CAIE Geography Pre-U
1A: Hot Arid and Semi-Arid Environments
Essential Notes
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Definitions, classification and distribution
Meaning of aridity and the aridity index
Aridity is the lack of moisture, especially having insufficient rainfall to support most trees or woody
plants. It is extremely dry, has low precipitation, and high rates of evapotranspiration.
The aridity index is the average annual precipitation divided by the annual potential
evapotranspiration(the amount of evapotranspiration that would occur if there was sufficient water).
It is divided into three categories:
● Hyper arid
● Arid
● Semi-arid
Global distribution of hot arid and semi-arid areas
Mainly located on the west side of continents and mainly either along the tropic of Cancer or the
tropic of Capricorn.
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Definition of desertification and the global distribution of desertified and
desertifying areas
Desertification is the process of land degradation in arid and semi-arid regions as a result of
various factors both climatic and from human activities.
Areas that are most at risk of desertification are those that surround existing deserts. Some of the
most common causes are:
● Overfarming
● Removal of plants/deforestation
● Overgrazing
● Climate change
● Lack of precipitation
● Natural disasters
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Past changes in the extent of aridity
Pluvials are periods marked by increased rainfall whereas interpluvials are those marked by
decreased rainfall.
The tertiary period occurred 66 million to 2.6 million years ago and the quaternary period is the
current and most recent period.
Scientists know that levels of aridity have changed due to various sources of evidence including:
● Archaeological
● Observing the landscape and formations
● Biological evidence
● Ocean sediments can be analysed
Scientists predict that in the future, arid and semi-arid areas will become more prevalent and
extensive.
Controlling factors: Climate and the hydrological cycle
Causes of aridity
● Relief and the rain shadow effect
● Global atmospheric circulation
● Cold ocean currents
● Offshore winds
● Continentality
Characteristics of typical desert climates
● High temperatures and large diurnal ranges.
● Low rainfall levels with some periods of very heavy rain.
● High levels of evapotranspiration.
The hydrological cycle and water balance in hot arid and semi-arid environments
Even when rain does fall in arid areas, the effectiveness of this precipitation is very low due to:
● Rapid rates of evaporation and transpiration
● Bare surfaces which limit infiltration
● Low interception rates
This can cause flash floods whilst also not providing enough water for plant growth.
The role of climate in influencing natural sources of water in hot arid and semi-arid
environments
For aquifers to recharge, long steady periods of rain are more effective than short intense periods
of rain. This allows the rainwater to infiltrate into the ground more effectively. Coastal mist and fog
relies on the correct air masses to be present over the sea for it to form. Higher temperatures will
cause greater evaporation of surface water as well as greater transpiration from plants. Higher
temperatures can also make the surface harder and less permeable to water and so less water
infiltrates into the aquifers.
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Natural sources of water in hot arid and semi-arid environments
● Aquifers are underground sources of water as a result of permeable rock, rock that
contains fractures or unconsolidated particles.
● Coastal mist and fog occur due to sinking air above a layer of moist air that has been
formed over the sea. This causes a layer of mist or fog which can then travel over the land.
● Dew is water in the form of droplets that appear on exposed, thin objects in the evening or
morning as a result of condensation.
Processes and landforms in hot arid and semi-arid environments
Weathering processes
Weathering is the process of breaking down a rock. It is the mechanism that leads to rock
decomposition or degradation, and the production of sediment.
Low levels of precipitation with occasional flash flooding, low levels of plant protection, high
temperatures and high diurnal ranges all increase the levels of weathering.
● Frost shattering
● Thermal fracture
● Salt weathering
● Wetting and drying
● Chemical weathering
Processes of erosion
Erosion is the wearing away and/or removal of rock particles and other materials by a moving
force.
● Deflation by the wind
● Abrasion/corrasion by the wind
● Abrasion by water
● Sheet runoff by water
Processes of transportation
Factors influencing transportation include:
● Amount and type of vegetation cover
● Wind speed, duration and direction
● Degree of turbulence
● Nature and size of surface material
Types of wind transportation include:
● Suspension
● Saltation
● Surface creep
Types of water transportation include:
● Suspension
● Solution
● Bedload saltation
● Bedload traction
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Landforms and landscapes of the past and present
Landscapes
● Mountain deserts
● Stony deserts
● Sandy deserts
● Shield deserts
Wind erosion landforms
Landform Explanation
Deflation hollows A large, enclosed, surface depressions that were created by the
removal of loose particles by the wind in large quantities. They collect
runoff and can form salt lakes.
Ventifacts Cobbles or pebbles which have been shaped by sand carried in the
wind. This causes it to have smooth sides that are separated by sharp
edges.
Rock pedestals Mushroom-shaped rocks that occur where an isolated rock has been
eroded more rapidly at the base.
Zeugen A narrow ridge of land that has a protective cap of rock above it. Due
to the horizontal layering of rocks, there is increased corrasion at
lower levels.
Yardangs Sculptured rocks which are streamlined, steep-crested, linear ridges of
clay, rock or silt. They are caused by abrasion and small amounts of
deflation. The rock layers are arranged vertically forming parallel rills
or troughs.
Water erosion landforms
Landform Explanation
Wadis Dry river beds which form temporary channels after periods of rain.
They have steep sides and a wide floor. They are formed by flash
floods which widen the rills and gullies then streams of water widen
these gullies into wadis
Canyons Desert gorges and are much deeper versions of wadis. They are
formed by heavy rainstorm events which result in flash floods. High
water erosion is combined with tectonic uplift to form canyons.
Mesas Elevated areas of land with a flat top and sides that are steep. They are
formed by a tectonically uplifted horizontally layered rock which then
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undergoes weathering and erosion. This is called differential
erosion.
Buttes Were once part of a mesa or a plateau. They are an isolated hill with
vertical sides and a small flat top. A protective cap of resistant rock
protects the underlying rock from erosion.
Pediments Gently sloping erosional rock surfaces which forms an angle of less
than 7°. They are found at the base of mountain ranges or cliffs and are
formed by the parallel retreat of steep slopes of a mountain front.
Arroyos Dry riverbeds or seasonally active creeks. They are filled with water
after heavy rainfall and dry up during dry periods. They are formed by
flash flooding.
Inselbergs Isolated relic hills which are rounder versions of mesas or buttes.
They are formed by deep chemical weathering which occurs in the
rock and the material is then carried away by water. The rock is then
isolated by differential erosion.
Surface crusts Extensive areas of flat desert surfaces which are covered by a hard
crust of fine material which reduces infiltration. It is formed wind
deflation and the selective sorting of rock materials by the presence
of subsurface water. Caused by cycles of wet and dry periods.
Wind deposition landforms
Dunes are formed by the deposition of fine materials. This occurs when the wind speed decreases
so that it can no longer carry the material. This often occurs where there is vegetation, a rock or
other obstacle which slows the wind on the leeward side.
Landform Explanation
Barchan/crescent Relatively small individual crescent-shaped dunes which point
dunes downwind. They are formed due to a dominant wind direction and
a limited supply of sand and are highly mobile.
Seif/linear/longitudinal Very large sand dunes which develop from barchan/crescent
dunes dunes. This is due to the elongation of one of the horns caused by
a constant switching in the direction of the prevailing wind.
Transverse dunes Look like ocean waves. They are formed by a steady trade wind in
a constant direction. They are stabilised by vegetation.
Star dunes Pyramidal in shape and the tallest of all the dunes. They are
formed by strong winds which blow from multiple directions.
Draa dunes Sequence of large star dunes which form a ridge.
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Water transport and deposition landforms
● Alluvial fans are formed when water carrying sediment reaches a lowland plain or a basin.
This causes the water to slow down and spread out.
● Bajadas are a series of alluvial fans that join together.
● Playas are salt lakes and are formed when depressions are occupied by shallow,
ephemeral saline lakes with no surface outlet.
● Salt flats are flat expanses of ground which is encrusted with salt crystals and other
minerals. It is formed when water from a salt lake evaporates.
● Washes are the drainage areas in desert terrains. They are dry beds of sandy soil and are
some of the only areas in deserts where water is able to penetrate back into the aquifers.
Human activity and its impacts on hot arid and semi-arid environments
Human interaction with hot arid and semi-arid environments
Societies living in these environments have to deal with infrequent and unpredictable rainfall, poor
soil quality, low levels of vegetation and grazing pastures. Many societies overcome this by
adopting a nomadic lifestyle. This means they are always moving depending on the availability of
water and pastures. Some societies have adopted a semi-nomadic way of life where they move
with their flocks and herds but when it reaches harvest time they set up their tents near villages
and take advantage of the high levels of supplies. However, due to decreased availability of water
and increasing desertification, many people have undergone the process of sedentarisation
where they settle down in villages, towns or cities.
The opportunities and constraints for human activity
● Climate: provides a continuous growing season due to high amounts of sunshine however
there are low levels of water.
● Alluvium deposits: provide nutrient-rich fine soils which can warm up quickly, however,
they are prone to wind erosion and also flash floods.
● Hydroponics: can be used as an alternative to regular farming due to lower use of water
although it is very expensive.
● Advanced irrigation systems: these include dams and irrigation channels so water can
be obtained where it is needed. However, the large surface area of water which is present
due to dams increases the level of evaporation so a lot of water is wasted.
● Natural water sources: oases, aquifers and ephemeral rivers can provide water to the
local populations, however, due to climate change and overuse these sources are
becoming less abundant.
● Desalination: Mainly used in rich countries due to the high cost. Removes salt from
seawater so it can be used.
● Mining: Arid and semi-arid environments can contain rich mineral resources which can
provide jobs in desert areas and help to improve local services, infrastructure and
amenities. However, it uses a large volume of water, removes vegetation and waste
produced can contaminate the area and natural water sources.
● Tourism provides economic benefit to the area and country whilst encouraging the
improvement of infrastructure. These environments, however, are very fragile and have a
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low carrying capacity and are very vulnerable to human activity. Local cultures may also
become commercialised for the tourism industry.
● Renewable energy: If just 0.3% of the Sahara desert was used for a solar plant, it would
provide all of Europe with clean renewable energy. This is difficult though because
windblown sand covers the panels and transmission lines will be hard to build.
The contribution of humans to desertification
● Overgrazing
● Overcultivation
● Vegetation clearance/deforestation
● Water collection and storage
● Salinisation
● Mineral extraction requires lots of water and vegetation also needs to be removed
● Population pressures
● Poverty increases the percentage of people that farm on already fragile lands.
● Policy errors
● Climate change
● Urban development
Consequences
● Rates of soil degradation and soil erosion increase as a result of human activity.
Feedback mechanisms: Increased atmospheric dust due to increased wind erosion of dry
soil leads to increased frequency of dust storms but also increases the greenhouse effect
and so increases global warming. Human activity also leads to denudation which is the
wearing away of the earth’s surface. This increases albedo which is the ratio between
incoming radiation and the amount reflected.
● People: Increased frequency of food shortages and famine. This will increase the levels of
migration which can also increase social tensions in the recipient country. There will also
be an increased dependency on food aid and food imports which undercut local prices and
as a consequence a decrease in agriculture. There will also be a loss in traditional skills
as people are forced to settle in cities.
Management
The issues associated with settlement, transport and infrastructural development
● Contour bunds are constructed ridges of earth or rocks that slow down the flow of water.
This allows more water to infiltrate into the ground but also prevents minerals from being
washed away.
● A Zai is a technique where pits are dug in the earth and filled with organic matter. They trap
water and nutrients. The matter is also carried by termites down into the ground which
increases stability and fertility of the soils.
● Prioritising areas for restoration.
● Outplanting involves growing plants in nurseries or greenhouses before planting them in
the desert.
● Planting trees to hold the soil together to prevent soil erosion.
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● Building high tech transport systems in cities reduce congestion and so decreases the
release of greenhouse gases, decreases both global warming and the urban heat island
effect.
● Solar power and wind power
Issues associated with economic development
Places like Dubai rely heavily on oil for their economic development. However, oil reserves in
Dubai will be exhausted by 2025 and this is similar in many other oil-rich nations. To combat this,
many countries are actively trying to diversify their economy by investing in tourism, IT and
banking.
Water supply is a huge issue in arid and semi-arid areas. The United Arab Emirates (UAE) now
has the highest water consumption per person in the world. Many of these countries, due to large
amounts of wealth, rely on desalination plants to provide their water.
The role of sustainable development
Sustainable development needs to be able to balance economic, social and environmental needs.
● Sustainable tourism involves encouraging continual investment and maintenance of local
jobs, conserving the ecosystems and landscape and protecting and improving local
customs, cultures and livelihoods.
● Conservation projects such as the Eden Foundation in Niger benefit both the local people
and the environment. They are planting trees and bushes which grow naturally in dry
conditions and also provide food for the local people.
● Sustainable mineral extraction requires environmental assessments as well as
recycling water, ensuring no waste leakage and working to protect the cryptobiotic soils.
● Sustainable agriculture requires sourcing a sustainable water source and implementing
sympathetic farming techniques to help sustain soil quantity.
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