancestor of all
extant life should be denoted the universal ancestor and the term progenote should be
reserved to denote a hypothetical preprokaryotic stage in cellular evolution.

Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes

Cells fall into one of two broad categories: prokaryotic and eukaryotic. The single-celled
organisms of the domains Bacteria and Archaea are classified as prokaryotes (pro = before;
karyon– = nucleus). Animal cells, plant cells, fungi, and protists are eukaryotes (eu = true).

Components of Prokaryotic Cells

All cells share four common components: (1) a plasma membrane, an outer covering that
separates the cell’s interior from its surrounding environment; (2) cytoplasm, consisting of a
jelly-like region within the cell in which other cellular components are found; (3) DNA, the
genetic material of the cell; and (4) ribosomes, particles that synthesize proteins. However,
prokaryotes differ from eukaryotic cells in several ways.
Figure 1. This figure shows the generalized structure of a prokaryotic cell.

A prokaryotic cell is a simple, single-celled (unicellular) organism that lacks a nucleus, or

any other membrane-bound organelle. Prokaryotic DNA is found in the central part of the
cell: a darkened region called the nucleoid.
Unlike Archaea and eukaryotes, bacteria have a cell wall made of peptidoglycan, comprised
of sugars and amino acids, and many have a polysaccharide capsule. The cell wall acts as an
extra layer of protection, helps the cell maintain its shape, and prevents dehydration. The
capsule enables the cell to attach to surfaces in its environment. Some prokaryotes have
flagella, pili, or fimbriae. Flagella are used for locomotion, while most pili are used to
exchange genetic material during a type of reproduction called conjugation.

Eukaryotic Cells
In nature, the relationship between form and function is apparent at all levels, including the
level of the cell, and this will become clear as we explore eukaryotic cells. The principle
“form follows function” is found in many contexts. It means that, in general, one can deduce
the function of a structure by looking at its form, because the two are matched. For example,
birds and fish have streamlined bodies that allow them to move quickly through the medium
in which they live, be it air or water.

A eukaryotic cell is a cell that has a membrane-bound nucleus and other membrane-bound
compartments or sacs, called organelles, which have specialized functions. The word
eukaryotic means “true kernel” or “true nucleus,” alluding to the presence of the membrane-
bound nucleus in these cells. The word “organelle” means “little organ,” and, as we learned
earlier, organelles have specialized cellular functions, just as the organs of your body have
specialized functions.

Cell Size
At 0.1–5.0 µm in diameter, prokaryotic cells are significantly smaller than eukaryotic cells,
which have diameters ranging from 10–100 µm. The small size of prokaryotes allows ions
and organic molecules that enter them to quickly spread to other parts of the cell. Similarly,
any wastes produced within a prokaryotic cell can quickly move out. However, larger
 eukaryotic cells have evolved different structural adaptations to enhance cellular transport.
Indeed, the large size of these cells would not be possible without these adaptations. In
general, cell size is limited because volume increases much more quickly than does cell
surface area. As a cell becomes larger, it becomes more and more difficult for the cell to
acquire sufficient materials to support the processes inside the cell, because the relative size
of the surface area across which materials must be transported declines.

IN SUMMARY: COMPARING PROKARYOTIC AND EUKARYOTIC CELLS

Prokaryotes are single-celled organisms of the domains Bacteria and Archaea. All
prokaryotes have plasma membranes, cytoplasm, ribosomes, a cell wall, DNA, and lack
membrane-bound organelles. Many also have polysaccharide capsules. Prokaryotic cells
range in diameter from 0.1–5.0 µm.
Like a prokaryotic cell, a eukaryotic cell has a plasma membrane, cytoplasm, and ribosomes,
but a eukaryotic cell is typically larger than a prokaryotic cell, has a true nucleus (meaning its
DNA is surrounded by a membrane), and has other membrane-bound organelles that allow
for compartmentalization of functions. Eukaryotic cells tend to be 10 to 100 times the size of
prokaryotic cells.

Prokaryotes Vs Eukaryotes.

Prokaryotic cells and eukaryotic cells are the two types of cells that exist on Earth. There are
several differences between the two, but the biggest distinction between them is that
eukaryotic cells have a distinct nucleus containing the cell's genetic material, while
prokaryotic cells don't have a nucleus and have free-floating genetic material instead.

From prokaryotic cells to eukaryotic cells

All living things can be divided into three basic domains: Bacteria, Archaea and Eukarya.
The primarily single-celled organisms found in the Bacteria and Archaea domains are known
as prokaryotes. These organisms are made of prokaryotic cells — the smallest, simplest and
most ancient cells.

Organisms in the Eukarya domain are made of the more complex eukaryotic cells. These
organisms, called eukaryotes, can be unicellular or multicellular and include animals, plants,
fungi and protists. Many people are unclear on whether yeasts or fungi are prokaryotes or
eukaryotes. Both are eukaryotes and share similar cell structure to all other eukaryotes.

Eukaryotes developed at least 2.7 billion years ago, following 1 to 1.5 billion years of
prokaryotic evolution, according to the National Institutes of Health (NIH). Scientists
hypothesize that the nucleus and other eukaryotic features may have first formed after a
prokaryotic organism swallowed up another, according to the University of Texas. According
to this theory, the engulfed organism would have then contributed to the functioning of its
host.
What do prokaryotes and eukaryotes have in common?

Although prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells have many differences, they share some common
features, including the following:

DNA: Genetic coding that determines all the characteristics of living things.

Cell (or plasma) membrane: Outer layer that separates the cell from the surrounding
environment and acts as a selective barrier for incoming and outgoing materials.

Cytoplasm: Jelly-like fluid within a cell that is composed primarily of water, salts and
proteins.

Ribosomes: Organelles that make proteins.

How do prokaryotes and eukaryotes differ?

Nucleus/DNA: Eukaryotic cells have a nucleus surrounded by a nuclear envelope that
consists of two lipid membranes, according to Nature Education. The nucleus holds the
eukaryotic cell's DNA. Prokaryotic cells do not have a nucleus; rather, they have a
membraneless nucleoid region (open part of the cell) that holds free-floating DNA, according
to Washington University.

The entire DNA in a cell can be found in individual pieces known as chromosomes.
Eukaryotic cells have many chromosomes which undergo meiosis and mitosis during cell
division, while most prokaryotic cells consist of just one circular chromosome. However,
recent studies have shown that some prokaryotes have as many as four linear or circular
chromosomes, according to Nature Education. For example, Vibrio cholerae, the bacterium
that causes cholera, has two circular chromosomes.

Organelles in Eukaryotic Cells: Eukaryotic cells have several other membrane-bound

organelles not found in prokaryotic cells. These include the mitochondria (convert food
energy into adenosine triphosphate, or ATP, to power biochemical reactions); rough and
smooth endoplasmic reticulum (an interconnected network of membrane-enclosed tubules
that transport synthesized proteins); golgi complex (sorts and packages proteins for
secretion); and in the case of plant cells, chloroplasts (conduct photosynthesis). All of these
organelles are located in the eukaryotic cell's cytoplasm.