Luís Carlos Augusto Júnior

Manuel José Namuqueha

Maique Hilário Nova
Marlene Catarina Bulacha

Speech and language disorder

(English Language Teaching University Degree)
English course, year IV
Psycholinguistics

Universidade Rovuma
Nampula
2024
 Luís Carlos Augusto Júnior

Manuel José Namuqueha

Maique Hilário Nova

Marlene Catarina Bulacha

Nelito Felizardo Coa

Speech and language disorder

(English Language Teaching University Degree)

English course, year IV

Psycholinguistics

This assignment is intended to be

submitted in the department of Languages
and Social Sciences as an appraisal, done
as the order in the subject of
Psycholinguistics.

Universidade Rovuma

Nampula

2024
Content page
1. Introduction………………………………………………………………………..……….04
2. The language and speech disorders……………………………………………………...…05
2.1. LANGUAGE DISORDERS…………………………………………………………..…05
2.1.1. Aphasia…………………………………………………………………………………06
2.1.2. Autism……………………………………………………….…………………………07
2.1.3. Learning Disability…………………………………………………………………….07
2.1.4. Alzheimer’s Disease……………………………….…………………………………..08
2.1.5. Specific Language Impairment……………………..………………………………….08
2.1.6. Developmental Phonological Disorders……………………………………………….09
2.1.7. Dyspraxia………………………………………………………………………………09
3. SPEECH DISORDERS……………………………………………………...……………..10
3.1. Voice Disorders…………………………………………………………………………..10
3.2. Speech Sound Disorders………………………………………………………………....11
3.3. Fluency Disorders……………………………………………………………….……….11
3.4. Apraxia of Speech…………………………………………………………………….….12
3.4. Dysprosody………………………...…………………………………………………….12
3.5. Dysarthria……………………………………………………………………………...…13
4. Conclusion…………………………………………………………………………………14
5. REFERENCES……………………………………………………………………………..15
 5

1. Introduction
The cause of phonological disorder in children is largely unknown. It has been suggested that
this disorder has a genetic component due to the large proportion of children who have
relatives with some type of similar disorder. However there is no available data to support
these observations. Developmental phonological disorders may occur in conjunction with
other communication disorders such as stuttering, specific language impairment (SLI), or
developmental apraxia of speech. No matter what combination of difficulties a child with a
developmental phonological disorder has, appropriate speech-language pathology treatment is
usually successful in eliminating or at the very least, reducing the problem.

1.1. General objective

 To describe the speech and language disorder

1.2. Specific objectives

 To define the speech and language disorder;

 To identify the causes and types of speech and language disorder
 To mention the possible symptoms of speech disorder and language disorder
 6

2. The language and speech disorders

The language and speech are said to be disordered or impaired if they differ from what is
considered the norm. As already indicated, the yardstick is embedded in the culture of each
language; what may be considered disordered in one language will not necessarily be
disordered in another language cited by CLARK and CLARK (1977).
There is need, therefore, to distinguish between genuine speech disorder and people’s cultural
tendencies or practices. The unique nature of the language and speech disorders is that they
are not visible since mostly they are not physically manifested, except defects that affect
articulation. Most disorders are not evident until a person opens her/his mouth to speak. The
disorders, for the same reason, are often not considered a disability, even by the persons who
have them as mentions CLARK and CLARK (1977).
Language and speech disorders may be due to factors such as physical, mental, or
socialisation defects (Crystal, 1988). Though language and speech disorders are classified
together they are slightly different from each other. Let’s take them one by one:

2.1. LANGUAGE DISORDERS

Language is the rule-based use of speech sounds to communicate (Sternberg, 2000). The
language disorders or language impairments involve the processing of linguistic
information. Problems that may be experienced can involve grammar (syntax and/or
morphology), semantics (meaning), or other aspects of language.
Disordered language may be due to a receptive problem, that is, a difficulty in understanding
speech sounds (involving impaired language comprehension). It can also be due to an
expressive problem, that is, a difficulty in producing the speech sounds (involving language
production), that follow the arbitrary rules of a specific language. A language disorder can
also be due to problems in both reception and expression. Examples include specific language
impairment and aphasia, among others YULE and RUTTER (1987). Language disorders can
affect both spoken and written language, and can also affect sign language; typically, all
forms of language will be impaired.
The delay in the use of speech sounds relative to normal development in the physical,
cognitive, and social areas is another language disorder. Most language disorders are often
diagnosed in conjunction with other developmental delays for instance, health, sensory,
motor, mental, emotional, and behavioural development.
Language disorder is a disorder that is found in the development or use of the knowledge of
language. It shows the breakdown in the development of language abilities on the usual
 7

developmental schedule. The disorders that come under language disorders are: Autism,
Learning Disability, Specific Language Impairment, Developmental Phonological
Disorders Aphasia, Dyspraxia, etc.

2.1.1. Aphasia
Aphasia is an impairment of language functioning caused by damage to the left hemisphere of
the brain CLARK and CLARK (1977). There are different type of aphasias, example; Broca’s
aphasia and Wernicke’s aphasia.
Wernicke’s aphasia is caused by damage to the left temporal lobe of the brain. It is
characterised by notable impairment in the understanding of spoken words and sentences.
People with Wernicke’s aphasia have generally fluent phonetic and syntactic but semantically
coherent speech.
This coherence is exhibited through the creation of nonsense words for real world concepts
and improper substitutions of function words for content words (e.g., nouns, verbs). It also
typically involves the production of sentences that have the basic structure of the language
spoken but that make no sense. They are sentences without any meaning, e.g. ‘Yeah, that was
the pumpkin furthest from my thoughts’ and ‘the scroolish prastimer ate my spanstakes’
YULE and RUTTER (1987).
In the first case, the words make sense, but not in the context they are presented.
In the second case, the words themselves are neologisms, or newly created words.
Treatment for patients with this type of aphasia frequently involves supporting and
encouraging non-language communication.
 Broca’s aphasia is caused by damage to the brain’s premotor area, responsible, in
part, for controlling motor commands used in speech production. A person suffering
from Broca’s aphasia exhibits speech containing excess pauses and language slips of
tongue, and s/he has trouble finding words when talking. The person also fails to make
use of function words such as a, the, and of. For this reason, Broca’s aphasics also
produce ungrammatical sentences YULE and RUTTER (1987).
Diseases like Broca’s and Wernicke’s aphasia, while tragic, tell us much about the critical
functions of certain regions of the brain. Notably, their symptoms suggest that (at least
certain) phonological, syntactic, and semantic, language information is stored and processed
separately in the brain.
 Global aphasia is the combination of highly impaired comprehension and production
of speech. It is caused by lesions to both Broca’s and Wernicke’s areas. Aphasia
 8

following a stroke frequently involves damage to both Broca’s and Wernicke’s areas.
In one study, researchers found 32 % of aphasias immediately following a stroke in
Broca’s and Wernicke’s areas (Pedersen, Vinter, & Olsen, 2004).
 Anomic aphasia involves difficulties in naming objects in retrieving words. The
patient may look at an object and simply be unable to receive the word that
corresponds to the object. Sometimes, specific categories of things cannot be recalled,
such as names of living things CANTWELL and BAKER (1987).

2.1.2. Autism
Autism is a developmental disorder characterised by abnormalities in social behaviour,
language, and cognition. It is biological in its origins, although the genes responsible for it
have not been conclusively identified. Children with autism are identified by around 14
months of age, when they fail to show expected normal patterns of interaction with others.
They display repetitive movements and stereotyped patterns of interests and activities. When
they interact with someone, they are more likely to view their lips than their eyes. About half
of children with autism fail to develop functional speech. The speech they tend to develop is
characterised by echolalia, meaning they repeat, over and over again, speech they have heard.
Sometimes the repetition occurs several hours after the original use of the words by someone
else CANTWELL and BAKER (1987).
Children with autism show abnormalities in many areas of the brain, including the frontal and
parietal lobes, as well as the cerebellum, brainstem, corpus callosum, basal ganglia, amygdala,
and hippocampus. The disease was first identified in the middle of the twentieth century
(Leonard, 2000).

2.1.3. Learning Disability

Language-based learning disabilities are problems with age-appropriate reading, spelling,
and/or writing. Most people diagnosed with learning disabilities have average to superior
intelligence. . In language-based learning disability (or just learning disabilities), many
children with reading problems have spoken language problems. Dyslexia has been used to
refer to the specific learning problem of reading.
Dyslexia: Dyslexia has been around for a long time and has been defined in different ways.
For example, in 1968, the World Federation of Neurologists defined dyslexia as “a disorder in
children who, despite conventional classroom experience, fail to attain the language skills of
reading, writing, and spelling commensurate with their intellectual abilities.” Dyslexia is not
 9

due to mental retardation, brain damage, or a lack of intelligence. It is caused by an

impairment in the brain’s ability to translate images received from the eyes or ears into
understandable language. The severity of dyslexia can vary from mild to severe.
Primary dyslexia is a dysfunction of, rather than damage to, the left side of the brain (cerebral
cortex) and does not change with age. Individuals with this type are rarely able to read above
a fourth grade level and may struggle with reading, spelling, and writing as adults. Primary
dyslexia is passed in family lines through their genes (hereditary).
Secondary or developmental dyslexia and is felt to be caused by hormonal development
during the early stages of fetal development. Developmental dyslexia diminishes as the child
matures (Clark and Clark, 1977).
Dyslexia may affect several different functions.
 Visual dyslexia is characterised by number and letter reversals and the inability to
write symbols in the correct sequence.
 Auditory dyslexia involves difficulty with sounds of letters or groups of letters. The
sounds are perceived as jumbled or not heard correctly.
 Dysgraphia refers to the child’s difficulty holding and controlling a pencil so that the
correct markings can be made on the paper YULE and RUTTER (1987).
Many subtle signs can be observed in children with dyslexia. Due to the frustration arising
from the difficulty in reading, children may become withdrawn and may show signs of
depression and low self-esteem. Peer and sibling interactions can become strained. The child
may become unmotivated and develop a dislike for school. The child’s success in school may
be jeopardised if the problem remains untreated.

2.1.4. Alzheimer’s Disease

The Alzheimer’s disease is a brain disorder which leads to a decrement in language
processing ability. This disease primarily afflicts elderly persons and causes progressive,
diffused, and irreversible damage to the cortical regions of the brain, impacting markedly on
memory functions. Comparison between the language decrements due to the dementing
effects of Alzheimer’s disease and those noted for the aphasics is useful because the average
age of onset of Alzheimer’s Disease overlaps that of aphasias (around 50 to 60 years of age).

2.1.5. Specific Language Impairment

Specific language impairment (SLI) is a developmental language disorder in the absence of
frank neurological, sensorimotor, non-verbal cognitive or social emotional deficits (see
 10

Watkins, 1994). SLI is used to refer to problems in the acquisition and use of language,
typically in the context of normal development.
Children with SLI lag behind their peers in language production and language comprehension,
which contributes to learning and reading disabilities in school.
One of the hallmarks of SLI is a delay or deficit in the use of function morphemes (e.g., the,
a, is) and other grammatical morphology (e.g., plural -s, past tense -ed). Individuals with SLI
exhibit problems in combining and selecting speech sounds of language into meaningful units
(phonological awareness). These problems are different to speech impairments that arise from
difficulties in coordination of oral-motor musculature (Cohen, 2002). Symptoms include the
use of short sentences, and problems producing and understanding syntactically complex
sentences. SLI is also associated with an impoverished vocabulary, word finding problems,
and difficulty learning new words, whereas the basic tasks for development of phonology and
syntax are completed in childhood, vocabulary continues to grow in adulthood (Bishop,
1997).

2.1.6. Developmental Phonological Disorders

“Developmental Phonological Disorders, also known as phonological disability or
phonological disorders, are a group of language disorders that affect children’s ability to
develop easily understood speech by the time they are four years old, and, in some cases, their
ability to learn to read and spell. Therefore, Phonological disorders involve a difficulty in
learning and organising all the sounds needed for clear speech, reading and spelling”
CANTWELL and BAKER (1987).
Individuals with this Communication Disorder of childhood demonstrate impairment in their
ability to produce sounds as expected for their developmental level. Some children with
developmental phonological disorders have other speech and language difficulties such as
immature grammar and syntax, stuttering or word-retrieval difficulties.

2.1.7. Dyspraxia
Developmental dyspraxia is a disorder characterised by impairment in the ability to plan and
carry out sensory and motor tasks (Leonard, 2000). Generally, individuals with the disorder
appear “out of sync” with their environment.
Symptoms vary and may include poor balance and coordination, clumsiness, vision problems,
perception difficulties, emotional and behavioural problems, difficulty with reading, writing,
and speaking, poor social skills, poor posture, and poor short-term memory. Although
 11

individuals with the disorder may be of average or above average intelligence, they may
behave immaturely CANTWELL and BAKER (1987).
Developmental dyspraxia is a lifelong disorder. Many individuals are able to compensate for
their disabilities through occupational and speech therapy.
Treatment is symptomatic and supportive and may include occupational and speech therapy,
and “cueing” or other forms of communication such as using pictures and hand gestures.
Many children with the disorder require special education CANTWELL and BAKER (1987).

3. SPEECH DISORDERS
Speech disorders are characterised by a difficulty in producing normal speech patterns.
Children go through many stages of speech production while they are learning to
communicate. What is normal in the speech of a child of one age may be a sign of a problem
in an older child. Speech is the vocal utterance of language and it is considered disordered in
three underlying ways: voice, articulation, and fluency (Deputy, 2008).
These disorders include voice disorders (abnormalities in pitch, volume, vocal quality,
resonance, or duration of sounds), speed sound disorders/articulation disorders (problems
producing speech sounds), and fluency disorders (impairment in the normal rate or rhythm of
speech, such as stuttering).

3.1. Voice Disorders

For DEPUTY (2008), voice involves the coordinated effects of the lungs, larynx, vocal
chords, and nasal passage to produce recognisable sounds. Voice can thus be considered
disordered if it is incorrectly phonated or if it is incorrectly resonated. In the incorrect
phonation an individual could have a breathy, strained, husky, or hoarse voice. With the
incorrect resonation an individual could have hyper-nasality or hypo-nasality. The voice
disorders could also be due to improper voicing habits.
Paralanguage issues, such as use of pitch, volume, and intonation, are diverse for they are
culturally determined. Every sound of voice has a possible range of meanings that could be
conveyed simply through the voice rather than the words we use. The features that should be
considered in determining a voice disorder are:
Volume: how loudly or softly we speak
Pitch: how pleasant or unpleasant
Quality: the highness or lowness of one’s voice
Rate: the speed at which one speaks
 12

Voice disorders are interpreted variously in different cultures. For instance, in many African
cultures as masculinity and femininity are determined by paralinguistic features. A man who
speaks in a low volume, a high pitch, or a smooth and slow voice, would be frowned upon
and called upon to “speak like a man.”

3.2. Speech Sound Disorders

STERNBERG (2009), believes that these involve difficulty in producing specific speech
sounds (most often certain consonants, such as /s/ or /r/), and are subdivided into articulation
disorders (also called phonetic disorders) and phonemic disorders. Articulation disorders are
characterised by difficulty learning to physically produce sounds.
Phonemic disorders are characterised by difficulty in learning the sound distinctions of a
language, so that one sound may be used in place of many.
However, it is not uncommon for a single person to have a mixed speech sound disorder with
both phonemic and phonetic components.

i) Articulation disorders: Articulation involves the use of the tongue, lips, teeth and mouth
to produce recognisable speech sounds. Articulation is disordered if sounds are added,
omitted, substituted or distorted. Articulation disorders may be caused by factors such as
structural abnormalities, for example, a cleft lip and/or palate, a tongue-tie, missing teeth, a
heavy tongue, or a deformed mouth; faulty or incomplete learning of the sound system; or
damage of the nervous system. Apart from affecting articulation, such conditions also affect
the self-concept of the persons Leonard et al., 2000).

ii) Phonemic disorders: are speech disorders in which individuals have trouble physically
producing certain sounds. In the general population phonemic disorders are sometimes called
speech impediments. Usually individuals with phonemic disorders have trouble distinguishing
the sounds made by certain letters so that some letters, for example all “t”s or all “c”s, are
always pronounced with an incorrect sound as a substitution. Phonemic disorders usually
improve with speech therapy, though how much improvement may be made will depend upon
each individual case.

3.3. Fluency Disorders

For HUNT and ELLIS (2006), fluency involves appropriate pauses and hesitations to keep
speech sounds recognisable. Fluency is disordered if sounds are very rapid with extra sounds
 13

(cluttered), if sounds are repeated or blocked especially at the beginnings of words (stuttered),
or if words are repeated.
Fluency disorders are more prevalent in children and they are due to a combination of
familial, psychological, neurological, and motoric factors. The social nature of
communication is affected when one has disfluent speech.
Human beings are social and they spend much of their time together. They first learn how to
communicate in a social set up, for instance, with parents, siblings, relations, or friends.
Socialisation is adversely affected if one has a fluency speech disorder. A person with
disfluency is often mishandled at home, in school, or in public place. Often the individual
becomes withdrawn.

3.4. Apraxia of Speech

Apraxia of speech, also known as verbal apraxia or dyspraxia, is a speech disorder in which a
person has trouble saying what he or she wants to say correctly and consistently. The severity
of apraxia of speech can range from mild to severe.
There are two main types of speech apraxia: acquired apraxia of speech and developmental
apraxia of speech. Acquired apraxia of speech can affect a person at any age, although it most
typically occurs in adults. It is caused by damage to the parts of the brain that are involved in
speaking, and involves the loss or impairment of existing speech abilities. The disorder may
result from a stroke, head injury, tumour, or other illness affecting the brain. Acquired apraxia
of speech may occur together with muscle weakness affecting speech production (dysarthria)
or language difficulties caused by damage to the nervous system (aphasia) DAMICO et al,
(2010).
Developmental apraxia of speech (DAS) occurs in children and is present from birth. It
appears to affect more boys than girls. This speech disorder goes by several other names,
including developmental verbal apraxia, developmental verbal dyspraxia, articulatory apraxia,
and childhood apraxia of speech. DAS is different from what is known as a developmental
delay of speech, in which a child follows the “typical” path of speech development but does
so more slowly than normal. The causes of DAS are not yet known.

3.4. Dysprosody
Dysprosody is the rarest neurological speech disorder. It is characterised by alterations in
intensity, in the timing of utterance segments, and in rhythm, cadence, and intonation of
words. The changes to the duration, the fundamental frequency, and the intensity of tonic and
 14

atonic syllables of the sentences spoken, deprive an individual’s particular speech of its
characteristics. The cause of dysprosody is usually associated with neurological pathologies
such as brain vascular accidents, cranioencephalic traumatisms, and brain tumours
LEONARD (2000).

3.5. Dysarthria
Dysarthria is a motor speech disorder. It is a weakness or paralysis of speech muscles caused
by damage to the nerves and/or brain. The type and severity of dysarthria depend on which
area of the nervous system is affected. Dysarthria is often caused by strokes, Parkinson’s
disease, Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), head or neck injuries, surgical accident, or
cerebral palsy YULE, M, & RUTTER (1987).
A person with dysarthria may experience any of the following symptoms, depending on the
extent and location of damage to the nervous system: “slurred” speech, speaking softly or
barely able to whisper, slow rate of speech, rapid rate of speech with a “mumbling” quality,
limited tongue, lip, and jaw movement, abnormal intonation (rhythm) when speaking, changes
in vocal quality (“nasal” speech or sounding “stuffy”), hoarseness, breathiness, drooling or
poor control of saliva, chewing and swallowing difficulty etc.
 15

4. Conclusion
We can understand that the speech disorders are characterised by a difficulty in producing
normal speech patterns. Children go through many stages of speech production while they are
learning to communicate. What is normal in the speech of a child of one age may be a sign of
a problem in an older child. Speech is the vocal utterance of language and it is considered
disordered in three underlying ways: voice, articulation, and fluency.
These disorders include voice disorders (abnormalities in pitch, volume, vocal quality,
resonance, or duration of sounds), speed sound disorders/articulation disorders (problems
producing speech sounds), and fluency disorders (impairment in the normal rate or rhythm of
speech, such as stuttering).
 16

5. REFERENCES
CANTWELL, D.P., & BAKER, L. (1987). Developmental Speech and Language Disorders.
NY: The Guilford Press.
CLARK, H., & CLARK, E. (1977). Psychology and Language: An Introduction to
Psycholinguistics. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.
DAMICO, J.S., MILLER, N., & BALL, M.J. (2010). The Handbook of Language and Speech
Disorders. Singapore: Blackwell.
DEPUTY, P. (2008). Human Communication Disorders. Disability Info: Speech and
Language Disorders Fact Sheet (FS11). National Book.
EISENSON, J. (1986). Language and Speech Disorders in Children. London: Elsevier.
HUNT, R. R., & ELLIS, H.C. (2006). Fundamentals of Cognitive Psychology. New Delhi:
Tata McGraw Hill.
LEONARD, L.B. (2000). Children with Specific Language Impairment. NY: MIT Press.
STERNBERG, R.J. (2009). Applied Cognitive Psychology: Perceiving, Learning, and
Remembering. London: Cengage.
YULE, M, & RUTTER, M. (Eds.)(1987). Language Development and Disorders. London:
McKeith Press.