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Understanding spatial literacy: cognitive and

curriculum perspectives

Helen King

To cite this article: Helen King (2006) Understanding spatial literacy: cognitive and curriculum
perspectives, Planet, 17:1, 26-28

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 Planet No. 17 December 2006

Understanding spatial literacy: cognitive and curriculum

perspectives
Helen King, GEES Subject Centre, University of Plymouth

Introduction: spatial literacy in geography, earth disciplines are characterised by, amongst other things, “the range
and environmental sciences (GEES) of the spatial and temporal scales that they cover.” This is not
There are a variety of definitions of spatial ability or literacy all of intended as a criticism of the Benchmark Statements, rather an
which can be applied to activities and processes undertaken observation that spatial literacy is, perhaps, such an integral part
within the GEES disciplines. Linn and Petersen (1985) define of our subjects that we sometimes neglect to make it explicit.
spatial ability as a general skill in So, spatial literacy is clearly a highly important skill for
“representing, transforming, generating and recalling students of geography, earth and environmental sciences to
symbolic, nonlinguistic information”. master. Indeed, not only for our disciplines: spatial ability is a
cognitive factor that has been linked to high performance in
Eliot and Smith’s definition of spatial ability (1983: quoted in
science and mathematics (Lord and Rupert, 1995).
Ishikawa and Kastens, 2005) specifies
“the perception and retention of visual forms and the
mental manipulation and reconstruction of visual shapes.” Issues for students
With respect to geosciences, Kastens and Ishikawa (2006) Spatial literacy is seen as a fundamental skill of experts in GEES;
describe spatial thinking as
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hence, it is also considered a key aspect of the learning process

“recognizing, observing, recording, describing, classifying, for students. However, it is an aspect that many students have
remembering, and communicating the two- or three- trouble with. In our discussion group’s experience these
dimensional shapes, structures, orientations, and positions of difficulties include:
objects, properties, or processes; • Visualising / mental moving or translating between 2D, 3D and
mentally manipulating those shapes, structures, orientations, 4D (e.g. plan maps, cross-sections, stratigraphic columns,
and positions by rotation, translation, deformation, or partial stereographic projections, etc.); and
removal;
• A sense of location on a map with respect to the real world
making interpretations about why the objects, properties, or (e.g. finding their location on a map when out in the field).
processes have those particular shapes, structures,
orientations, and positions; A difference between real understanding and just ‘going through
making predictions about the consequences or implications the motions’ was identified. For example, in one colleague’s
of the observed shapes, structures, orientations, and experience all their students were able to follow instructions in a
positions; and recipe style (e.g. in using stereonets) but only a few really
understood what they were doing and [Link] was
using spatial thinking as a short cut or metaphor to think
suggested as a possible trigger of ‘aha’ moments. Several
about the distribution of processes or properties across
some dimension other than length-space.” colleagues remembered their personal revelations on going into
the field for the first time: on seeing the geology ‘in real life’ all
This latter definition reflects and expands on the key issues around them they were better able to understand the theoretical
relating to spatial literacy discussed at the GEES Subject Centre descriptions in the classroom. Another participant in the group,
summer conference. Mapping and maps were identified as however, described a much longer learning process in which the
fundamental to our subject areas and this linked into the issues of overall principles of earth science, including the spatial aspects,
dealing with information in various dimension from 2D to 3D to did not become clear until several years after graduation when
4D (including time). many of the fine details of the subject had been forgotten: the
Our discussions, mostly arising from an Earth science point of fundamental concept had been clouded in a fog of terminology,
view, clearly indicated that spatial literacy is considered a nomenclature and classification.
fundamental concept in GEES (and one that is often troublesome The use of technologies such as GIS and GPS was discussed
to students). Interestingly, however, it is given relatively low as a possible hindrance as well as a solution to developing spatial
significance in the relevant UK Quality Assurance Agency (QAA) literacy skills. Concern was expressed that students became
Benchmark Statements (2006). Aspects of spatial literacy are ‘black box’ users of the technology and blindly accept the
articulated most strongly in the Geography Statement: answers produced without recourse to an understanding of what
“Geographers should show knowledge and critical the answer means or whether it is [Link] ability to locate
understanding of the diverse manners of representation of oneself on a map by identifying landscape features, to use a
the human and physical worlds. Maps have an important compass to triangulate position, and other skills potentially
historic role as representations of the world, and usurped by modern technology provide both a ‘safety net’ should
geographers should be conversant with their modern forms
and dimensions. However, geographers should have a similar
depth of understanding of other representational forms,
including texts, visual images and digital technologies
(particularly GIS and remote sensing).”
Elsewhere, spatial literacy appears mostly implicitly within
the fundamental concept had been
discipline-specific graduate skills. In the Statement for Earth clouded in a fog of terminology,
Sciences, Environmental Sciences and Environmental Studies (ES3)
the word ‘spatial’ only appears briefly to indicate that these
nomenclature and classification.

26
 Planet No. 17 December 2006

the technology fail and a quick check that the technology is

providing roughly accurate information.
Does it matter if GEES graduates don’t develop their spatial
literacy skills? If they are to go into non-subject related jobs then
maybe the ‘recipe’ approach will [Link] issue was discussed
by the group: although no resolution was found, there was a
sense of discomfort about producing graduates with only a
mechanistic approach to understanding their discipline.
If Lord and Rupert’s observation on the link between spatial
ability and success in science and maths (1995, quoted above) is
correct, then perhaps GEES programmes need to focus more on
developing skills of spatial literacy. Just because a graduate may
not go into a job that is related to their course of study does not
mean that the development of their spatial skills is unimportant.
Having a general population that is cognisant of global issues is
becoming increasingly important in our modern society. Indeed,
Black (2005) suggests that spatial literacy is a skill that should be
emphasised at secondary school level:
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“[It has been argued] that spatial ability has been neglected
in traditional education. Although students with weaknesses
in verbal abilities are encouraged and given a great deal of
practice, usually no specific help is given to students with
weaknesses in spatial ability. Such students may eventually
abandon the study of spatially-related disciplines, such as development of students’ spatial literacy skills. In the classroom,
mathematics and science, when those topics become more technological visualisation tools can also be used for this purpose.
difficult in middle and high school.” However, the lecturer still maintains a key role as few, if any, tools
Further, Geary (1998) writes: are able to provide the comprehensive pedagogical environment
required for the learning process. A huge amount of geoscience
“Public understanding of Earth systems and the ability of visualisation materials is available, with more materials being
citizens to think critically about them is increasingly developed every year. Libarkin and Brick (2002) present a few
necessary as new technologies illuminate interrelationships
examples of animations, physical and computer models together
among those systems, and as human influences on Earth
systems intensify environmental concerns. University with ideas on how they are effectively used. Many additional
graduates who are non-science majors may eventually resources can be found in the Digital Library for Earth Science
occupy positions in business, law, government, Education ([Link]
communications, and education, and therefore may greatly
influence public policy on Earth resource issues. As policy Cognitive science and GEES
makers, some may influence important decisions more than Several researchers in geoscience education have turned their
the scientists who advise them.” attention to cognitive science as a tool for better understanding
geoscience learning processes. Ishakawa and Kastens (2005)
Issues for staff provide an insightful overview of relevant cognitive science
research and illustrate ways in which it might be applied to the
Spatial literacy is seen as a fundamental skill of experts in GEES;
geosciences. In their review, they discover
however, in the conference discussion, colleagues repeatedly
referred to the ‘lack of time and space to allow students to “much that resonates with the intuition of experienced
develop skills related to time and space’. It was agreed that many geoscience educators: People vary widely in their ability at
curricula have been developed over a long period of time and spatial tasks. People who are usually good at verbal
schoolwork may struggle with spatial tasks, and vice versa.
new concepts or skills have just been added on to the existing
Different people may respond better to different strategies
[Link] resulting ‘packed curriculum’ allows little time for for mastering the same task. Locating themselves on a map
focusing on difficult areas and the acquisition of threshold and visualizing the hidden, internal portions of three-
concepts becomes neglected for the sake of transmission of dimensional structures are difficult for novice learners.”
[Link] is, of course, a broad generalisation and many
programmes do offer an experiential learning approach. Several In our discussion at the GEES Subject Centre’s summer
colleagues identified examples of writing a new curriculum from a conference, we came to the idea of supporting the development
blank page (particularly at MSc level) and highlighted the benefits of spatial literacy through taking apart an idea and rebuilding it
of a fresh approach. again: take everyone back to a common denominator and then
build a new common understanding of the concept. In principle,
this seemed a useful process though we were at a loss to identify
Examples of practice and research an example of how it might be done! Ishakawa and Kastens
developed a similar idea, identifying that
Visualisation “Experienced geoscientists, especially those who have high
spatial ability, tend to leap across such tasks in a single
Immersion in the environment through fieldwork was highlighted bound, and may be at a loss to articulate how they did what
in our group’s discussion as a key element in supporting the they did.”

27
 Planet No. 17 December 2006

skills?; (2) How does familiarity with geological

phenomena influence spatial ability?; and (3) How is the
a new approach to learning geoscience use of technology-based visualization tools improving
upon learning achieved by more traditional
might involve an emphasis on the key teaching methodologies?”
concepts of being a geologist rather than
the fine details of doing geology References
Bednarz, S. (2005) Spatial Literacy - Nearly the Final Frontier - continuing the
voyage of discovery. Keynote presentation at ‘The Place of GIS in the
Curriculum’ conference, Leicester [fully annotated Powerpoint presentation
freely available to download from
In order to help students develop their own skills, it is suggested [Link]
that complex spatial tasks should be broken down into Black, A.A. (2005), Spatial Ability and Earth Science Conceptual Understanding.
‘constituent understandings’ or ‘constituent strategies.’ Their Journal of Geoscience Education,Vol. 53, No.4 pp402-414 [freely available to
paper (available online for free download) then reviews a variety download from [Link]
of cognitive science research, applies it to the geosciences and Eliot, J. and I. M. Smith (1983), An International Directory of Spatial Tests,Windsor,
provides brief ideas on the educational implications. UK, NFER-Nelson.
Geary, D.C. (1998), Male, female:The evolution of human sex differences. American
Psychological Association,Washington, D.C.
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Libarkin, J.C. & C. Brick (2002), Research Methodologies in Science Education:

Conclusions Visualization and the Geosciences. Journal of Geoscience Education 50(4):449-
Spatial literacy is seen as a fundamental skill of experts in GEES 455 [freely available to download from
and yet it can be particularly troublesome for some students to [Link]
master. A brief overview of the literature suggests that spatial Libarkin, J.C., M. Beilfuss and [Link] (2003), Research Methodologies in
skills should not be thought of as practical skills that can be easily Science Education: Mental Models and Cognition in Education. Journal of
Geoscience Education 51(1): 121-126 [freely available to download from
taught, but as an academic process that needs to be mastered [Link]
through a wide variety of interventions and lots of practice. As Linn, M. & A. C. Petersen (1985), Emergence and characterization of sex
Black (2005) comments: differences in spatial ability: A meta-analysis, Child Development 56:1479-1498.
“Perhaps the neglect of educators to foster spatial ability is Ishikawa,T. and K. A. Kastens (2005),Why students have trouble with maps and
related to its history of association with practical, rather other spatial representations. Journal of Geoscience Education . 53(2):184-187
than academic, skills. Perhaps educators have assumed that (freely available to download from
[Link]
nothing can be done to improve spatial [Link] known
Kastens, K. A. and T. Ishikawa (2006), Spatial thinking in the geosciences and
association of success in science with spatial ability cognitive sciences: A cross-disciplinary look at the intersection of the two
underscores the importance of additional research and of fields. In: Manduca, C. A. and D.W. Mogk (eds.) Earth and Mind: How Geologist
attempting a more deliberate and informed focus on spatial Think and Learn about the Earth, Denver, CO, Geological Society of America,
aspects of science concepts by K-16 teachers.” pp53-76 [available to purchase on-line from
Our discussion group highlighted the difficulties associated [Link]
with the ‘packed curriculum’ and suggested that a new approach Libarkin, J. C. and C. Brick (2002), Research Methodologies in Science Education:
Visualization and the Geosciences. Journal of Geoscience Education 50(4):449-455
to learning geoscience might involve an emphasis on the key [freely available to download from
concepts of being a geologist rather than the fine details of doing [Link]
geology. Across the GEES disciplines, spatial literacy is a crucial Lord,T.R. & J. L. Rupert (1995),Visual-spatial aptitude in elementary education
skill for practitioners; as Bednarz (2005) suggests: majors in science and math tracks, Journal of Elementary Science Education 7:
“spatial thinking is the lever to enable students to achieve a 47-58.
deeper, more insightful understanding of subjects across the Quality Assurance Agency (2006), Subject Benchmark Statements: Geography
[[Link]
curriculum. It is a pervasive way of thinking that crosses [Link]]
disciplinary boundaries. It is not an ADD-ON but a Earth Science, Environmental Science & Environmental Studies
missing link.” [[Link]
To inform such a change in emphasis a better understanding of [Link]]
how experts conceptualise key models is required: “Does a ‘best
practice’ in teaching exist that can help students move from naïve
mental models to conceptual frameworks?” (Libarkin et al., 2003). Acknowledgements
In addition, further research into spatial ability in relation to the
GEES disciplines would provide an invaluable basis for curriculum Many thanks to the following people for their interesting and
development. As Libarkin and Brick (2002) suggest: useful input to our discussions at the GEES Subject Centre
summer conference 2005 and their comments on drafts of this
“The study of spatial skills has a rich history in cognitive
paper: Pat James (University of South Australia), Maryam Nazari
science, and has experienced renewed interest stemming
from science, mathematics, and engineering [Link] (University of Sheffield), Lucy Phillip (University of Leeds),
unique set of skills required for studying geologic Mike Sanders (GEES Subject Centre), and Ian Stimpson
phenomena suggests that the Earth Sciences is an ideal field (Keele University).
for studying spatial and visualization skills in a real
educational [Link] future research could
consider a number of questions, including: (1) What is the Helen King: [Link]@[Link]
relationship between spatial ability and geologic visualization Assistant Director, GEES Subject Centre, University
skills, and how can we begin to test these geology-specific
of Plymouth, Plymouth PL4 8AA.
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