ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION

Pollution is the introduction of pollutants (chemical substances noise, heat, light, energy and
others) into the environment which results in deleterious effects of such a nature as to endanger
human health, harm living resources and ecosystems, and impair or interfere with amenities and
other legitimate uses of the environment. Major forms of pollution The major forms of pollution are
listed below along with the particular pollutants relevant to each of them:

! Air pollution, the release of chemicals and particulates into the atmosphere. Common examples
include carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide, chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), and nitrogen oxides
produced by industry and motor vehicles. Photochemical ozone and smog are created as nitrogen
oxides and hydrocarbons react to sunlight.

! Water pollution via surface runoff, leaching to groundwater, liquid spills, wastewater
discharges, Eutrophication and littering.

! Soil contamination occurs when chemicals are released by spill or underground storage tank
leakage. Among the most significant soil contaminants are hydrocarbons, heavy metals, herbicides,
pesticides and chlorinated hydrocarbons.

! Radioactive contamination, added in the wake of 20th-century discoveries in atomic physics. !

Noise pollution, which encompasses roadway noise, aircraft noise, industrial noise as well as high-
intensity sonar.

! Light pollution, includes light trespass, over-illumination and astronomical interference.

! Visual pollution, which can refer to the presence of overhead power lines, motorway billboards,
scarred landforms (as from strip mining), open storage of trash or municipal solid waste.

! Thermal Pollution is a temperature change in natural water bodies caused by human influence.

AIR POLLUTION

Definition: the presence in the air of substances generally originating from manmade/natural
activities in concentrations that interfere with the health, comfort, and safety of living beings. It can
be indoor as well outdoor Air pollution. However our discussion will be restricted to Outdoors type.

CLASSIFICATION OF AIR POLLUTANTS

[a] Origin of pollutants Primary pollutants: emitted directly from source, say, release of SO2 from
burning of coal. Secondary Pollutants: Formed due to interaction of 2 or more primary and
secondary pollutants, say for instance Acid rain, Ozone, PAN, Smog etc.

[b] States of Matter Particulates: composed of solid-liquid --- inert/reactive particles sized 2x10-4 –
500 microns. e.g., dust/smoke Gaseous: SO2, CO, H2S, CH4, CO2 and O3

[c] Chemical composition Organic: Aldehydes, Esters, ethers, and amines Inorganic: NOx, SO2,
NH3, H2S and O3

[d] Characteristics Physical: Dust, fly ash, spray, pollen, smoke, mist and fumes Chemical: Organic
– Inorganic Biological: Protozoa, Bacteria, Fungi and Virus.
Chernobyl Nuclear disaster April, 27, 1986, a major accident had occurred at an atomic reactor at
Chernobyl in the Ukraine area of the erstwhile Soviet Union. This had resulted in clouds of
radioactive smoke over a large area in Scandinavian countries about 2000 km away, and in the
Russian region itself. 1st explosion occurred at reactor number 4 at the Chernobyl complex
occurred on April 26, 1986 and resulted in a massive and uncontrollable fire. The explosion was
followed by a second explosion on May 5th. Majority of radiation [about 10.19 Bq. of radio
nuclides] escaped was released in span of 10 days between 2 explosions. The explosion and fire was
caused by failure of emergency cooling system in the light water graphite reactor, due to human
error.

The explosion and subsequent hot fire (about 25000C) blew large amounts of radionuclides high
into the atmosphere. Four main radionuclides released include I-131 [half-life 8.5 years],
Cesium-137 [half-life 30 years], C-14 [half-life 5730 years] and Sr-90 [half-life 28 years]. During
the first 10 days over 400 million people were exposed to the radiation. In the immediate vicinity 30
soviet citizens died from radiation poisoning. Over 1,50,000 were evacuated from an area of radius
30km. The chronic health impacts include blood abnormalities, hemorrhagic diseases, thyroid
changes, mutagenic and somatic alterations, bone necrosis, skin cancer, failure of reproductive
organs etc.

Bhopal Gas Tragedy On the fateful night of December 02, 1984 and the early hours of December
03, 1984, more than one million residents of Bhopal, capital of Madhya Pradesh, India, reported
irritation of eyes that quickly lead to macabre death dancing. A cloud of poisonous gas was released
from the union carbide factory, a pesticide manufacturing plant owned by UNION CARBIDE
INDIA Ltd., a subsidiary of union carbide, USA. The factory was licensed to produce Methyl Iso
Cynate, CH3NCO, an extremely hazardous chemical, which is used in the manufacture of several
pesticides like Sevin Carbaryl and Temik [Link] monoxide, obtained by partial oxidation of
coal is combined with chlorine gas in presence of activated carbon to produce phosgene, COCl2.
Phosgene gas and methyl amene combine to form MIC. The product is stored in tanks for further
production carbomite insecticides.
COCl2 + CH3NH2 → CH3NCO +2HCl
Bhopal gas tragedy was as well associated with thick winter fog and thermal inversion, which did
not allow the pollutants to disperse and dilute. It was alleged that MIC is stored up to a purity of
99.5% and 0.1% phosgene is permitted as impurity. MIC shall not be stored more than 1 month, but
due to sheer negligence and ignorance, it was stored for more than 3 months, as a result of which
there was pressure built-up, and the tank couldn’t resist the extreme pressure generated and
exploded releasing as into atmosphere. About 40 tons of MIC AND 40 kg of phosgene was
vaporized and released. In such a scenario, there is a provision of burning up the gas, by control
equipment called flare tower, on whose failure the gas can be neutralized by caustic soda using vent
scrubber. Unfortunately both control devices failed to work as they were maintained. This was sheer
case of human negligence. MIC is a toxic gas that is denser than air and even at low concentrations
is fatal causing death due to anoxia. MIC is a very reactive chemical that can react with itself unless
maintained at a specific temperature [150C]. Liquid nitrogen was used to maintain this, but device
circulating it had failed to operate and situation worsened. The next day entire Bhopal railway
station was filled with corpses of people who tried to fled the place, had it not been for presence of 2
lakes that came in way of escaping gas, the disaster would have been multifold.

Impacts of Air Pollution

Health issues, Soiling of clothes, buildings and plants, Lack of appetite, rapid loss of weight,
lameness, death and Masking of human performance. In plants causes collapse of tissues [necrosis],
reduction in chlorophyll [chlorosis] and dropping of leaves [abscission].
CONTROL MEASURES AND PREVENTITION MEANS

Control techniques:- At Source: Modification of process / equipment / exhaust / products.

At Receiver: Proper zoning / planning of industrial area.
At Transmission: Operation/maintenance of vehicles / forest belt.
Alternative Fuel resources: bio fuel/ eco-friendly fuel/ low Sulphur % coals
Norms & Regulations: Emission tests, Penalties, Stringent enforcements & monitoring Dilution of
pollutants concentration at source by use of tall stacks and control equipment’s.
Some of the control equipment’s used are settling chamber, cyclonic separator, filter, electrostatic
precipitator and wet collector, the choice depends on characteristics of air pollutant.

NOISE POLLUTION

Noise can be defined as the wrong sound at wrong place at wrong time. It is derived from the Latin
word Nausea. Noise is any sound independent of loudness producing undesirable effects on
individual. Amplitude [loudness] and frequency [intensity] are its two properties.

Sources of noise

! Indoor – Outdoor
! Industrial - Residential/Traffic
! Natural - Manmade

! Indoor source: baby crying, door banging, audio systems

! Outdoor source: loud speakers, brawling
! Natural sources: birds, thunder, earthquake, volcanic eruptions
! Man-made sources: automobiles
! Industrial sources: drilling, rotary machinery, mining,
! Traffic: aircrafts, railway

Time of exposure, Frequency, intensity are certain factors under which effect of noise is biased.
Noise can affect auditory, circulatory and nervous system of human body. Speech interference,
masking, effect on human performance acoustic trauma [sudden permanent aural damage due to
short exposure], temporary and permanent threshold shift are effects on auditory system observed in
humans. Human hearing mechanism comprise ear drum, cochlea and hair cells. Shrinking of blood
vessels, low blood flow to organs, blood pressure, cardio-vascular death, heart attack and digestive
spasms are effects on circulatory system while ear drum rupture, aggressiveness, fatigue, insanity
are symptoms of effects on nervous system. Noises can seriously damage and effect physiological
and psychological health. Noise also make species communicate louder (which is called Lombard
Vocal Response).

Noise pollution limits at residential area 55 dB, Industrial area 65 dB, Commercial area 60 dB and
Silent zone is 45 dB. Tolerant noise level in city levels is 65 dB, while normal permissible is 45 dB.
Control of noise is to be achieved not only at the source but also at receiver end, via transmission
route, via application of rules and regulations, maintenance of vehicular condition, utilization of
silencers, ban on shrill horns, eco-friendly zoning, green belt development and proper town
planning.
 WATER POLLUTION

UTILISATION OF WATER

Precipitation is the primary resource of irrigation water, in the form of rainfall and snow. These give
rise to secondary sources of irrigation broadly classified as;
1. Surface Water
2. 2. Ground Water
3. 3. Auxiliary Water

Storage Component Total water (%)

Oceans 97.6
Ice caps & Glaciers 1.9
Ground water & soil moisture 0.5
Fresh water lakes 0.009
Saline lakes 0.008
Rivers 0.0001
Atmosphere 0.001

About 97% of earth’s water supply is in the oceans which is unfit for human consumption and the
other uses due to salinity. Of the remaining, 2.3% is locked in the polar ice caps and hence out of
bounds. The balance 0.7% is available as fresh water but the bulk of it 0.67 exist as ground water,
and the rest 0.03% is available to us as fresh water, rivers, lakes and streams. The breakup of this
0.03% freshwater is 0.01% as lakes & rivers, 0.01 as water vapor, 0.0003 as streams and the
remaining0.0187 confined in plants and animal tissues. Mass balance of annual rainfall shows about
70 % loss by evapo-transpiration, while reminder is stream flow.

USES OF WATER
Productive use: water is primarily used for irrigation of food crops, fodder crops, medicinal herbs,
etc. Consumptive use: water is consumed in exhaustive quantities for domestic purposes such as
drinking, cooking, washing etc. water find its application in almost all the processes in industries,
starting from the manufacturing processes to housekeeping activities.

Commercial use: Water consumed for carrying out commercial and recreational activities. Many
uses of water include agricultural, industrial, household, recreational and environmental activities.
Virtually all of these human uses require fresh water. The framework for allocating water resources
to water users (where such a framework exists) is known as water rights.

Agricultural:It is estimated that 69% of world-wide water use is for irrigation. In some areas of the
world irrigation is necessary to grow any crop at all, in other areas it permits more profitable crops
to be grown or enhances crop yield.

Industrial: It is estimated that 15% of world-wide water use is industrial. Major industrial users
include power plants, which use water for cooling or as a power source (i.e. hydroelectric plants),
ore and oil refineries, which use water in chemical processes, and manufacturing plants, which use
water as a solvent. The portion of industrial water usage that is consumptive varies widely, but as a
whole is lower than agricultural use.

Household Drinking water: It is estimated that 15% of world-wide water use is for household
purposes. These include drinking water, bathing, cooking, sanitation, and gardening. Basic
household water requirements have been estimated at around 50 liters per person per day, excluding
water for gardens.

Recreation: Recreational water use is usually a very small but growing percentage of total water
use. Recreational water use is mostly tied to reservoirs. If a reservoir is kept fuller than it would
otherwise be for recreation, then the water retained could be categorized as recreational usage.
Other examples are anglers, water skiers, nature enthusiasts and swimmers

WATER BORNE DISEASES

Waterborne diseases are caused by pathogenic microorganisms which are directly transmitted when
contaminated drinking water is consumed. Contaminated drinking water used in the preparation of
food can be the source of food borne disease through consumption of the same microorganisms.
Waterborne disease can be caused by protozoa, viruses, bacteria, and intestinal parasites.

Bacterial Infections
Cholera - Vibrio cholerae bacteria - gastro-intestinal often waterborne Diarrhoeal diseases - caused
by the water contamination of Cryptosporidium parvum [[Link]]. Dysentery - Shigella/Salmonella
bacteria - gastro-intestinal food/water Typhoid - Salmonella typhi bacteria - gastro-intestinal water/
food borne

Viral Infections
Adenovirus infection - its serotypes are typically waterborne.
Hepatitis A - Hepatitis A virus - gastro-intestinal water/food borne
Polio - polioviruses - gastro-intestinal exposure to untreated

WATER INDUCED DISEASES

On the other hand Water Induced Diseases are those which are not transmitted directly by water but
facilitate its propagation such as Malaria that for instance support as breeding grounds for
mosquitoes. Vivax & Plasmodium Falciparum are the 2 major strains of the 4 which affect humans
globally, carried by female anopheles mosquitoes. Incidentally Malaria means Bad Air in Italy
[ Mal-aria], Salaria means healthy air.

WATER QUALITY STANDARDS BIS: Bureau of Indian Standards IS 10500-2003 [for drinking
water]
Turbidity 5 NTU [Nephelo Turbidity Units] p H 6.5-8.5 [ U S studs 6-9]
Total hardness 300 ppm as CaCO3
Iron 0.3 ppm
Lead 0.05 ppm
Fluoride 1.0 ppm
Arsenic 0.05 ppm
Nitrates 45 ppm
Pesticides NIL
Total Coliform 1 MPN/100 ml [Most probable number]
Hexavalent Chromium 0.05 ppm
Trivalent chromium 0.1 ppm

Water pollution is the introduction into fresh or ocean waters of chemical, physical, or biological
material that degrades the quality of the water and affects the organisms living in it. This process
ranges from simple addition of dissolved or suspended solids to discharge of the most insidious and
persistent toxic pollutants (such as pesticides, heavy metals, and non-degradable, bio accumulative,
chemical compounds)

Ground water pollution .i.e., highly prolific arsenic contamination is widely due to leaching
of ,minerals below the earth surface. This happens as a result of excessive pumping of ground water
by shallow tube wells. In this process air [Oxygen] is injected into ground water bed which leaches
the overlying mineral, iron pyrites [Fe, As etc.,] oxidizes it and releases arsenic into ground water.

Sources of water pollution

! Geology of aquifers from which groundwater is abstracted
! Industrial discharge of chemical wastes and byproducts
! Discharge of poorly-treated or untreated sewage
! Surface runoff containing pesticides or fertilizers
! Slash and burn farming practice, which is often an element within shifting cultivation
agricultural systems
! Surface runoff containing spilled petroleum products
! Surface runoff from construction sites, farms, or paved and other impervious surfaces e.g. silt
! Discharge of contaminated and/or heated water used for industrial processes
! Acid rain caused by industrial discharge of Sulphur dioxide (by burning high-Sulphur fossil
fuels)
! Excess nutrients are added (Eutrophication) by runoff containing detergents or fertilizers
! Underground storage tank leakage, leading to soil contamination, and hence aquifer
contamination
! Inappropriate disposal of various solid wastes and, on a localized scale, littering

Types of pollutants

1] Physical : turbidity, color, odor [Fe]

2] Chemical:
2.1] Organic pollutants: domestic sewage, pesticides, and plant nutrients.
2.2] Inorganic pollutants: mineral acids, detergents, and trace element.
2.3] Radioactive materials: mineral wastes, debris of medicinal R&D, industrial facilities.
3] Thermal/heat; thermal pollution from coal fired/nuclear fuel fired thermal power plants.
4] Sediments/suspended matter: soil erosion, runoff.
5] Disease causative agents: Pathogens, total coliform group.

Contaminants may include organic and inorganic substances Some organic water pollutants are:
[Link] and herbicides, a huge range of organ halide and other chemicals
2. Bacteria, often is from sewage or livestock operations; Food processing waste, including
pathogens
! Tree and brush debris from logging operations
! VOCs (Volatile organic compounds), such as industrial solvents, from improper storage

Some inorganic water pollutants include

! Heavy metals including acid mine drainage
! Acidity caused by industrial discharges (especially sulfur dioxide from power plants)
! Chemical waste as industrial by products
! Fertilizers, in runoff from agriculture including nitrates and phosphates
! Silt in surface runoff from construction sites, logging, slash and burn practices or land clearing
sites
Sources of water pollution
1] industrial effluent
2] domestic sewage
3] fertilizers/pesticides from agricultural land as runoff
4] leachate from solid waste disposal sites.

Water pollution caused by domestic sewage amounts to 84% while industrial sewage contributes
16%. The previous exerts oxygen demand while latter is toxic and hazardous despite that the load is
less. Industrial effluents contribute color [textile firms], heavy metals [electroplating], microbes
[pharmacy-distillery] and organic load [paper and pulp industry].

Types of sources
1] Point sources: sources, which discharge pollutants at specific locations through pipelines, sewers
into water bodies. E.g., factory outlets, STP [sewage treatment plant] because they are at specific
places hence they are fairly easy to identify, monitor and regulate.
2] Non-point sources: sources, which include run off from urban, sub urban , agricultural farms,
livestock, animal husbandry, crop lands etc. Difficulty is in controlling non-point source as it is
almost impossible in identifying and controlling discharges from so many diffuse sources.

Basic Terminologies
1] Sewer: pipeline/conduit carrying sewage.
2] Sewage: the wastewater flowing in sewers, comprises > 99% water, < 1% solids. Generally
referred as domestic sewage when water arises from both kitchen & toilets.
3] Sullage: wastewater arising only from kitchen areas.
4] Storm drainage; water entering a sewer due to rainfall. This increases load on treatment plant as
well dilutes the waste quality.
5] Sewerage: art of collection, treatment and disposal of sewage.
6] Dry weather flow: in summer season, quantity of sewage in sewers is less as due to scanty
rainfall.

Types of treatment offered

1] separate treatment: here individual and specific treatment is followed for industrial and domestic
sewage separately. This treatment saves space and is process specific w.r.t. pollutant removal
2] Joint treatment: here domestic sewage is mixed with industrial sewage. This helps in diluting the
toxicity of industrial wastes but also increases the load on STP.
3] Partial treatment: only a portion of domestic sewage is mixed with industrial waste. This is
design specific based on characteristic of wastewaters.

Characteristic of Sewage DO [dissolved oxygen] is the amount of free oxygen available to aquatic
species necessary for their existence. Situations can arise where in presence of organic matter in
waters body necessitates situations where in presence of organic matter utilizes DO as oxidizing
element. Organic matter is food for microbes. Fresh sewage is grey in color, as time progresses DO
depletes, and color turns black, and its termed Septic. COD i.e., chemical oxygen demand can be
defined as the amount of dissolved oxygen required by chemical compounds for oxidation process.

Effects of Water Pollution :Eutrophication, destruction of aquatic species, threats to coral reefs and
endangered species, depletion of dissolved oxygen, spread of water borne, carrying diseases,
ecological imbalance, recreational and tourism impacts, loss of water bodies
 LAND POLLUTION

Land pollution is the degradation of the Earth's land surface through misuse of the soil by poor
agricultural practices, mineral exploitation, industrial waste dumping, and indiscriminate disposal of
urban wastes. It includes visible waste and litter as well as pollution of the soil itself. Land pollution
is often a consequence of increasing urbanization and industrialization. Man’s increasing demands
on the environment and the resources it holds are putting countries under pressure. Soil Pollution is
mainly due to chemicals in herbicides (weed killers) and pesticides (poisons which kill insects and
other invertebrate pests). Litter is waste material dumped in public places such as streets, parks, and
picnic areas, at bus stops and near shops.

Waste Disposal: The accumulation of waste threatens the health of people in residential areas. Waste
decays, encourages household pests and turns urban areas into unsightly, dirty and unhealthy places
to live in. Some of the more common soil contaminants are chlorinated hydrocarbons (CFH), heavy
metals (such as chromium, cadmium--found in rechargeable batteries, and lead--found in lead paint,
aviation fuel and still in some countries, gasoline), MTBE, zinc, arsenic and benzene.

Ordinary municipal landfills are the source of many chemical substances entering the soil
environment (and often groundwater), emanating from the wide variety of refuse accepted,
especially substances illegally discarded there.

Soil pollution due to solid waste disposal was brought to the forefront of public attention by the
notorious “Love Canal” case in 1978. Toxic chemicals was leached from oozing storage drums into
the soil underneath causing an unusually large number of birth defects, cancers and respiratory,
nervous and kidney diseases.

Control Measures
! Anti-litter campaigns can educate people against littering;
! Organic waste can be dumped in places far from residential areas;
! Inorganic materials such as metals, glass and plastic, but also paper, can be reclaimed and
recycled.
! In – situ - Bioremediation, phyto remediation, bio-augmentation etc.

LANDFILL

Sanitary landfill is the cheapest satisfactory means of disposal, but only if suitable land is within
economic range of the source of the wastes; typically, collection and transportation account for 75
percent of the total cost of solid waste management. In a modern landfill, refuse is spread in thin
layers, each of which is compacted by a bulldozer before the next is spread. When about 3 m (about
10 ft) of refuse has been laid down, it is covered by a thin layer of clean earth, which also is
compacted. Gases are generated in landfills through anaerobic decomposition of organic solid
waste. If a significant amount of methane is present, it may be explosive; proper venting eliminates
this problem.

INCINERATION
Incineration is a waste treatment technology that involves the combustion of organic materials and/
or substances. Incineration and other high temperature waste treatment systems are described as
"thermal treatment". Incineration of waste materials converts the waste into heat, which can be used
to generate electricity, gases, particulates of combustion and ash. Incineration has particularly
strong benefits for the treatment of certain waste types in niche areas such as clinical wastes and
certain hazardous wastes where pathogens and toxins must be destroyed by high temperatures.
There are various types of incinerator plant design such as Simple, Fixed or moving grate
combustion, Rotary-kiln, Multiple/stepped hearth and Fluidized bed

AUTOMOBILE POLLUTION
The addition of chemicals released from automobile emissions constituting NOX, HC’s, CO, SPM,
SO2, Pb resulting in deterioration of ambient air is termed as automobile pollution. Automobile
pollution also depends on several other factors such as age of the vehicle, type of fuel used,
condition of engine, type of engine, maintenance and operation mode of vehicle etc.

PETROL ENGINE vs. DIESEL ENGINE

Inference, why ? Diesel engines have higher compression ratio than petrol. First air is compressed,
then fuel injected, then ignition but in petrol, air fuel mixed first, compressed and the n ignited.
HC’s concentration is less, because blowby is negligible as only air is present in compression stroke
& evaporative emissions. Hydrocarbons are as well low because diesel uses a closed injection fuel
system.

SMOKE
When compared to diesel emissions, petrol emission is more toxic w.r.t. human; while diesel
emissions contribute towards environmental impacts. yet smoke emission from diesel cannot be
ignored. Maximum smoke is produced when vehicle runs at 60% of total power. It is measured in
Ringlemann’s Scale.

Effects of smoke: Irritation of eye membrane, ear membrane and respiratory tract, soiling of
clothes, disfiguring of buildings.

Control means: High A/F ratio, Smokeless fuel – Vehicle maintenance - Lean mixture.

2 STROKE ENGINE vs. 4 STROKE ENGINE

When compared to 4 stroke, 2 stroke engine produces more pollution [HC’s, CO, SPM, Smoke] as
it burns an oil gasoline mixture, but 2 stroke engine is more powerful, lighter, less expensive. On
the contrary, 4 stroke engine gives more mileage, produces less HC’s and VOC’s [volatile organic
carbon] as there is no short circuit of raw fuel.

Types of emissions
1. Tailpipe emissions: This is what most people think of when they think of vehicle air pollution;
the products of burning fuel in the vehicle's engine, emitted from the vehicle's exhaust system.
The major pollutants emitted include:Hydrocarbons: This class is made up of unburned or
partially burned fuel, and is a major contributor to urban smog, as well as being toxic. They can
cause liver damage and even cancer.
Nitrogen oxides (NOx): These are generated when nitrogen in the air reacts with oxygen under the
high temperature and pressure conditions inside the engine. NOx emissions contribute to both smog
and acid rain. Carbon monoxide (CO): A product of incomplete combustion, carbon monoxide
reduces the blood's ability to carry oxygen and is dangerous to people with heart disease. Carbon
dioxide (CO2): Emissions of carbon dioxide are considered to pollute because it is a significant
greenhouse gas and increasing its levels in the atmosphere contributes to global climate change.
Exhaust emissions: 100% CO, 100% NOX, 100% Pb, 60% HC’s

2. Blowby/Crankcase emissions: 20% HC’s .mainly due to leakage of oil vapor around worn-out
piston rings.

3. Evaporative emissions: These are produced from the evaporation of fuel, and are a large
contributor to urban smog, since these heavier molecules stay closer to ground level. Fuel tends to
evaporate in these ways:
Gas tank venting: the heating of the vehicle as the temperature rises from the night-time
temperature to the hottest temperatures of the day mean that gasoline in the tank evaporates,
increasing the pressure inside the tank above atmospheric pressure. This pressure must be relieved,
and before emissions control it was simply vented into the atmosphere.
Running losses: the escape of gasoline vapors from the hot engine.
Refueling losses: these can cause a lot of hydrocarbon vapor emission. The empty space inside a
vehicle's tank is filled with hydrocarbon gases, and as the tank is filled, these gases are forced out
into the atmosphere. In addition, there is loss from further evaporation and fuel spillage.

Bird view of emission of net pollution 65 % from Exhaust + 15 % from Blowby + 20 %

Evaporative = 100%

Bird view of Hydrocarbon emissions [mainly as Benzo pyrene] 60 % from Exhaust + 20 % from
Blowby + 20 %
Evaporative = 100% Evaporative emissions: 20% HC’S via gas tank venting, refueling & running
losses.

4. Life Cycle Emission: These are produced in activities associated with the manufacturing,
maintenance, and disposal of the automobile and include such items as: Manufacturing plant power
requirements Volatile solvents utilized in the manufacturing process (auto paint finishes, etc.) Out
gassing of synthetic materials utilized to reduce weight and simplify manufacturing
Maintenance requirements such as oil and filter changes, battery replacement, etc. Disposal
requirements including contaminated lubricants, tires, heavy metals, and landfill

Operation w.r.t Emissions:

Comparative study
When A/F ratio is high, then less CO, HC’s but high NOx When Vehicle decelerates high HC’s
[hydrocarbon] When vehicle is idle [not switched off during signals] high CO, low NOX, moderate
HC’s. When vehicle accelerates low HC’S , high CO, high CO, and high NOx When vehicle cruises
high NOx, low CO, moderate HC’s and high CO2. Drawbacks Pb is released from exhaust as lead
halides which are a cumulative toxin, a chief environmental pollutant capable of affecting neural
development resulting in lower IQ. Also lead acts as poison for catalytic converter. This resulted in
advent of unleaded petrol. The alternative used was MTBE. But it has been found to be non-bio-
degradable and possible ground contamination. This resulted in the use of ethanol as anti-knocking
agent to boost octane rating. But ethanol causes fuel to absorb moisture from air, over long time it
leads to rusting, corrosion in fuel line. Also it is poorly soluble and enhances possibility of bacterial
contamination.

TEL now banned in road sector continues to be used in aviation fuel as additive called as AVGAS.
The catch is despite using unleaded petrol; the emissions consist of benzene which causes cancer,
anemia and blood cancer. The other option w.r.t knocking phenomenon is utilize branched chain
alkanes, which results pre ignition, loss of power, lower octane rating

Catalytic converters
The air fuel ratio must be so high that all CO formed is converted to CO2, but if ratio is less [lack of
O2], it facilitates formation of CO, Unburnt HC’s, NOX. Also due to higher temperature
[2000-2500 0C], high pressure formation of Nitric oxide takes place.

If a car burns fuel with perfect efficiency, its only exhaust products would be CO2 and H2O.
Unfortunately not every molecule burns to completion. Catalytic converter consists of an array of
tubes, each coated with porous ceramics. Embedded in this coating are tiny particles of platinum
and rhodium which serve as catalyst. Previously V2O5, Vanadium Pentoxide served the purpose.
HC+CO+NOX →H2O+CO2+N2

Nowadays Rhodium, Platinum, Palladium serve the role as 3-way catalyst, once the exhaust heats
the converter above 3000C, unwanted molecules bind temporarily to catalyst and are converted.
95% of HC’s, CO, NOX is removed by converter but the presence of Pb in fuel as lead Halide gets
coated over surface inactivating them. Catalytic converters have no moving parts, but its limitations
include poisoning by lead, deterioration with time and pressure loss.

Control measures: Car pool system, proper operation and maintenance of vehicles, clean fuel
technology, ecofriendly fuels, hybrid vehicles, use of bio fuels, use of alternate energy such as solar
driven, use of unleaded petrol, complying to rules and regulation, frequent periodical emission
testing, stringent norms and enforcement on violation, walk shorter distances, ban shrill horns,
utilize silencers, use of catalytic converters etc.

Use catalytic converter for HC’s, CO, NOx, C6H6

Increase air-fuel ratio for HC’s, CO and Benzene Recycle exhaust gas for NOx, [15-25%]
In case of SPM, ensure proper maintenance and operation process, such has change air filter
regularly, change engine oil as per manufacturer’s specification, use moderate acceleration and
avoid slowing of engine atop gear.

POLLUTION CONTROL ACTS IN INDIA

Wildlife protection act, 1972 Water act, 1974 Forest conservation act, 1980 Air act, 1981
Environmental protection act [EPA], 1986 Hazardous wastes rules, 1989 Public liability insurance
act, 1991 Bio-medical waste rules, 1998 Noise pollution rules, 2000
Central pollution control board, CPCB, a statutory organization was constituted in Sept., 1974
under the water act. In the wake of Bhopal gas tragedy, Govt. of India enacted the EPA, 1986 under
article 253 of the constitution.

Functions of CPCB at the national level include:

1. Advise the central govt. on any matter concerning prevention and control of water and air
pollution and improvement of the quality of air.
2. 2. Co-ordinate the activities of the state boards and resolve dispute among them.
3. 3. Provide technical assistance and guidance to the state boards, carry out and sponsor
investigation and research relating to problems of water and air pollution, and for their
prevention, control or abatement of water and air pollution.
4. 4. Organize through mass media, a comprehensive mass awareness programme on the
prevention, control or abatement of water and air pollution.
5. 5. Collect, compile and publish technical and statistical data relating to water and air pollution.
6. 6. Planning and execution of a nation-wide programme for the prevention, control and
abatement of environmental pollution;
7. 7. Laying down standards for the quality of environment in its various aspects;
8. 8. Laying down standards for emission or discharge of environmental pollutants from various
sources whatsoever:
9. 9. Restriction of areas in which any industries, operations or processes or class of industries,
operations or processes shall not be carried out or shall be carried out subject to certain
safeguards;
10. 10. Laying down procedures and safeguards for the prevention of accidents which may cause
environmental pollution and remedial measures for such accidents;
11. 11. Laying down procedures and safeguards for the handling of hazardous substances;
12. 12. Examination of such manufacturing processes, materials and substances as are likely to
cause environmental pollution;
13. 13. Carrying out and sponsoring investigations and research relating to problems of
environmental pollution;
14. 14. Inspection of any premises, plant, equipment, machinery, manufacturing or other processes,
materials or substances and giving, by order, of such directions to such authorities, officers or
persons as it may consider necessary to take steps for the prevention, control and abatement of
environmental pollution;
15. 15. Collection and dissemination of information in respect of matters relating to environmental
pollution;
16. 16. Preparation of manuals, codes or guides relating to the prevention, control and abatement of
environmental pollution;
17. 17. Such other matters as the Central Government deems necessary or expedient for the purpose
of securing the effective implementation of the provisions of this Act.

THE WILDLIFE PROTECTION ACT, 1972

It extends to the whole of India, except the State of Jammu and Kashmir

It shall come into force in a State or Union Territory to which it extends, on such date as the Central
Government may, by notification, appoint, and different dates may be appointed for different
provision of this Act or for different States or Union Territories. The Act provides for the protection
of Wild animals, birds and plants and for matters connected therewith or ancillary or incidental
thereto. It extends to the whole of India, except the State of Jammu and Kashmir
"Animal" includes amphibians, birds, mammals, and reptiles, and their young, and also includes, in
the cases of birds and reptiles, their eggs,

"hunting", includes, Capturing, killing, poisoning, snaring, and trapping or any wild animal and
every attempt to do so, Driving any wild animal for any of purposes specified in sub clause, Injuring
or destroying or taking any part of the body of any such animal, or in the case of wild birds or
reptiles, damaging the eggs of such birds or reptiles, or disturbing the eggs or nests of such birds or
reptiles;

'Trophy" means the whole or any part of any captive animal or wild animal, other than vermin,
which has been kept or preserved by any means, whether artificial or natural, and includes, rugs,
skins, and specimens of such animals mounted in whole or in part through a process of taxidermy,
and antler, horn, rhinoceros horn, feather, nail, tooth, musk, eggs, and nests;

"Wildlife" includes any animal, bees butterflies, crustacean, fish and moths; and aquatic or land
vegetation which forms part of any habitat;

FOREST (CONSERVATION) ACT, 1980 WITH AMENDMENTS MADE IN 1988

It extends to the whole of India except the State of Jammu and Kashmir. It shall be deemed to have
come into force on the 25th day of October, 1980. Notwithstanding anything contained in any other
law for the time being in force in a State, no State Government or other authority shall make, except
with the prior approval of the Central Government, any order directing-
(i) That any reserved forest (within the meaning of the expression "reserved forest" in any law for
the time being in force in that State) or any portion thereof, shall cease to be reserved;
(ii) That any forest land or any portion thereof may be used for any non-forest purpose;
(iii) that any forest land or any portion thereof may be assigned by way of lease or otherwise to any
private person or to any authority, corporation, agency or any other organization not owned,
managed or controlled by Government;
(iv) that any forest land or any portion thereof may be cleared of trees which have grown naturally
in that land or portion, for the purpose of using it for reafforestation

For the purpose of this section, "non-forest purpose" means the breaking up or clearing of any forest
land or portion thereof for-
(a) The cultivation of tea, coffee, spices, rubber, palms, oil-bearing plants, horticultural crops or
medicinal plants;
(b) Any purpose other than re-afforestation; It also defines the procedure to be followed for
declaring an area to be a

Reserved Forest, a Protected Forest or a Village Forest. It defines what is a forest offence, what are
the acts prohibited inside a Reserved Forest, and penalties leviable on violation of the provisions of
the Act. Reserved Forest is an area or mass of land duly notified under section 20 of the Indian
Forest Act, 1927 [Act 16 of 1927] or under the reservation provisions of the Forest acts of the State
Governments of the Indian Union. The manner in which a Reserved Forest, shortly written as RF,
has to be constituted is described in section 3 to 20 of the Act. It is within power of a State
Government to issue a preliminary notification under section 4 of the Act declaring that it has been
decided to constitute such land, as specified in a Schedule with details of its location, area and
boundary description, into a Reserved Forest.

Protected Forest is an area or mass of land, which is not a reserved forest, and over which the
Government has property rights, declared to be so by a State Government under the provisions of
the section 29 of the Indian Forest Act, 1927. It does not require the long and tedious process of
settlement, as in case of declaration of a reserved forest... Further, in a protected forest, the
Government may issue notifications declaring certain trees to be reserved, or suspend private rights,
if any, for a period not exceeding 30 years, or prohibit quarrying, removal of any forest produce, or
breaking of land etc.

Village Forest is constituted under section 28 of the Indian Forest Act, 1927. The Government may
assign to any village community the rights over a land which may be a part of a reserved forest for
use of the community. Usually, forested community lands are constituted into Village Grazing
Reserve.

THE WATER (PREVENTION AND CONTROL OF POLLUTION) ACT, 1974

Definitions.-In this Act, unless the context otherwise requires. -

"outlet" includes any conduit pipe or channel, open or closed, carrying sewage or trade effluent or
any other holding arrangement which causes, or is likely to cause, pollution;

"pollution" means such contamination of water or such alteration of the physical, chemical or
biological properties of water or such discharge of any sewage or trade effluent or of any other
liquid, gaseous or solid substance into water (whether directly or indirectly) as may or is likely to,
create a nuisance or render such water harmful or injurious to public health or safety, or todomestic,
commercial, industrial, agricultural or other legitimate uses, or to the life and health of animals or
plants or of aquatic organisms;

"sewage effluent" means effluent from any sewerage system or sewage disposal works and includes
sullage from open drains;

"sewer" means any conduit pipe or channel, open or closed, carrying sewage or trade effluent;

"stream" includes - (i) river; (ii) water course (whether flowing or for the time being dry); (iii)
inland water (whether natural or artificial); (iv) sub-terranean waters; (v) sea or tidal waters to such
extent or, as the case may be, to such point as the State Government may, by notification in the
Official Gazette, specify in this behalf;

"trade effluent" includes any liquid, gaseous or solid substance which is discharged from any
premises used for carrying on any industry; operation or process or treatment and disposal system
other than domestic sewage.

Prohibition on use of stream or well for disposal of polluting matter. - no person shall knowingly
cause or permit any poisonous, noxious or polluting matter determined in accordance with such
standards as may be laid down by the State Board to enter (whether directly or indirectly) into any
stream or well or sewer or on land; or no person shall knowingly cause or permit to enter into any
stream any other matter which may tend, either directly or in combination with similar matters, to
impede the proper flow of the water of the stream in a manner leading or likely to lead to a
substantial aggravation of pollution due to other causes or of its consequence.

A person shall not be guilty of an offence under sub-section (1), by reason only of having done or
caused to be done any of the following acts, namely :- (a) constructing, improving or maintaining in
or across or on the bank or bed of any stream any building, bridge, weir, dam, sluice, dock, pier,
drain or sewer or other permanent works which he has a right to construct, improve or maintain; (b)
depositing any materials on the bank or in the bed of any stream for the purpose of reclaiming land
or for supporting, repairing or protecting the bank or bed of such stream provided such materials are
not capable of polluting such stream;

Restrictions on new outlets and new discharges.

Subject to the provisions of this section, no person shall, without the previous consent of the State
Board, - establish or take any steps to establish any industry, operation or process, or any treatment
and disposal system or any extension or addition thereto, which is likely to discharge sewage or
trade effluent into a stream or well or sewer or on land (such discharge being hereafter in this
section referred to as discharge of sewage); or(b) bring into use any new or altered outlet for the
discharge of sewage; or (c) being to make any new discharge of sewage.

THE AIR (PREVENTION AND CONTROL OF POLLUTION) ACT, 1981

It extends to the whole of India. It shall come into force on such date as the Central Government
may, by notification in the Official Gazette, appoint. Definitions. In this Act, unless the context
otherwise requires,-

"air pollutant" means any solid, liquid or gaseous substance 2[(including noise)] present in the
atmosphere in such concentration as may be or tend to be injurious to human beings or other living
creatures or plants or property or environment;

“Air pollution" means the presence in the atmosphere of any air

"Approved fuel" means any fuel approved by the State Board for the purposes of this Act;

"Automobile" means any vehicle powered either by internal combustion engine or by any method
of generating power to drive such vehicle by burning fuel;

"Central Board- means the 3[Central Board for the Prevention and Control of Water Pollution]
constituted under section 3 of the Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974;

"Chimney" includes any structure with an opening or outlet from or through which any air pollutant
may be emitted,

"Control equipment" means any apparatus, device, equipment or system to control the quality and
manner of emission of any air pollutant and includes any device used for securing the efficient
operation of any industrial plant;

"Emission" means any solid or liquid or gaseous substance coming out of any chimney, duct or flue
or any other outlet; "Industrial plant" means any plant used for any industrial or trade purposes and
emitting any air pollutant into the atmosphere;

"Occupier", in relation to any factory or premises, means the person who has control over the affairs
of the factory or the premises, and includes, in relation to any substance, the person in possession of
the substance;]

INDIA – ENVIRONMENTAL (PROTECTION) ACT, 1986

It extends to the whole of India.

It shall come into force on such date as the Central Government may, by notification in the Official
Gazette, appoint and different dates may be appointed for different provisions of this Act and for
different areas. In this Act, unless the context otherwise requires,--
(a) "environment" includes water, air and land and the inter-relationship which exists among and
between water, air and land, and human beings, other living creatures, plants, micro-organism
and property;
(b) (b) "Environmental pollutant" means any solid, liquid or gaseous substance present in such
concentration as may be, or tend to be, injurious to environment;
(c) (c) "Environmental pollution" means the presence in the environment of any environmental
pollutant;
(d) (d) "handling", in relation to any substance, means the manufacture, processing, treatment,
package, storage, transportation, use, collection, destruction, conversion, offering for sale,
transfer or the like of such substance;
(e) (e) "hazardous substance" means any substance or preparation which, by reason of its chemical
or physico-chemical properties or handling, is liable to cause harm to human beings, other
living creatures, plant, micro-organism, property or the environment;

Municipal Solid Wastes

Solid waste means any garbage, refuse, sludge from a wastewater treatment plant, water supply
treatment plant, or air pollution control facility and other discarded materials including solid, liquid,
semi-solid, or contained gaseous material, resulting from industrial, commercial, mining and
agricultural operations. Solid waste is the unwanted or useless solid material generated from
combined residential, industrial and commercial activities. These due to reckless open dumping or
unethical practices present bad aesthetics to an area. Solid waste may be categorized according to its
Origin (domestic, industrial, commercial, construction or institutional); Contents (organic material,
glass, metal, plastic, paper etc.) and Hazard potential (toxic, non-toxic, flammable, radioactive,
infectious etc.)
Impacts of Solid Wastes and its ill-management
! Unattended waste lying around attracts flies, rats, and other creatures that in turn spread disease.
! Other high-risk group includes increased risk of injury and infection to populations living close
to a waste dump and those, whose water supply has become contaminated either due to waste
dumping or leakage from landfill sites.
! In particular, Uncollected organic domestic waste poses a serious threat, since they ferment,
creating conditions favorable to the survival and growth of microbial pathogens.
! Direct handling of solid waste can result in various types of infectious and chronic diseases with
the waste workers, the rag pickers being the most vulnerable.
! Epidemics,
! Unaesthetic Issues,
! Land Pollution,
! Contamination Of Ground Water,
! Pollution Of Waterbodies
! Air Pollution
! Bad Odour Issues.

Control Measures of Municipal Solid Wastes

The most effective way to solve the solid waste problem is by reducing waste in the first place, i.e.
before it is generated. A sanitary landfill is a solid waste management facility that utilizes an
engineered method of land disposal, primarily for municipal solid wastes. To ensure a safe disposal
of the Municipal Solid Waste, Composting process is proposed in two ways , aerobically and
anaerobically. Bioremediation deals with the methods of solving the solid waste problems, by
making use of microorganisms and fungi.

Waste or Source reduction, is the elimination or reduction of waste before it is created. This
involves the design, manufacture, purchase or use of materials and products to reduce the amount or
toxicity of what is thrown away. The need for waste reduction arises due to the Shortage of suitable
landfill space, for in many areas, no suitable land is available for landfills development. The need
also arises from the fact that the development of new landfill site is expensive

New landfills are often resisted due to public concerns over groundwater contamination, odors, and
truck traffic. Waste or Source reduction can be brought about by Buying Less, purchasing long-
lasting goods, Seeking products and packaging that are as free of toxics as possible, Redesigning
products to use less raw material in production have a longer life, or be used again after its original
use, and Reusing items is another way to stop waste at the source.

Resource recovery can contribute to the wise and efficient use of materials, to conserving energy, to
preserving the environment, and to improving the balance of trade by reducing our dependence on
imported natural resources. By using materials more than once, unexploited resources can be
conserved for ourselves and for future generations. Two major methods are there for recovering
energy and materials for recycling from municipal solid waste, namely source separation and
centralized resource recovery. Source separation consists of programs to separate recyclable
materials at the waste source and then collect them through methods as curbside collection,
community recycling centers, industry-sponsored recycling programs, and commercial and
industrial methods of source separation.

Incineration is the process of burning putrescible solid waste in a controlled condition, as the most
common thermal treatment process in the presence of oxygen. After incineration, the wastes are
converted to carbon dioxide, water vapour and ash, and may be used as a means of recovering
energy to be used in heating or the supply of electricity. The amount and volume of the MSW can
be reduced up to 90% by volume and 75% by weight. However, incinerators may cause potential air
pollution and health risks via Release of toxic chemicals into the atmosphere. Another demerit of
Incineration is that it destroys potentially useful recyclable or compostable material by turning it
into toxic ash. Disposal of the ash is another concern and the residual ash must itself be disposed of,
usually in a special-purpose landfill called a monofill. Landfills are designed to greatly reduce or
eliminate the risks that waste disposal may pose to the public health and environmental quality.
These are usually placed in areas where land features act as natural buffers between the landfill and
the environment. The bottom and sides of landfills are lined with layers of clay or plastic to prevent
leachate, from escaping into the soil. The leachate is collected and pumped to the surface for further
treatment. Boreholes or monitoring wells are dug in the vicinity of the landfill to monitor the
groundwater quality.

A landfill is divided into a series of individual cells and only a few cells of the site are filled with
waste at any one time. When the landfill has reached its capacity it is sealed and capped with an
impermeable seal which is typically composed of clay soil.

Integrated Solid Waste Management must take an overall approach to creating sustainable systems
that are economically affordable, socially acceptable and environmentally effective. An integrated
solid waste management system must involve the use of a range of different treatment methods, and
key to the functioning of such a system is the collection and sorting of the waste. It is important to
understand that no one single treatment method can manage all the waste materials in an
environmentally effective way. Therefore all the available treatment and disposal options must be
evaluated equally and the best combination of the available options suited to the particular
community chosen. Effective management schemes therefore need to operate in ways which best
meet current social, economic, and environmental conditions of the municipality.

E-Waste Management

E-waste (electrical and electronic waste) is the term used to describe old or discarded appliances
that includes computers, consumer electronic goods etc. It also refers to electronic products nearing
the end of their useful life. Roughly 40 million metric tonnes of e-waste is produced globally each
year, and only about 13% of that weight is recycled (that too mostly in developing countries).

Characteristics of E-Wastes
! Precious metals: Gold, Silver, Palladium and less quantities of platinum.
! Base metals: Copper, aluminum, nickel, tin, zinc, iron etc.
! Special metals: Indium, Bismuth, antimony, Selenium etc.
! Hazardous metals: Mercury, Beryllium, lead, cadmium, Arsenic etc. Disposal methods It is a
fact that e-waste comprises of hazardous elements which offer the potential of increasing the
intensity of their discharge in environment. Based on composition following methods are suggested.
! Land-filling: It is not possible to quantity environmental impacts from e-waste in landfills. They
contain mixtures of various waste streams, and Emission of pollutants from landfills can be delayed
for several years. As a consequence of the complex material mixture in e-waste, it is not possible to
exclude environmental (long-term) risks even in secured land filling.
! Incineration: Advantage of incineration of e-waste is the reduction of waste volume and the
utilization of the energy of the combustible materials. By incineration some environmentally
hazardous organic substances are converted into less hazardous compounds. A disadvantage of this
also includes the emission of poisonous gases and residues into the atmosphere.
Impacts of E-Wastes and its ill-management
! The informal sector's recycling practices magnify health risks.
! Primary and secondary exposure to toxic metals (such as lead), results from open-air burning
used to retrieve valuable components (such as gold).
! Combustion from burning e-waste creates fine particulate matter which is linked to pulmonary
and cardiovascular disease.
! Guiyu in China is one of the largest e-waste recycling site in the world. It exhibits substantial
digestive, neurological, respiratory and bone problems among workers.

Biomedical Waste Management

Biomedical waste is the discarded biological material from teaching, clinical and research
laboratories and operations. Biomedical waste is a type of waste that is either putrescible (liable to
decay) or potentially infectious. It may also include waste associated with the generation of
biomedical waste that visually appears to be of medical or laboratory origin, as well research
laboratory waste. In healthcare facilities, waste with these characteristics may alternatively be called
medical or clinical waste.

Characteristics of Biomedical Wastes

! Infectious waste like human anatomical and surgical waste, animal waste, pathological waste,
used syringes, I V tubes, blood bugs, items such as plasters and bandages when contaminated by
blood and pus waste from isolation wards. These amounts to about 25 percent of the total waste
generated from a health care unit.
! Non-infectious waste: It broadly comprises of kitchen waste and office waste. It is similar to
household waste. Non-infectious wastes constitute nearly 75% of the total wastes generated from a
health care unit.

Disposal methods

Biomedical waste is distinct from normal trash or general waste, and differs from other types of
hazardous waste, such as chemical, radioactive, universal or industrial waste. Medical facilities
generate waste hazardous chemicals and radioactive materials. While such wastes are normally not
infectious, they require proper disposal. Some wastes are considered multihazardous, such as tissue
samples preserved in formalin.

Disposal options for untreated biomedical waste

 MODULE 4

ACID RAIN

Definition Rain water pH is around 5.7 due to certain concentration of CO2 dissolved as rainwater
trickles down atmosphere, i.e. CO2+H2O→HCO3- +H+ Acid rain is defined as any type of
precipitation with a pH that is unusually low. Dissolved carbon dioxide dissociates to form weak
carbonic acid giving a pH of approximately 5.6 at typical atmospheric concentrations of CO2.
Therefore a pH of less than 5.6 has sometimes been used as a definition of acid rain.

Acid rain was first found in Manchester, England. In 1852, Robert Angus Smith found the
relationship between acid rain and atmospheric pollution. Though acid rain was discovered in 1852,
it wasn't until the late 1960s that scientists began widely observing and studying the phenomenon.

Causes

The principal natural phenomena that contribute acid-producing gases to the atmosphere are
emissions from volcanoes and those from biological processes that occur on the land, in wetlands,
and in the oceans. The major biological source of sulfur containing compounds is dimethyl sulfide.

The principal cause of acid rain is sulfuric and nitrogen compounds from human sources, such as
electricity generation, factories and motor vehicles. Coal power plants are one of the most polluting.
The gases can be carried hundreds of kilometres in the atmosphere before they are converted to
acids and deposited. Factories used to have short funnels to let out smoke, but this caused many
problems, so now, factories have longer smoke funnels. The problem with this is those pollutants
get carried far off, where it creates more destruction.

Sulfur dioxide contributes to about seventy percent of acid rain while nitrogen oxides provide the
remaining thirty percent. The sources of sulfur in the atmosphere include coal combustion,
smelting, organic decay, and ocean spray. Approximately ninety percent of atmospheric sulfur
results from human activities.

In the atmosphere, sulfur dioxide combines with water vapor to form hydrogen sulfite gas: SO2 +
H2O+1/2O2 → H2SO4

Next, hydrogen sulfite reacts with oxygen to form sulfuric acid, a major component of acid rain:
H2SO3 + 1/2O2 → H2SO4

The sources of nitrogen oxides include the combustion of oil, coal and natural gas, forest fires,
bacterial action in soil, volcanic gases, and lighting-induced atmospheric reactions. In the
atmosphere, nitrogen monoxide reacts with oxygen gas to form nitrogen dioxide gas: NO + 1/2O2
→ NO2

Then, nitrogen dioxide reacts with water vapor in the atmosphere to form hydrogen nitrite and
hydrogen nitrate: 2NO2 + H2O → HNO2 + HNO3 Henceforth, acid rain is a mixture of HNO3,
H2SO4 + HCl. however conditions needed to favor formation of these are sunlight, temperature,
humidity, hydrocarbons, NOX, SO2.
Effects

Both the lower p H and higher aluminum concentrations in surface water that occur as a result of
acid rain can cause damage to fish and other aquatic animals. At p H lower than 5 most fish eggs
will not hatch and lower p H can kill adult fish. As lakes become more acidic biodiversity is
reduced. Soil biology can be seriously damaged by acid rain. Some tropical microbes can quickly
consume acids but other microbes are unable to tolerate low p H and are killed.

Acid rain can slow the growth of forests, cause leaves and needles to turn brown and fall off and
die. In extreme cases trees or whole areas of forest can die. The death of trees is not usually a direct
result of acid rain; often it weakens trees and makes them more susceptible to other threats.

Some scientists have suggested direct links to human health, but none have been proven. However,
fine particles, a large fraction of which are formed from the same gases as acid rain (sulfur dioxide
and nitrogen dioxide), have been shown to cause illness and premature deaths such as cancer and
other deadly diseases

Toxic metals released into the environment by acid rain may enter water supplies or accumulate in
fish and crops. Acid deposition also destroys statues, headstones, buildings, and fountains.
Limestone structures are especially susceptible because they dissolve easily in acidic solutions.

Acid rain can also cause damage to certain building materials and historical monuments. Acid rain
can cause weathering on ancient and valuable statues and has caused considerable damage. This is
because the sulfuric acid in the rain chemically reacts with the calcium compounds in the stones
(limestone, sandstone, marble and granite) to create gypsum, which then flakes off. Acid rain also
causes an increased rate of oxidation for iron.

Control Measures
! Design more efficient automobile engines in order to reduce nitrogen oxide emissions.
! Increase efficiency of power plants that burn coal in order to reduce waste that contains sulfur
dioxide and nitrogen oxide.
! Increase penalties on industries that do not meet air pollution guidelines.
! Increase tax incentives to industries that do meet guidelines.
! Use alternative energy sources, Increase funding for alternative energy sources; for example,
give tax incentives to buyers of hybrid cars.
! Provide tax incentives to companies that use alternative energy sources.
! Add CaCO3 (calcium carbonate) to lakes suffering from acid deposition; calcium carbonate acts
as a buffer, resisting a change in pH and lessening the negative effects of acid rain.

OZONE DEPLETION

Definition Ozone layer is an umbrella 24 km [15 miles] from earth surface, an essential component
of the stratosphere that absorbs short wavelength ultraviolet radiation from the sun, heating the
gases of the stratosphere in the process. This is the reason temperatures rise with increasing altitude
in the stratosphere, and also the reason life was able to move out of the oceans and on to the land,
evolving into the diverse biosphere we know today.

World ozone day is celebrated on Sept, 16 of every year. Stratospheric ozone is measured in Dobson
units [DU] named after G.M.B Dobson who pioneered the study; [I Dobson unit = 0.01 mm
thickness of stratospheric ozone], Average ozone thickness in stratosphere is 300 DU, & when it
falls below 200 DU, it’s considered as Ozone hole. It is thinnest around equator and thickest near
poles.
Stratospheric ozone depletion is the term applied to the loss of stratospheric ozone molecules (O3)
and the disruption of Oxygen-Ozone concentration equilibrium in stratosphere [i.e., when chlorine
atoms upset the natural O2/O3 equilibrium in the stratosphere]. Oxygen molecules interact with the
intense solar radiation present at this elevation to form oxygen atoms. The oxygen atoms thus
generated react with other oxygen molecules to form ozone (O3).

Causes

Ozone depletion is caused by the release of chlorofluorocarbons (CFC's) and other ozonedepleting
substances (ODS), which were used widely as refrigerants, insulating foams, and solvents. The
discussion below focuses on CFCs, but is relevant to all ODS [NO, NO2 (aircraft exhaust), Br- , UV
rays, [O] Atomic oxygen etc.].

Although CFCs are heavier than air, they are eventually carried into the stratosphere in a process
that can take as long as 2 to 5 years. It can be recalled that commercial airliners [sub-sonic] fly in
lower stratosphere, jet airliners [super-sonic] fly in the troposphere

When CFCs reach the stratosphere, the ultraviolet radiation from the sun causes them to break apart
and release chlorine atoms which react with ozone, starting chemical cycles of ozone destruction
that deplete the ozone layer. One chlorine atom can break apart more than 100,000 ozone
molecules.

Other chemicals that damage the ozone layer include methyl bromide (used as a pesticide), halons
(used in fire extinguishers), and methyl chloroform (used as a solvent in industrial processes). As
methyl bromide and halons are broken apart, they release bromine atoms, which are 40 times more
destructive to ozone molecules than chlorine atoms.

While it is true that volcanoes and oceans release large amounts of chlorine, the chlorine from these
sources is easily dissolved in water and washes out of the atmosphere in rain. In contrast, CFCs are
not broken down in the lower atmosphere and do not dissolve in water.

The chlorine in these human-made molecules does reach the stratosphere. Measurements show that
the increase in stratospheric chlorine since 1985 matches the amount released from CFCs and other
ozone-depleting substances produced and released by human activities.

The Chapman Cycle

Chlorofluorocarbons, or CFC’s, are inert molecules that are not removed in the troposphere. They
have residence times of over a hundred years and ultimately diffuse through the troposphere to the
stratosphere. In the stratosphere CFC’s are exposed to the intense solar radiation that cannot
penetrate the ozone layer, and the CFC’s become photo chemically active. The result is the
production of chlorine atoms and chlorine oxide molecules, two substances that behave very much
like nitrogen oxide in the unperturbed atmosphere.

Ozone Depletion by CFC’s

Effects

Effect of ozone hole include cataract, genetic mutation, constriction of blood vessels, reduced crop
yield, leukemia, breast cancer, damage to crop, aqua culture, etc.,

The higher energy UV radiation absorbed by ozone is generally accepted to be a contributory factor
to skin cancer. In addition, increased surface UV leads to increased tropospheric ozone, which is a
health risk to humans. The increased surface UV also represents an increase in the vitamin D
synthetic capacity of the sunlight.

It should be deduced that the above impacts are not due to exposure of Ozone but due to the UV
rays that have reached the earth surface through the ozone holes. One important health hazard is
Snow Blindness [photo keratosis], i.e., inflammation of cornea (outer coating of eyeball).

The most common forms of skin cancer in humans, basal and squamous cell carcinomas have been
strongly linked to UVB exposure. Another form of skin cancer, malignant melanoma, is much less
common but far more dangerous, being lethal in about 15% - 20% of the cases diagnosed.

Presence of ozone causes plants to close their stomata, a defence mechanism that blocks out CO2 as
well inhibiting photosynthesis and respiration. Gross productivity to conduct photosynthesis will
decrease at least by 14-23% due to this. In India there is no standard for Ozone. However WHO
standard is 100 ppm for 8 hrs – avg.

Control Measures

The results of 18-year study of the ozone column over Antarctica [1st spotted, 1979] showing that
the ozone column had decreased from 1957 to 1985, a 35% decrease. This report led through
several regulatory steps to the Montreal Protocol, an international agreement signed by 139 nations,
banning the production of CFCs by the year 2000. In 1978, the use of CFC propellants in spray cans
was banned in the U.S. In the 1980s, the Antarctic "ozone hole" appeared and an international
science assessment more strongly linked the release of CFCs and ozone depletion. It became
evident that a stronger worldwide response was needed.

In 1987, the Montreal Protocol was signed and the signatory nations committed themselves to a
reduction in the use of CFCs and other ozone-depleting substances. Since that time, the treaty has
been amended to ban CFC production after 1995 in the developed countries, and later in
developing. Today, over 160 countries have signed the treaty.

We can't make enough ozone to replace what's been destroyed, but provided that we stop producing
ozone-depleting substances, natural ozone production reactions should return the ozone layer to
normal levels by about 2050. It is very important that the world comply with the Montreal Protocol;
delays in ending production could result in additional damage and prolong the ozone layer's
recovery. Control mechanism stresses on replacement of the banned chemical by ammonia, steam,
helium etc.

GREEN HOUSE EFFECT

Objects that absorb all radiation upon them are called "blackbody" absorbers. The earth is close to
being a black body absorber. Gases, on the other hand, are selective in their absorption
characteristics. While many gases do not absorb radiation at all some selectively absorb only at
certain wavelengths. Those gases that are "selective absorbers" of solar energy are the gases we
know as "Greenhouse Gases." The greenhouse effect is a phenomenon that ought to create a
condition in the upper atmosphere, causing a trapping of excess heat and leading to increased
surface temperatures.

The Earth receives energy from the Sun in the form of radiation. The Earth reflects about 30% of
the incident solar flux; the remaining 70% is absorbed, warming the land, atmosphere and oceans.
The visible solar radiation heats the surface, not the atmosphere, whereas most of the infrared
radiation escaping to space is emitted from the upper atmosphere, not the surface. The infrared
photons emitted by the surface are mostly absorbed by the atmosphere and do not escape directly to
space. Hence earth’s greenhouse effect is a natural phenomenon that helps regulates the temperature
of our planet. Simply put, the sun heats the earth and some of this heat, rather than escaping back to
space, is trapped in the atmosphere by clouds and greenhouse gases, such as water vapor and carbon
di oxide. If all these greenhouse gases were to suddenly disappear, our planet would be 60° F colder
and uninhabitable. The steady state condition of earth is disrupted by the presence of the excess
greenhouse gasses. The solar radiations strike as ultra violet with long wavelength but on reflection
they pare infrared with shorter wavelengths.

On Earth, the major natural greenhouse gases are water vapor, which causes about 36–70% of the
greenhouse effect (not including clouds); carbon dioxide (CO2), which causes 9–26%; methane
(CH4), which causes 4–9%; and ozone, which causes 3–7%. The greenhouse gases [carbon-di-
oxide, methane etc.,] traps these radiations preventing their reflection or escape back to atmosphere
and this results in warming of land surface.
Hence it’s a natural phenomenon. Hence excessive concentration of these gases resulting from
natural or man-made activities building up in drastic proportions leads to greenhouse effect.

Carbon Dioxide
Sources: Released by the combustion of fossil fuels (oil, coal, and natural gas), flaring of natural
gas, changes in land use (deforestation, burning and clearing land for agricultural purposes), and
manufacturing of cement.
Sinks: Photosynthesis and deposition to the ocean.
Significance: Accounts for about half of all warming potential caused by human activity.

Methane
Sources: Landfills, wetlands and bogs, domestic livestock, coal mining, wet rice growing, natural
gas pipeline leaks, biomass burning, and termites.
Sinks: Chemical reactions in the atmosphere.
Significance: Molecule for molecule, methane traps heat 20-30 times more efficiently than CO2.
Within 50 years it could become the most significant greenhouse gas.

Nitrous Oxide [296 times potential than CO2]

Sources: Burning of coal and wood, as well as soil microbes' digestion.
Sinks: Chemical reactions in the atmosphere.
Significance: Long-lasting gas that eventually reaches the stratosphere where it participates in ozone
destruction.
Ozone Sources: Not emitted directly, ozone is formed in the atmosphere through photochemical
reactions involving nitrogen oxides and hydrocarbons in the presence of sunlight. Sinks: Deposition
to the surface, chemical reactions in the atmosphere. Significance: In the troposphere ozone is a
pollutant. In the stratosphere it absorbs hazardous ultraviolet radiation.

Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)
Sources: Used for many years in refrigerators, automobile air conditioners, solvents, aerosol
propellants and insulation.
Sinks: Degradation occurs in the upper atmosphere at the expenses of the ozone layer. One CFC
molecule can initiate the destruction of as many as 100,000 ozone molecules.
Significance: The most powerful of greenhouse gases — in the atmosphere one molecule of CFC
has about 20,000 times the heat trapping power on a molecule of CO2.

Another important feedback process is ICE-ALBEDO FEEDBACK. The increased CO2 in the
atmosphere warms the Earth's surface and leads to melting of ice near the poles. As the ice melts,
land or open water takes its place. Both land and open water are on average less reflective than ice,
and thus absorb more solar radiation. This causes more warming, which in turn causes more
melting, and this cycle continues. This enhances sea level rise, coastal zone submergence, and
malaria outbreaks and of course ice cap melting. Control measures include planting more trees,
reducing vehicular emission and thermal stacks, and elimination of volatile organic compounds.

CLIMATE CHANGE

Global warming is the increase in the average temperature of the Earth's near-surface air and oceans
in recent decades and its projected continuation. Global average air temperature near the Earth's
surface rose to 0.74 ± 0.18 °C (1.3 ± 0.32 °F) during the past century. I
n the Arctic, average temperatures have risen almost twice as fast as in the rest of the world and
climate changes are particularly intense.

Other consequences may include changes in agricultural yields, glacier retreat, reduced summer
stream flows, species extinctions and increases in the ranges of disease vectors.

The melting of Arctic ice and increased regional precipitation can add freshwater to the oceans, and
potentially affect ocean currents in the North Atlantic.

Melt of glaciers can contribute to sea level rise: By 2100, melting of Arctic glaciers alone will have
contributed to a sea level rise of roughly 5 cm out of the projected 10-90 cm total rise for this
century.

Forest fires could become more frequent, Due to the warming; insect outbreaks will increasingly
disturb large areas of [Link] scenarios project more forest fires in all ecosystems.

Polar Bears depend on sea ice for their survival: Many Arctic animals, such as polar bears, seals,
walruses, and seabirds, rely on the sea’s biological productivity and on the presence of sea ice, both
of which are highly dependent on climatic conditions.

Changes in sea surface temperatures or currents could have a strong effect on Arctic marine fish
stocks, which are an important food source for the world and play a vital role in the region’s
economy.

Rising temperatures are modifying the Arctic coastline and are expected to change it even more in
the future. Sea level rise is likely to cause flooding of marshes and coastal plains and accelerate
beach erosion. Some towns and industrial facilities are already suffering severe damage as a result
of erosion, and are now facing the prospect of relocation.

More specifically, eleven of the last twelve years (1995-2006) rank among the 12 warmest years
ever recorded since global surface temperatures are measured (1850). Over the last 100 years
(1906–2005), global temperature has increased by 0.74°C. Bangalore faced the wettest March in
133 years Other projected changes include acidification of the oceans, reduced snow cover and sea
ice, more frequent heat waves and heavy precipitation, more intense tropical cyclones, and slower
oceanic currents.

Warming and sea level rise caused by human activities will continue for centuries, even if
greenhouse gas concentrations were to be stabilized. If warming persists over many centuries, it
could lead to a complete melting of the Greenland Ice sheet, increasing global sea levels by about
7m. Additional anticipated effects include 18% to 35% of a sample of 1,103 animal and plant
species to be extinct by 2050, based on future climate projections.

The world's primary international agreement on combating global warming is the Kyoto Protocol,
an amendment to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC),
negotiated in 1997. The Protocol now covers more than 160 countries globally and over 55% of
global greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions.

PREVENTION

Use Compact Fluorescent Bulbs

Change Your Air Filter
Use Recycled Paper
Check Your Water Heater
Use Solar-heated Water
Change the AC Filter
Take Shorter Showers
Install a Low-Flow Showerhead
Buy Products Locally
Buy Minimally Packaged Goods
Buy a Hybrid Car, Bio-fuel driven
Buy a Fuel Efficient Car,
Carpool When You Can
Reduce Garbage
Plant a Tree
Buy Organic Food
Replace Old Appliances
Use a Push Mower
Unplug Un-Used Electronics
Air Dry Your Clothes

FLUORIDE PROBLEM IN DRINKING WATER

[MPL = 1.0 ppm] Fluorine, one of the most active halogens/elements is not used in its elemental
form in environmental engineering, principle forms in which fluorine are added to public water
supply include NaF, CaF2, HF, Na2SiF6, H2SiF6 & (NH4)2SiF6. All compounds containing
fluorine disassociate to form fluoride ions. F- .

Determination of fluoride concentration is carried out by ion chromatography, electrode,

colorimetric & SPADNS method.

Environmental engineer has a dual interest in Fconcentration in water supply schemes…

1. Design, operate units for removal of excessive concentration.
2. Ensure the minimum / optimum concentration to be present (1ppm).

Sources of F contamination include

Alumunium Processing Plants. In aluminum units, cryolite [Na3AlF6] used as solvent for Al2O3 in
electrolytic method of aluminum. At operating temperature, cryolite is molten hence Fescapes to
atmosphere as vapor.

Excess F- Removal techniques i.e., Defluoridation involves passing water through Defluoridation
media like activated alumina, bone char by combination of processes of sorption and ion exchange.

Extreme limits of F- > 4ppm causes crippling skeletal fluorosis, 4 < x > 2 ppm causes dental
fluorosis, while < 1 ppm causes dental carries. Fluoride does not concentrate in any tissues but only
in bones and teeth.

Dental carries is a medical condition in which a human or any organism lacks necessary compounds
containing Fto keep bones and teeth healthy. Symptoms include yellow coloring of teeth, white
flecks , small pits in enamel of teeth, severe case also displays brown stains.

The most widely accepted adverse effect of low concentration fluoridation at this time is fluorosis. It
is a condition caused by 'excessive' intake of fluorine compounds over an extended period of time,
and can cause yellowing of teeth. The definition of 'excessive' in the context of fluorosis falls on the
order of parts per million and is generally accepted to mean significantly higher than the 0.7 to 1.2
ppm amounts recommended for fluoridated water. Excessive fluoride has been scientifically linked
to liver damage, kidney function, and fluorosis in children.

Although it is usually the permanent teeth which are affected, occasionally the primary teeth may be
involved. In mild cases, there may be a few white flecks or small pits on the enamel of the teeth. In
more severe cases, there may be brown stains

Fluoride ions replace hydroxide ions in calcium hydroxyapatite, Ca5[(PO4)3OH], in teeth, forming
calcium fluoroapatite, Ca5[(PO4)3F], which is more chemically stable and dissolves at a pH of 4.5,
compared to 5.5 pH for calcium hydroxy patite. This is generally believed to lead to fewer cavities,
since stronger acids are needed to attack the tooth enamel.

RESETTLEMENT AND REHABILITATION OF PEOPLE

Major projects such as dams, mining or the notification of a National Park disrupt the lives of the
people who live there and may also require their moving permanently to an alternative site. None
would like to give up the home they grow up in. Uprooting people is a serious issue. When dams
are constructed in populated areas, many tribal are compelled by government and forced to relocate
without adequate or no compensation. The Governments promises to find ‘good’ arable land to
resettle displaced persons and provide them with an adequate rehabilitation package to recover from
the disruption has rarely occurred to the satisfaction of the project affected individuals.

Resettlement and Rehabilitation of People reduces the ability of residents to subsist on their
traditional natural resource base and also creates great psychological pressures. Tribal whose lives
are woven closely around their own natural resources, cannot adapt to a new way of life in a new
place. Established communities get dispersed and are often destroyed. The communities that are
forced to absorb the influx of displaced tribal are as well strained to their maximum capacity. The
cost of moving often leaves the tribal poorer than before. Due to space and resource constraints,
tribal are often forced to move long distances from their original homes. This, coupled with the hard
transition into urban areas, often destroys traditional cultures. The Projects severely affected
people's economic security as many receive little or no compensation for their land lost, and no
compensation was given for other resources destroyed by the project. For those who are supposed to
be covered under the resettlement and rehabilitation program, they are prone to many forms of
economic victimization. In India several lakhs of people have been unfairly displaced by dam
projects created since independence. The dams have been built virtually at the cost of the poor local
people who have been powerless to resist the Government.

The Governments promises to find ‘good’ arable land to resettle displaced persons and provide them
with an adequate rehabilitation package to recover from the disruption has rarely occurred to the
satisfaction of the project affected individuals. Resettlement requires alternate land to be provided
to the people. In our overpopulated country as there is no arable high quality land available, most
times project affected persons are given unusable wasteland. There is also emotional and
psychological trauma caused by forcibly removing people from their homeland where their families
have lived for centuries. There are also situations when communities request for shifting to a new
site. This is often observed when people live inside or on the periphery of a National Park or
Wildlife Sanctuary. The Tehri Dam project in the outer Himalayas in Uttar Pradesh, when finished
will submerge Tehri town and nearly another 100 villages. Little has been done to ensure proper
rehabilitation and compensation for nearly a lakh of people who will be uprooted from their homes
as a result of this dam, with little hope of rehabilitation, as no alternative land is available