Hydropower Engineering / Lecture Note, 2024/25 Chapter 1

Chapter 1
1. Introduction
1.1. General
Hydropower is the energy extracted from the natural potential of usable water resources. It is the
capture of the energy of moving water for some useful purpose When the energy of flowing
water is used to run turbines, then the electricity generated is called Hydroelectric power. The
head causing flow runs the turbine blades, and thus producing electricity from the generator
coupled to the turbine.
Power: - Is a very important infrastructure of the overall development of nation. A higher level
of economic development can only be obtained with the development of power resources.
Electrical power finds numeral use in homes industries, agriculture etc. The process of
modernization increases in productivity in industry and agriculture & improvement increases in
the quality of file of people all depend so much on the supply of power.

1.2. Source of Energy

Energy can be described as potential for work, which may be withdrawn if needed. The source for
any kind of energy on earth is the sun. The energy radiated by the sun in the form of electro-
magnetic waves can be utilized for the generation of power. This is also valid for nuclear and fossil
fuel when taking into account the genesis of the earth. The main sources of energy include the sun,
wind, geothermal, biogas, ocean tides, water, fuels and radio- active substances The last three
sources, I.e.
Water
Fuels and
Radio-active substances are
The most commonly used sources for generation of Sources of energy and are usually called
Conventional Sources of energy contribute about 30, 64, and 5 percent respective of the present
electrical energy, but generation in the world. Thither sources are also valuable but in
comparison with the quantum of energy produced by the three main sources, their contribution is
negligible and they are often called unconventional Sources.

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The following two major sources of power generation may be identified because of present day
importance:
1. Conventional sources
Thermal power
Hydropower
Thermo-nuclear power
2. Unconventional sources
Tidal power
Solar power
Geothermal power
Wind power
Wave power
Depression (solar) power
The above major sources of energy may also be classified as renewable and non-renewable sources
of energy.

1.2.1. Convectional Sources

Thermal (Steam) Power: - Uses fossil fuel (Coal, petroleum, oil …) or biomass, and burned them
to heat water in the specified boiler to create steam. The fuel is burnt in a boiler to heat water into
steam under high pressure. A conventional steam turbine uses the pressure of the expanding steam
to turn the turbine. As shown in figure 1 below, the whole process converts heat energy in to
mechanical energy (rotational kinetic energy) which is then converted in to electrical energy.

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Figure 1: - Layout of thermal power

Hydropower Plant: - is power derived from the energy of falling water or fast running water, which
may be harnessed for useful purposes. Through the help of pressure pipe (penstock) or combination
of canal and penstock, flowing water is directed at a turbine (advanced waterwheels). The flowing
water causes the turbine to rotate, converting the water’s kinetic energy into mechanical energy. The
mechanical energy produced by the turbine is converted into electric energy by a turbine generator.
(See in the Figure below). The water directed by the draft tube and tailrace canal to the river once it
strikes and rotate the turbine (will be explained in detail in the next chapters).

Figure 2: - Layout of Hydropower scheme

Atomic Power (Thermo–nuclear power): - Nuclear power production is based on the energy
released when an atomic nucleus such as uranium undergoes fission following the absorption of
a neutron to form a compound nucleus.

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This compound nucleus is unstable and may break into two or three smaller atomic nuclei with
the simultaneous emission of several neutrons together with the release of considerable amount
of energy. The process can be carried out as follows: -
1. First, uranium fuel is loaded up into the reactor—a giant concrete dome that is reinforced
in case it explodes. In the heart of the reactor (the core), atoms split apart and release heat
energy, producing neutrons and splitting other atoms in a carefully controlled nuclear
reaction.
2. Control rods made of materials such as cadmium and boron can be raised or lowered into
the reactor to soak up neutrons and slow down or speed up the chain reaction.
3. Water is pumped through the reactor to collect the heat energy that the chain reaction
produces. It constantly flows around a closed loop linking the reactor with a heat
exchanger.
4. Inside the heat exchanger, the water from the reactor gives up its energy to cooler water
flowing in another closed loop, turning it into steam. Using two unconnected loops of
water and the heat exchanger helps to keep water contaminated with radioactivity safely
contained in one place and well away from most of the equipment in the plant.
5. The steam from the heat exchanger is piped to a turbine. As the steam blows past the
turbine's vanes, they spin around at high speed.
6. The spinning turbine is connected to an electricity generator and makes that spin too.
7. The generator produces electricity that flows out to the power grid—and to our homes,
shops, offices, and factories

Figure 3: - Layout of atomic (Nuclear) Power

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1.2.2. Unconventional Power Sources

Geothermal Power
We live between two great sources of energy, the hot rocks beneath the surface of the earth and
the sun in the sky. The core of the earth is very hot and it is possible to make use of this
geothermal energy. The hot magma near the surface thus causes active volcanoes, hot springs,
and geysers where water exists. It also causes steam to vent through the fissures. Ground water
that finds its way down to this rock through fissures in it will be heated by the heat of the rock or
by mixing with hot gases and steam emanating from the magma.

The heated water will then rise convectively upward and into a porous and permeable reservoir
above the igneous rock. A layer of impermeable solid rock that traps the hot water in the
reservoir caps this reservoir. The solid rock, however, has fissures that act as vents of the giant
underground boiler. The vents show up at the surface as geysers, fumaroles, or hot springs. The
natural heat in the earth has manifested itself for thousands of years in the form of hot springs.
As shown in figure 4 below, a well taps steam from the fissure containing naturally boiling water
for rotating the steam turbine. Once the turbine rotates, the coupled generator automatically
rotating for generating electricity.

Figure 4: - Layout of Geothermal power scheme

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Solar Power
The sun is the source of the vast majority of the energy we use on earth. Most of the energy we
use has undergone various transformations before it is finally utilized, but it is also possible to
tap this source of solar energy as it arrives on the earth’s surface. There are many applications for
the direct use of solar thermal energy, space heating and cooling, water heating, crop drying and
solar cooking. It is a technology, which is well understood and widely used in many countries
throughout the world. Most solar technologies have been in existence in one form or another for
centuries and have a well-established manufacturing base in most sun-rich developed countries.
Utilization of solar power can be either through solar thermal power plant system or through
photovoltaic system. In the solar thermal power plant, sunrays are focused using concave
reflectors on to copper tubes filled with water and painted black outside. The water in the tubes
then boils and become steam. This steam is used to drive steam turbine, which in turn causes the
generator to work. In the solar photovoltaic system creation of voltage from light is carried out
A solar panel is a converter; it changes the light energy into electrical energy. A cell does not
store any energy, so when the source of light (i.e. sun) is removed, there is no electrical current
from the cell. If electricity is needed in the night, a battery must be included in the circuit.
There are many materials that can be used to make solar cells, but the most
common is the element silicon.

Figure 5: - Layout of solar thermal power Figure 6: - Layout of photovoltaic power system

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Wind Power
The velocity of wind (moving air) has kinetic energy. The kinetic energy of the wind can be used
rotate the wind turbine (windmill). During rotation of the wind turbine, (windmill) the rotor for
the coupled generator will rotates to produce electricity. Wind machines are just as efficient as
coal plants. Wind plants convert 30 percent of the wind's kinetic energy into electricity

Figure 7: - Layout of wind power scheme.

In our country
Natural gases: - Found in Ogaden, Borena
Coal: - North Shoa, Wellega, Gonder, south Wello etc.
Uranium: - Ogaden, Borena, West Wellega
Geotermal Energy: - Lake Langano, Atar /Asayita
Therefore, 90% of total energy is generated from water.
The classification of sources of energy can be summarized in a flowchart as shown below.

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1.3. Hydropower schemes

1.3.1. Merits and Demerits of Hydro power
Advantage of Hydropower

Hydropower plants do not require fuel, as water is the Source of energy Hence operating
costs are and there are no problems of handling and storage of fuel and disposal of ash.
In Hydropower plants, the hydraulic turbines can be pit off and on in a matter of minutes
and the rapidly changing load demands can be met without any difficult. Hence, it is well
suited for peaking.
Hydropower plants are highly reliable, robust, and have higher life expectancy and
nuclear less maintenance.
- Thermal & nuclear: - 25-30 years
- Hydropower: - 50-100 years
Hydropower is clean and free of environmental pollutions. There is no danger of
radiation, hazards and no nuisance of smoke
Hydropower has by far the highest energy conversion efficiency, at 80-90% (Thermal &
nuclear 30-60 %  )
Disadvantage of Hydropower
The initial cost of hydropower plant is high due to the longer gestation period and the
involvement of huge civil and hydraulic engineering works.
The reservoir (if any) submerges huge areas of land, uproots large number of population
and creates social & other problems.
Long transmission lines are required as the plants are located in hilly areas, which are
quite far from load centers.
Cessation politic – Hydropower 10-20 years
Thermal & nuclear- 5 years

1.4. Place of Hydropower in a Power System

It is customary to distinguish the power demand into two parts: The base load demand, which is
present only for most part of the year, and the peak load demand, which is present only for a
fraction of time. A power grid has to be capable of catering the maximum of peak load demand
rate of power.

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In a grid system, the general planning is such that some stations will runs as base- load station
and some others run as peak- load stations. In the power products mix of thermal, hydropower
and nuclear sources, the load sharing must be such that hydropower is used for peaking purposes,
due to its quick staring & relative ease in peaking up loads.

1.5. Development of Hydropower

1.5.1. Hydropower status in the world
Hydropower production shares with about 23% in the total energy consumption of the world. On
the other hand, the participation of hydrogenated energy in the electric power production of the
world amounts to 30%. Accordingly, the ratio of energy generated n hydro stations to 30%.
According, the ratio of energy generated in hydro stations to the total energy consumption, will
be about 7%.
As below shown in the table 1.1: an estimate of the available hydropower potential of the worlds
& the utilization factors distributed among the continents. This table alludes to a total of 3800
GW as available potential and to 368 GW as utilized potential, thus concluding in an overall
potential utilization factor or 9.7% for the world.
Table 1-1: - Available percentage exploited hydropower potential of the world
(estimate compiled & published in the 70`s)

Available Potential Exploited potential Utilization percentage

Continent
(GW) (GW) (%)
Asia 1350 45 3
Africa 690 15 2
North America 375 105 28
Europe 290 190 65
There are countries in the world where almost entire power production is hydro-based, for
instance, Norway. There are also counters where vast hydropower resources are still untapped,
for example, Democratic Republic Congo, Ethiopia, Nepal etc.

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Table 1-2: - Capacity of water plants operating in some countries of the world.
(Estimate made in the 80`s)

Installed capacity of Percentage of Hydro in the

Country
Hydropower (MW) Power system (%)
USA 90000 16
USSR 73000 19
Canada 59000 66
Brazil 57000 -
Japan 26000 27
Norway 25000 99.9
India 23000 34
France 21000 38
Italy 20000 ___
Sweden 15000 ___
Spain 15000 ___
Switzerland 12000 ___
Australia 7000 ___
Ethiopia 200 90
The annual per capital consumption of electrical energy has been accepted these days as a yard
stick to measure the prosperity of a nation.

Table 1-3: - Annual per capital consumption of electrical energy for various construes.
(Estimate made in the 80’s)

Per capital Per capital

Country Country
Consumption (KWh) consumption (kWh)
Norway 21,500 UK 5,400
Canada 16,900 France 4,500
Sweden 16,000 Italy 3,700
USA 10,900 China 425
German 6.800 India 175
USSR 5,600 LDCS 100
Japan 5,500 Ethiopa 20
1.5.2. Hydro power potential & status in Ethiopia
Ethiopia is naturally endowed with quite a substantial amount of water resource potential, even
though its distribution and occurrence through time & space is erratic. Despite it has abound
and water resources, the section. In particular, the exploitation of the hydropower potential was
not noticeably successful inspire of being given priority as a major filed of nation development.
The hydropower potential of Ethiopia is very considerable such an abundant potential is
attributed to the high rainfall regimes & steep slopes of the meter’s natural landscape.

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Most of the rivers generally drop hundreds of meters in relative short distances, especially at
plateau escarpments, making them attractive to hydropower development Estimated energy
potential of the country is about 160,000GWH per year. Nevertheless, this resource is distributed
unevenly with about 85%of the total covered by the Blue Nile, Omo-Gibe & Baro basins (See in
the table 1.4 below.)
Table 1-4: - Hydropower potential of Ethiopia

Despite the vast potential available (table 1.4), Ethiopia is one of the poorest countries in the
world with the lowest per capital electric consumption. This stems from the facts the that so far
very small percentage (<2%) of the country‘s hydropower potential has been harnesses & less
than 10% of the population has access to electricity. The majority of the population has to rely on
biomass bases energy. Which has resulted in massive deforestation of and soil erosion in many
parts of the country. Presently, the Ethiopia electric power system is essentially based on very
few medium sized hydropower plants, with minor contribution from thermal. The total firm
energy, production capacity of the existing hydropower schemes is about 1,458 KWh per year.
(See table 1.5) which accounts for 90% of the total electric energy produced in the country Table
1.5 gives the main features of the hydropower plants currently in operation. Two distinct
divisions characterize the Ethiopian electric supply system: Inter connected system (ICS) and a
number of self-contained system (SCS). The ICS receives most if its energy from relatively large
hydrogenating stations and supplies the almost 80% of the total energy produced in the country
and supplies the main demand centers.

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Table 1-5: - Existing hydropower plants

Category
Installed Firm energy Year of

System
Type
HP Plant River type capacity production Commission
(Mw) (GWh/year. (G.C.)
Aba Samuel Akaki river SCS 6 1932

ROR
Tis- Abay I Nile River ICS 11.5 27 1964
Awash II Awash river ICS 32 135 1966
Awash III Awash river ICS 32 135 1974
Koka Awash river

Storage
ICS 43.2 70 1960
Fincha Fincha River ICS 100 616 1973
Melka-Wakena. ICS 153 434 1988
Yadot SCS 0.35 1.2 1990
Sor Sori River SCS 5 48 1990
Demi SCS 0.8 2.8 1991
ROR

Gilgel Gibe I Omo River 184 2004

Tekeze High Dam Tekeze River 300 2009
Gilgel Gibe II Omo River 420 2009
Tana Belas Belas river 435 2010
Tis-Abay II Nile river ICS 73 331
Total 1,763.85

The excising situation in hydropower development, in connection with the available potential
and demand, leaves much to be desired. According to the Ethiopian electric & Power
Corporation (EEPco) energy forecast, the country could face severe shortage of electrical energy
for the years to come unless new plants are added to the system. The study indicated that power
generation needs to grow at an annual rate of about 10% to fulfil the demand. To cope up with
this energy storage, special attention has, recently, been given to the development of hydropower
sector in the country. Based on this set of goal, a number of possible schemes have considered
and are currently underway. The list of on-going & future plan for hydropower development of
the country is presented in table 1.6.

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Table 1-6: - Ongoing & planned Hydro Projects

Installed Estimated firm

Project Name Status
Capacity (Mw) Energy (GWh/year)
Gilgel-Gibe 200 622
Fincha 4th unit 33 137
Under construction
Gojeb 153 364
Tekeze 208 364
Aleltu 186 780 Feasibility level
Halel-Worabesa 88+344 382+1494
Upper Beles ------- 1100
Chemoga yeda 278 2526
Guder 100 361 Pre-Feasibility level
Geba I and II 154+100 857+776
Baro I and II 194+475 647+2094
Genale II and III 174 +164 567+1215

Table 1-7: - Potential River basin of Ethiopia

Gross Estimated
Potential
Hydropower Groundwater
River Basin Area (Km2) Runoff (Bm3) Irrigable land
Potential Potential
(ha.)
(GWh/Year) (Bm3)
Tekeze 8,235 8.2 83,368 6,000 0.2
Abbay 199,812 54.8 815,581 78,800 1.8
Baro-Akobo 75,912 23.6 1,019,523 18,900 0.28
Omo-Gibe 79,000 16.6 35,000 0.42
Rift Valley 52,739 5.6 139,300 800 0.1
Mereb 5,900 0.65 67,560 0.05
Afar/ Denakil 74,002 0.86 158,776
Awash 112,696 4.9 134,121 4,500 0.14
Aysha 2,223 - - - -
Ogaden 77,121 - - - -
Wabi-Shebelle 202,697 3.16 237,905 5,400 0.07
Genale-Dawa 171,042 5.88 1,074,720 9,300 0.14
Total 1,135,494 124.25 3,798,782 158,700 2.86

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Energy – Physical Bases and Measuring Units

Derivation:
Energy can be described as potential for doing work, which may be withdrawn if needed. The
source for any kind of energy on earth is the sun. This is also valid for nuclear and fossil fuel
when taking into account the genesis of the earth.

Table 1: Energy and Related Terms

Physical Term Unit

kg.m
Force = mass x acceleration = N (Newton)
s2
N .m = J (oule )
= force x dis tan ce
Work  J
= power x time s = J = W .s
s

Energy = available potential to work J (Joule)

= work / time
= W (att)
kg.m m Joule
Power  . =
= force x velocity s2 s s

With the definition of power, one can state whether a defined energy reserve is transformed
slowly or fast: If the transformation is fast (for instance burning with open flame), the power is
high; in case of slow transformation (for instance burning in living organism), the power is low
despite an equal energy credit.
Units:
As the different energy forms are convertible into each other, the energy can be measured in the
units of physical work. The previous heat units (such as calorie, British thermal unit, etc.) do not,
in their definition, refer to the mechanical heat equivalent (detected through experiments by J.P
Joule, 1818- 1889).
Table 2: Internationally Recommended Prefixes for SI Unit

K M G T P E Prefix symbol
kilo mega giga tera peta exa Prefix
Factor by which the unit is
103 106 109 1012 1015 1018
multiplied

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Table 3: Energy Units and Conversions

Unit Application Conversion

Metric SI-unit 1 J = 1 watt-second
Joule
= 1 Newton meter (NM)
Very common; disadvantage:
1 kWh = 3.6 x 106 Ws
Kilowatt-hour mixing up the time units second
Energy

= 3.6 x 106 J
and hour
Calorie Obsolete 1 cal. = 4.1868 J
Coal equivalent Obsolete 1 kg SKE = 29.3 x 106 J
Non- metrical; used in the
Anglo- American area. 1 Btu = 1 055 J
British thermal unit
Various Btu are in use = 2. 93x10-4 kWh
Which differ only slightly
J m
Watt Metric SI-unit 1W = 1 =1 N
s s
Power

Horse power
Obsolete 1 PS = 736 W
(metric)
Horse power
1 HP = 746 W
(English)
It is recommended to use the unit of SI.

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