Project Management 101

Part 1: Basic Project Management Outline

By F. John Reh, [Link] Guide

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 project management
 project management processes

A successful Project Manager must simultaneously manage the four basic elements of a project:
resources, time, money, and most importantly, scope. All these elements are interrelated. Each must
be managed effectively. All must be managed together if the project, and the project manager, is to be
a success.

 Resources
People, equipment, material
 Time
Task durations, dependencies, critical path
 Money
Costs, contingencies, profit
 Scope
Project size, goals, requirements

Most literature on project management speaks of the need to manage and balance three elements:
people, time, and money. However, the fourth element is the most important and it is the first and last
task for a successful project manager. First and foremost you have to manage the project scope.

The project scope is the definition of what the project is supposed to accomplish and the budget (of
time and money) that has been created to achieve these objectives. It is absolutely imperative that
any change to the scope of the project have a matching change in budget, either time or resources. If
the project scope is to build a building to house three widgets with a budget of $100,000 the project
manager is expected to do that. However, if the scope is changed to a building for four widgets, the
project manager must obtain an appropriate change in budgeted resources. If the budget is not
adjusted, the smart project manager will avoid the change in scope.

Usually, scope changes occur in the form of "scope creep". Scope creep is the piling up of small
changes that by themselves are manageable, but in agregate are significant. For example, the project
callls for a building to be 80,000 square feet in size. The client wants to add a ten foot long, 4 foot wide
awning over one bay door. That's a pretty minor change. Later the client wants to extend the awing 8
feet to cover the adjacent bay. Another minor change. Then it's a change to block the upwind side to
the covered area to keep out the wind. Later, it's a request to block the other end to make the addition
more symetrical. Eventually, the client asks for a ceiling under the awning, lights in the ceiling,
electrical outlets, a water faucet for the workers, some sound-proofing, and a security camera. By now,
the minor change has become a major addition. Make sure any requested change, no matter how
small, is accompanied by approval for a change in budget or schedule or both.

You can not effectively manage the resources, time and money in a project unless you actively
manage the project scope.

When you have the project scope clearly identified and associated to the timeline and budget, you can
begin to manage the project resources. These include the people, equipment, and material needed to
complete the project.
 Part 2: Managing Resources - People, Equipment, and Material

A successful Project Manager must effectively manage the resources assigned to the project. This
includes the labor hours of the designers, the builders, the testers and the inspectors on the project
team. It also include managing any labor subcontracts. However, managing project resources
frequently involves more than people management. The project manager must also manage the
equipment used for the project and the material needed by the people and equipment assigned to the
project.

 People
Project employees, vendor staff, subcontract labor
 Equipment
Cranes, trucks, backhoes, other heavy equipment or
Development, test, and staging servers, CD burners or
Recording studio, tape decks, mixers, microphones and speakers
 Material
Concrete, pipe, rebar, insulation or
CD blanks, computers, jewel cases, instruction manuals

Managing the people resources means having the right people, with the right skills and the proper
tools, in the right quantity at the right time. It also means ensuring that they know what needs to be
done, when, and how. And it means motivating them to take ownership in the project too.

Managing direct employees normally means managing the senior person in each group of employees
assigned to your project. Remember that these employees also have a line manager to whom they
report and from whom the usually take technical direction. In a matrix management situation, like a
project team, your job is to provide project direction to them. Managing labor subcontracts usually
means managing the team lead for the subcontracted workers, who in turn manages the workers.

The equipment you have to manage as part of your project depends on the nature of the project. A
project to construct a frozen food warehouse would need earth moving equipment, cranes, and cement
trucks. For a project to release a new version of a computer game, the equipment would include
computers, test equipment, and duplication and packaging machinery. The project management key
for equipment is much like for people resources. You have to make sure you have the right equipment
in the right place at the right time and that it has the supplies it needs to operate properly.

Most projects involve the purchase of material. For a frozen food warehouse, this would be freezers,
the building HVAC machinery and the material handling equipment. For a project to release a music
CD by a hot new artist, it would include the CD blanks, artwork for the jewel case, and press releases
to be sent to deejays. The project management issue with supplies is to make sure the right supplies
arrive at the right time (we'll talk about the right price later).

All your skill in managing resources won't help, however, unless you can stick to the project schedule.
Time management is critical in successful project management.

Part 3: Managing Time and Schedule

Time management is a critically important skill for any successful project manager. I have observed
that Project Managers who succeed in meeting their project schedule have a good chance of staying
within their project budget. The most common cause of blown project budgets is lack of schedule
management. Fortunately there is a lot of software on the market today to help you manage your
project schedule or timeline.
 Tasks
Duration, resources, dependencies
 Schedule
Tasks, predecessors, successors
 Critical Path
Changeable, often multiple, float

Any project can be broken down into a number of tasks that have to be performed. To prepare the
project schedule, the project manager has to figure out what the tasks are, how long they will take,
what resources they require, and in what order they should be done. Each of these elements has a
direct bearing on the schedule.

If you omit a task, the project won't be completed. If you underestimate the length of time or the
amount of resources required for the task, you may miss your schedule. The schedule can also be
blown if you make a mistake in the sequencing of the tasks.

Build the project schedule by listing, in order, all the tasks that need to be completed. Assign a
duration to each task. Allocate the required resources. Determine predecessors (what tasks must be
completed before) and successors (tasks that can't start until after) each task. It's pretty simple and
straightforward. For instance, think of a project called "Getting Dressed In The Morning". The task "put
on shirt" may have a longer duration if it is a buttoned dress shirt than if it's a pullover. It doesn't
matter which order you complete the tasks "put on right shoe" and "put on left shoe", but it is
important to complete the "put on pants" task before starting the "put on shoes" task.

The difficulty in managing a project schedule is that there are seldom enough resources and enough
time to complete the tasks sequentially. Therefore, tasks have to be overlapped so several happen at
the same time. Project management software (see sidebar) greatly simplifies the task of creating and
managing the project schedule by handling the iterations in the schedule logic for you.

When all tasks have been listed, resourced, and sequenced, you will see that some tasks have a little
flexibility in their required start and finish date. This is called float. Other tasks have no flexibility, zero
float. A line through all the tasks with zero float is called the critical path. All tasks on this path, and
there can be multiple, parallel paths, must be completed on time if the project is to be completed on
time. The Project Manager's key time management task is to manage the critical path.

Be aware, that items can be added to or removed from the critical path as circumstances change
during the execution of the project. Installation of security cameras may not be on the critical path, but
if the shipment is delayed, it may become part of the critical path. Conversely, pouring the concrete
foundation may be on the critical path, but if the project manager obtains an addition crew and the
pour is completed early it could come off the critical path (or reduce the length of the critical path).

Regardless of how well you manage the schedule and the resources, there is one more critical element
- managing the budget.

Part 4: Managing Costs, Money, and Profits

Often a Project Manager is evaluated on his or her ability to complete a project within budget. If you
have effectively managed the project resources and project schedule, this should not be a problem. It
is, however, a task that requires the project manager's careful attention. You can only manage
effectively a limited number of cost items, so focus on the critical ones (see the 80-20 Rule in the
sidebar).

 Costs
Estimated, actual, variability
 Contingencies
Weather, suppliers, design allowance
 Profit
Cost, contingencies, remainder

Each project task will have a cost, whether it is the cost of the labor hours of a computer programmer
or the purchase price of a cubic yard of concrete. In preparing the project budget, each of these costs
is estimated and then totaled. Some of these estimates will be more accurate than others. A company
knows what it will charge each of its projects for different classifications of labor. Commodities like
concrete are priced in a very competitive market so prices are fairly predictable. Other estimates are
less accurate. For instance, the cost of a conveyor system with higher performance specifications that
normal can be estimated to be more expensive, but it is hard to determine whether it will be 10%
more or 15% more. For an expensive item, that can be a significant amount.

When the estimated cost of an item is uncertain, the project budget often includes a design allowance.
This is money that is set aside in the budget "just in case" the actual cost of the item is wildly different
than the estimate.

Unusual weather or problems with suppliers are always a possibility on large projects. Companies
usually include a contingency amount in the project budget to cover these kinds of things.

So a project budget is composed of the estimated cost, plus the contingency and design allowance,
plus any profit. The project manager's job is to keep the actual cost at or below the estimated cost, to
use as little of the design allowance and contingency as possible, and to maximize the profit the
company earns on the project.

To maximize your chances of meeting your project budget, meet your project schedule. The most
common cause of blown budgets is blown schedules. Meeting the project schedule won't guarantee
you will meet the project budget, but it significantly increases your chances. And above all, manage
the project scope. Don't allow the project scope to "creep" upward without getting budget and/or
schedule adjustments to match.

Successful project management is an art and a science that takes practice. The ideas presented above
can give you a basic understanding of project management, but consider it only a beginning. If your
job or career path includes project management, and you want to improve your skills, talk to
successful project managers, read, and practice. Project management can be a very rewarding career.

How To Manage A Project

Congratulations. You've just been appointed to manage a project. How do you get started? What steps
do you do next? How do you maximize your chances for success? The project management steps
below guide you through the process of managing any project, step by step.

If you are new to Project Management you should also read Project Management 101

Time Required: Varies

Here's How:
1. Define the Scope
The first, and most important, step in any project is defining the scope of the project. What is it
you are supposed to accomplish by managing this project? What is the project objective? Equally
important is defining what is not included in the scope of your project. If you don't get enough
definition from your boss, clarify the scope yourself and send it back upstairs for confirmation.

2. Determine Available Resources

What people, equipment, and money will you have available to you to achieve the project
objectives? As a project manager, you usually will not have direct control of these resources, but
will have to manage them through matrix management. Find out how easy or difficult that will be
to do.

3. Check the Timeline

When does the project have to be completed? As you develop your project plan you may have
some flexibility in how you use time during the project, but deadlines usually are fixed. If you
decide to use overtime hours to meet the schedule, you must weigh that against the limitations of
your budget.

4. Assemble Your Project Team

Get the people on your team together and start a dialog. They are the technical experts. That's
why their functional supervisor assigned them to the project. Your job is to manage the team.

5. List the Big Steps

What are the major pieces of the project? If you don't know, start by asking your team. It is a
good idea to list the steps in chronological order but don't obsess about it; you can always change
the order later.

6. List the Smaller Steps

List the smaller steps in each of the larger steps. Again, it usually helps you remember all the
steps if you list them in chronological order. How many levels deep you go of more and more
detailed steps depends on the size and complexity of your project.

7. Develop a Preliminary Plan

Assemble all your steps into a plan. What happens first? What is the next step? Which steps can
go on at the same time with different resources? Who is going to do each step? How long will it
take? There are many excellent software packages available that can automate a lot of this detail
for you. Ask others in similar positions what they use.

8. Create Your Baseline Plan

Get feedback on your preliminary plan from your team and from any other stakeholders. Adjust
your timelines and work schedules to fit the project into the available time. Make any necessary
adjustments to the preliminary plan to produce a baseline plan.

9. Request Project Adjustments

There is almost never enough time, money or talent assigned to a project. Your job is to do more
with the limited resources than people expect. However, there are often limits placed on a project
that are simply unrealistic. You need to make your case and present it to your boss and request
these unrealistic limits be changed. Ask for the changes at the beginning of the project. Don't wait
until it's in trouble to ask for the changes you need.

10. Work Your Plan, But Don't Die For It

Making the plan is important, but the plan can be changed. You have a plan for driving to work
every morning. If one intersection is blocked by an accident, you change your plan and go a
different way. Do the same with your project plans. Change them as needed, but always keep the
scope and resources in mind.
11. Monitor Your Team's Progress
You will make little progress at the beginning of the project, but start then to monitor what
everyone is doing anyway. That will make it easier to catch issues before they become problems.

12. Document Everything

Keep records. Every time you change from your baseline plan, write down what the change was
and why it was necessary. Every time a new requirement is added to the project write down
where the requirement came from and how the timeline or budget was adjusted because of it.
You can't remember everything, so write them down so you'll be able to look them up at the end-
of-project review and learn from them.

13. Keep Everyone Informed

Keep all the project stakeholders informed of progress all along. Let them know of your success as
you complete each milestone, but also inform them of problems as soon as they come up. Also
keep you team informed. If changes are being considered, tell the team about them as far ahead
as you can. Make sure everyone on the team is aware of what everyone else is doing.

project management
project management, tools, process, plans and project planning tips

Here are rules, processes and tools for project planning and project
management.
While project management skills are obviously important for project
managers, interestingly the methods and tools that project managers
use can be helpful for everyone.
A 'task' does not necessarily have to be called a 'project' in order for project
management methods to be very useful in its planning and implementation.
Even the smallest task can benefit from the use of a well-chosen project
management technique or tool, especially in the planning stage.
Any task that requires some preparation to achieve a successful outcome,
will probably be done better by using a few project management methods
somewhere in the process. Project management methods can help in the
planning and managing of all sorts of tasks, especially complex activities.
Project management is chiefly associated with planning and managing
change in an organization, but a project can also be something unrelated to
business - even a domestic situation, such as moving house, or planning a
wedding.
Project management methods and tools can therefore be useful far more
widely than people assume.
 Project management techniques and project planning tools are useful for any
tasks in which different outcomes are possible - where risks of problems and
failures exist - and so require planning and assessing options, and organizing
activities and resources to deliver a successful result.
Projects can be various shapes and sizes, from the small and straightforward
to extremely large and highly complex.
In organizations and businesses, project management can be concerned with
anything, particularly introducing or changing things, in any area or function,
for example:
 people, staffing and management
 products and services
 materials, manufacturing and production
 IT and communications
 plant, vehicles, equipment
 storage, distribution, logistics
 buildings and premises
 finance, administration, acquisition and divestment
 purchasing
 sales, selling, marketing
 human resources development and training
 customer service and relations
 quality, health and safety,
 legal and professional
 technical, scientific, research and development
 new business development
 and anything else which needs planning and managing within organizations.

Successful project management, for projects large or small, tends to follow

the process outlined below.
The same principles, used selectively and appropriately, also apply to
smaller tasks.
Project management techniques are not just for project managers - they are
available for anyone to use.
project management process

1. Agree precise specification for the project.

2. Plan the project - time, team, activities, resources, financials - using suitable
project management tools.
3. Communicate the project plan to your project team - and to any other
interested people and groups.
4. Agree and delegate project actions.
5. Manage and motivate - inform, encourage, enable the project team.
6. Check, measure, monitor, review project progress - adjust project plans, and
inform the project team and others.
7. Complete project - review and report on project performance; give praise and
thanks to the project team.
8. Project follow-up - train, support, measure and report results and benefits.

1 - agree precise specification for the project

Often called the project 'terms of reference', the project specification should
be an accurate description of what the project aims to achieve, and the
criteria and flexibilities involved, its parameters, scope, range, outputs,
sources, participants, budgets and timescales (beware - see note below
about planning timescales).
Usually the project manager must consult with others and then agree the
project specification with superiors, or with relevant authorities. The
specification may involve several drafts before it is agreed. A project
specification is essential in that it creates a measurable accountability for
anyone wishing at any time to assess how the project is going, or its success
on completion. Project terms of reference also provide an essential discipline
and framework to keep the project on track, and concerned with the original
agreed aims and parameters. A properly formulated and agreed project
specification also protects the project manager from being held to account
for issues that are outside the original scope of the project or beyond the
project manager's control.
This is the stage to agree special conditions or exceptions with those in
authority. Once you've published the terms of reference you have created a
very firm set of expectations by which you will be judged. So if you have any
concerns, or want to renegotiate, now's the time to do it.
The largest projects can require several weeks to produce and agree project
terms of reference. Most normal business projects however require a few
days thinking and consulting to produce a suitable project specification.
Establishing and agreeing a project specification is an important process
even if your task is simple one.
A template for a project specification:
 1. Describe purpose, aims and deliverables.
2. State parameters (timescales, budgets, range, scope, territory, authority).
3. State people involved and the way the team will work (frequency of
meetings, decision-making process).
4. Establish 'break-points' at which to review and check progress, and how
progress and results will be measured.

2 - plan the project

Plan the various stages and activities of the project. Where possible (and
certainly where necessary) involve your team in the planning. A useful tip is
to work backwards from the end aim, identifying all the things that need to
be put in place and done, in reverse order. Additionally, from the bare
beginnings of the project, use brainstorming (noting ideas and points at
random - typically with a project team), to help gather points and issues and
to explore innovations and ideas. Fishbone diagrams are also useful for
brainstorming and identifying causal factors which might otherwise be
forgotten. For complex projects, or when you lack experience of the issues,
involve others in the brainstorming process. Thereafter it's a question of
putting the issues in the right order, and establishing relationships and links
between each issue. Complex projects will have a number of activities
running in parallel. Some parts of the project will need other parts of the
project to be completed before they can begin or progress. Such
'interdependent' parts of a project need particularly careful consideration
and planning. Some projects will require a feasibility stage before the
completion of a detailed plan. Gantt Charts and Critical Path Analysis Flow
Diagrams are two commonly used tools for detailed project management
planning, enabling scheduling, costing and budgeting and other financials,
and project management and reporting.

project timescales and costs

Most projects come in late - that's just the way it is - so don't plan a
timescale that is over-ambitious. Ideally plan for some slippage. If you have
been given an fixed deadline, plan to meet it earlier, and work back from
that earlier date. Build some slippage or leeway into each phase of the
project. Err on the side of caution where you can. Projects which slip back
and are delivered late, or which run over budget or fail to meet other
financial requirements often cause significant problems. Many planners are
put under pressure to deliver projects sooner and more cost-effectively than
is realistic. Ambition and aiming high are good attitudes, but planning
without proper prudence and responsibility is daft. Investors and executives
tend rarely to question an over-ambitious plan, but they will quickly make
very ruthless decisions when any overly ambitious project starts to fail.
Exercising a little realism at the outset of a project regarding financials and
timescales can save an enormous amount of trouble later.
the project team
Another important part of the planning stage is picking your team. Take
great care, especially if you have team-members imposed on you by the
project brief. Selecting and gaining commitment from the best team
members - whether directly employed, freelance, contractors, suppliers,
consultants or other partners - is crucial to the quality of the project, and the
ease with which you are able to manage it. Generally try to establish your
team as soon as possible. Identifying or appointing one or two people even
during the terms of reference stage is possible sometimes. Appointing the
team early maximises their ownership and buy-in to the project, and
maximises what they can contribute. But be very wary of appointing people
before you are sure how good they are, and not until they have committed
themselves to the project upon terms that are clearly understood and
acceptable. Don't imagine that teams need to be full of paid and official
project team members. Some of the most valuable team members are
informal advisors, mentors, helpers, who want nothing other than to be
involved and a few words of thanks. Project management on a tight budget
can be a lonely business - get some help from good people you can trust,
whatever the budget.
To plan and manage large complex projects with various parallel and
dependent activities you will need to put together a 'Critical Path Analysis'
and a spreadsheet on MS Excel or equivalent. Critical Path Analysis will show
you the order in which tasks must be performed, and the relative importance
of tasks. Some tasks can appear small and insignificant when they might
actually be hugely influential in enabling much bigger activities to proceed or
give best results. A Gantt chart is a useful way of showing blocks of activities
over time and at a given cost and for managing the project and its costs
along the way.
Various project management software is available, much of which is useful,
but before trying it you should understand and concentrate on developing
the pure project management skills, which are described in this process. The
best software in the world will not help you if you can't do the basic things.

project management tools

Here are examples and explanations of four commonly used tools in project
planning and project management, namely: Brainstorming, Fishbone
Diagrams, Critical Path Analysis Flow Diagrams, and Gantt Charts.
Additionally and separately see business process modelling and quality
management, which contain related tools and methods aside from the main
project management models shown below.
The tools here each have their strengths and particular purposes,
summarised as a basic guide in the matrix below.
Matrix key:
B = Brainstorming
F = Fishbone/Ishikawa Diagrams *** - main tool
C = Critical Path Analysis Flow ** - optional/secondary tool
Diagrams * - sometimes useful
G = Gantt Charts

B F C G

Project brainstorming and initial concepts, ideas,

*** **
structures, aims, etc

Gathering and identifying all elements, especially causal

* *** **
and hidden factors

Scheduling and timescales ** ***

Identifying and sequencing parallel and interdependent

* *** *
activities and stages

Financials - costings, budgets, revenues, profits,

* * ** ***
variances, etc

Monitoring, forecasting, reporting * ** ***

Troubleshooting, problem identification, diagnosis and

** *** ** *
solutions

'Snapshot' or 'map' overview - non-sequential, non-

** ***
scheduled

Format for communications, presentations, updates,

* * ***
progress reports, etc

brainstorming
Brainstorming is usually the first crucial creative stage of the project
management and project planning process. See the brainstorming method in
detail and explained separately, because it many other useful applications
outside of project management.
Unlike most project management skills and methods, the first stages of the
brainstorming process is ideally a free-thinking and random technique.
Consequently it can be overlooked or under-utilized because it not a natural
approach for many people whose mains strengths are in systems and
processes. Consequently this stage of the project planning process can
benefit from being facilitated by a team member able to manage such a
session, specifically to help very organised people to think randomly and
creatively.

fishbone diagrams
Fishbone diagrams are chiefly used in quality management fault-detection,
and in business process improvement, especially in manufacturing and
production, but the model is also very useful in project management
planning and task management generally.
Within project management fishbone diagrams are useful for early planning,
notably when gathering and organising factors, for example during
brainstorming.
Fishbone diagrams are very good for identifying hidden factors which can be
significant in enabling larger activities, resources areas, or parts of a
process.
Fishbone diagrams are not good for scheduling or showing interdependent
time-critical factors.
Fishbone diagrams are also called 'cause and effect diagrams' and Ishikawa
diagrams, after Kaoru Ishikawa (1915-89), a Japanese professor specialising
in industrial quality management and engineering who devised the
technique in the 1960s.
Ishikawa's diagram became known as a fishbone diagram, obviously,
because it looks like a fishbone:
 A fishbone
diagram has a
central spine
running left to
right, around
which is built a
map of factors
which contribute to
the final result (or
problem).
For each project
the main
categories of
factors are
identified and
shown as the main
'bones' leading to
the spine.
Into each category
can be drawn
'primary' elements
or factors (shown
as P in the
diagram), and into
these can be
drawn secondary
elements or
factors (shown as
S). This is done for
every category,
and can be
extended to third
or fourth level
factors if
necessary.

The diagram above is a very simple one. Typically fishbone diagrams have
six or more main bones feeding into the spine. Other main category factors
can include Environment, Management, Systems, Training, Legal, etc.
The categories used in a fishbone diagram should be whatever makes sense
for the project. Various standard category sets exist for different industrial
applications, however it is important that your chosen structure is right for
your own situation, rather than taking a standard set of category headings
and hoping that it fits.
At a simple level the fishbone diagram is a very effective planning model and
tool - especially for 'mapping' an entire operation.
Where a fishbone diagram is used for project planning of course the 'Effect'
is shown as an aim or outcome or result, not a problem.
The 'Problem' term is used in fault diagnosis and in quality management
problem-solving. Some fishbone diagrams can become very complex indeed,
which is common in specialised quality management areas, especially where
systems are computerised.
This model, and the critical path analysis diagram are similar to the even
more complex diagrams used on business process modelling within areas of
business planning and and business process improvement.

project critical path analysis (flow diagram or chart)

'Critical Path Analysis' sounds very complicated, but it's a very logical and
effective method for planning and managing complex projects. A critical path
analysis is normally shown as a flow diagram, whose format is linear
(organised in a line), and specifically a time-line.
Critical Path Analysis is also called Critical Path Method - it's the same thing -
and the terms are commonly abbreviated, to CPA and CPM.
A commonly used tool within Critical Path Analysis is PERT
(Program/Programme/Project Evaluation and Review Technique) which is a
specialised method for identifying related and interdependent activities and
events, especially where a big project may contain hundreds or thousands of
connected elements. PERT is not normally relevant in simple projects, but
any project of considerable size and complexity, particularly when timings
and interdependency issues are crucial, can benefit from the detailed
analysis enabled by PERT methods. PERT analysis commonly feeds into
Critical Path Analysis and to other broader project management systems,
such as those mentioned here.
Critical Path Analysis flow diagrams are very good for showing
interdependent factors whose timings overlap or coincide. They also enable
a plan to be scheduled according to a timescale. Critical Path Analysis flow
diagrams also enable costings and budgeting, although not quite as easily as
Gantt charts (below), and they also help planners to identify causal
elements, although not quite so easily as fishbone diagrams (below).
This is how to create a Critical Path Analysis. As an example, the project is a
simple one - making a fried breakfast.
First note down all the issues (resources and activities in a rough order),
again for example:
Assemble crockery and utensils, assemble ingredients, prepare equipment,
make toast, fry sausages and eggs, grill bacon and tomatoes, lay table,
warm plates, serve.
Note that some of these activities must happen in parallel - and crucially
they are interdependent. That is to say, if you tried to make a fried breakfast
by doing one task at a time, and one after the other, things would go wrong.
Certain tasks must be started before others, and certain tasks must be
completed in order for others to begin. The plates need to be warming while
other activities are going on. The toast needs to be toasting while the
sausages are frying, and at the same time the bacon and sausages are under
the grill. The eggs need to be fried last. A Critical Path Analysis is a
diagrammatical representation of what needs done and when. Timescales
and costs can be applied to each activity and resource. Here's the Critical
Path Analysis for making a fried breakfast:
This Critical Path Analysis example below shows just a few activities over a
few minutes. Normal business projects would see the analysis extending
several times wider than this example, and the time line would be based on
weeks or months. It is possible to use MS Excel or a similar spreadsheet to
create a Critical Path Analysis, which allows financial totals and time totals to
be planned and tracked. Various specialised project management software
enable the same thing. Beware however of spending weeks on the intricacies
of computer modelling, when in the early stages especially, a carefully hand
drawn diagram - which requires no computer training at all - can put 90% of
the thinking and structure in place. (See the details about the most
incredible planning and communications tool ever invented, and available for
just a tiny fraction of the price of all the alternatives.)
project critical path analysis flow diagram example

gantt charts
Gantt Charts (commonly wrongly called gant charts) are extremely useful
project management tools. The Gantt Chart is named after US engineer and
consultant Henry Gantt (1861-1919) who devised the technique in the
1910s.
Gantt charts are excellent models for scheduling and for budgeting, and for
reporting and presenting and communicating project plans and progress
easily and quickly, but as a rule Gantt Charts are not as good as a Critical
Path Analysis Flow Diagram for identifying and showing interdependent
factors, or for 'mapping' a plan from and/or into all of its detailed causal or
contributing elements.
You can construct a Gantt Chart using MSExcel or a similar spreadsheet.
Every activity has a separate line. Create a time-line for the duration of the
project (the breakfast example shows minutes, but normally you would use
weeks, or for very big long-term projects, months). You can colour code the
time blocks to denote type of activity (for example, intense, watching brief,
directly managed, delegated and left-to-run, etc.) You can schedule review
and insert break points. At the end of each line you can show as many cost
columns for the activities as you need. The breakfast example shows just the
capital cost of the consumable items and a revenue cost for labour and fuel.
A Gantt chart like this can be used to keep track of progress for each activity
and how the costs are running. You can move the time blocks around to
report on actuals versus planned, and to re-schedule, and to create new plan
updates. Costs columns can show plan and actuals and variances, and
calculate whatever totals, averages, ratios, etc., that you need. Gantt Charts
are probably the most flexible and useful of all project management tools,
but remember they do not very easily or obviously show the importance and
inter-dependence of related parallel activities, and they won't obviously show
the necessity to complete one task before another can begin, as a Critical
Path Analysis will do, so you may need both tools, especially at the planning
stage, and almost certainly for large complex projects.

gantt chart example

A wide range of computerised systems/software now exists for project

management and planning, and new methods continue to be developed. It is
an area of high innovation, with lots of scope for improvement and
development. I welcome suggestions of particularly good systems, especially
if inexpensive or free. Many organizations develop or specify particular
computerised tools, so it's a good idea to seek local relevant advice and
examples of best practice before deciding the best computerised project
management system(s) for your own situation.
Project planning tools naturally become used also for subsequent project
reporting, presentations, etc., and you will make life easier for everyone if
you use formats that people recognize and find familiar.
project financial planning and reporting
For projects involving more than petty cash you'll probably need a
spreadsheet to plan and report planned and actual expenditure. Use MSExcel
or similar. Financial accounting for small projects can sometimes be
managed using the project's Gantt Chart. Large projects are likely to require
some sort of require dedicated accounting system, although conceivably
Gantt Charts and financial management accounts can easily be administered
within a spreadsheet system given sufficient expertise. If you don't know
how to put together a basic financial plan, get some help from someone who
does, and make sure you bring a good friendly, flexible financial person into
your team - it's a key function of project management, and if you can't
manage the financial processes your self you need to be able to rely
completely on whoever does it for you. The spreadsheet must enable you to
plan, administer and report the detailed finances of your project. Create a
cost line for main expenditure activity, and break this down into individual
elements. Create a system for allocating incoming invoices to the correct
activities (your bought-ledger people won't know unless you tell them), and
showing when the costs hit the project account. Establish clear payment
terms with all suppliers and stick to them. Projects develop problems when
team members get dissatisfied; rest assured, non- or late-payment is a
primary cause of dissatisfaction.
Remember to set some budget aside for 'contingencies' - you will almost
certainly need it.

project contingency planning

Planning for and anticipating the unforeseen, or the possibility that things
may not go as expected, is called 'contingency planning'. Contingency
planning is vital in any task when results and outcomes cannot be absolutely
guaranteed. Often a contingency budget needs to be planned as there are
usually costs associated. Contingency planning is about preparing fall-back
actions, and making sure that leeway for time, activity and resource exists to
rectify or replace first-choice plans. A simple contingency plan for the fried
breakfast would be to plan for the possibility of breaking the yolk of an egg,
in which case spare resource (eggs) should be budgeted for and available if
needed. Another might be to prepare some hash-browns and mushrooms in
the event that any of the diners are vegetarian. It may be difficult to
anticipate precisely what contingency to plan for in complex long-term
projects, in which case simply a contingency budget is provided, to be
allocated later when and if required.

3 - communicate the project plan to your team

This serves two purposes: it informs people what's happening, and it obtains
essential support, agreement and commitment. If your project is complex
and involves a team, then you should involve the team in the planning
process to maximise buy-in, ownership, and thereby accountability. Your
project will also benefit from input and consultation from relevant people at
an early stage.
Also consider how best to communicate the aims and approach of your
project to others in your organization and wider network.
Your project 'team' can extend more widely than you might first imagine.
Consider all the possible 'stakeholders' - those who have an interest in your
project and the areas it touches and needs to attract support or tolerance.
Involvement and communication are vital for cooperation and support.
Failing to communicate to people (who might have no great input, but whose
cooperation is crucial) is a common reason for arousing suspicion and
objections, defensiveness or resistance.

4 - agree and delegate project actions

Your plan will have identified those responsible for each activity. Activities
need to be very clearly described, including all relevant parameters,
timescales, costs, and deliverables. Use the SMART acronym to help you
delegate tasks properly. See the delegation tips and processes. Using proper
delegation methods is vital for successful project management involving
teams. When delegated tasks fail this is typically because they have not
been explained clearly, agreed with the other person, or supported and
checked while in progress. So publish the full plan to all in the team, and
consider carefully how to delegate medium-to-long-term tasks in light of
team members' forward-planning capabilities. Long-term complex projects
need to be planned in more detail, and great care must be taken in
delegating and supporting them. Only delegate tasks which pass the SMART
test. Other useful materials to help understand team delegation are the
Tannenbaum and Schmidt Continuum, and Tuckman's group
forming/performing model. The Johari Window model is also an excellent
review framework for quickly checking or reminding about mutual awareness
among team members in large complex projects, where there is often a risk
of project fragmentation and people 'doing their own thing' in blissful
isolation - which seriously undermines even the best planned projects.

5 - manage, motivate, inform, encourage, enable the project

team
Manage the team and activities in meetings, communicating, supporting,
and helping with decisions (but not making them for people who can make
them for themselves). 'Praise loudly; blame softly.' (a wonderful maxim
attributed to Catherine the Great). One of the big challenges for a project
manager is deciding how much freedom to give for each delegated activity.
Tight parameters and lots of checking are necessary for inexperienced
people who like clear instructions, but this approach is the kiss of death to
experienced, entrepreneurial and creative people. They need a wider brief,
more freedom, and less checking. Manage these people by the results they
get - not how they get them. Look out for differences in personality and
working styles in your team. Misunderstanding personal styles can get in the
way of team cooperation. Your role here is to enable and translate. Face to
face meetings, when you can bring team members together, are generally
the best way to avoid issues and relationships becoming personalised and
emotional. Communicate progress and successes regularly to everyone. Give
the people in your team the plaudits, particularly when someone high up
expresses satisfaction - never, never accept plaudits yourself. Conversely -
you must take the blame for anything that goes wrong - never 'dump' (your
problems or stresses) on anyone in your team. As project manager any
problem is always ultimately down to you anyway. Use empathy and conflict
handling techniques, and look out for signs of stress and manage it
accordingly. A happy positive team with a basic plan will outperform a
miserable team with a brilliant plan, every time.

6 - check, measure, and review project performance; adjust

project plans; inform project team and others
Check the progress of activities against the plan. Review performance
regularly and at the stipulated review points, and confirm the validity and
relevance of the remainder of the plan. Adjust the plan if necessary in light of
performance, changing circumstances, and new information, but remain on
track and within the original terms of reference. Be sure to use transparent,
pre-agreed measurements when judging performance. (Which shows how
essential it is to have these measures in place and clearly agreed before the
task begins.) Identify, agree and delegate new actions as appropriate. Inform
team members and those in authority about developments, clearly, concisely
and in writing. Plan team review meetings. Stick to the monitoring systems
you established. Probe the apparent situations to get at the real facts and
figures. Analyse causes and learn from mistakes. Identify reliable advisors
and experts in the team and use them. Keep talking to people, and make
yourself available to all.

7 - complete project; review and report on project; give praise

and thanks to the project team
At the end of your successful project hold a review with the team. Ensure you
understand what happened and why. Reflect on any failures and mistakes
positively, objectively, and without allocating personal blame. Reflect on
successes gratefully and realistically. Write a review report, and make
observations and recommendations about follow up issues and priorities -
there will be plenty.
8 - follow up - train, support, measure and report project
results and benefits
Traditionally this stage would be considered part of the project completion,
but increasingly an emphasised additional stage of project follow-up is
appropriate.
This is particularly so in very political environments, and/or where projects
benefits have relatively low visibility and meaning to stakeholders (staff,
customers, investors, etc), especially if the project also has very high costs,
as ICT projects tend to do.
ICT (information and communications technology) projects often are like this
- low visibility of benefits but very high costs, and also very high stress and
risk levels too.
Project management almost always involves change management too, within
which it's very important to consider the effects of the project on people who
have to adapt to the change. There is often a training or education need.
There will almost certainly be an explanation need, in which for example
methods like team briefing have prove very useful.
Whatever, when you are focused on project management it is easy to forget
or ignore that many people are affected in some way by the results of the
project. Change is difficult, even when it is good and for right reasons.
Remembering this during and at the end of your project will help you achieve
a project that is well received, as well as successful purely in project
management terms.

Someone once said "Don't you love it when a plan comes together?"
It's true.
As project manager, to be at the end of a project and to report that the
project plan has been fully met, on time and on budget, is a significant
achievement, whatever the project size and complexity. The mix of skills
required are such that good project managers can manage anything.

amusing project management analogies

To the optimist, the glass is half full. To the pessimist, the glass is half
empty. To the project manager, the glass is twice as big as it needs to be.
A clergyman, a doctor and a project manager were playing golf together one
day and were waiting for a particularly slow group ahead. The project
manager exclaimed, "What's with these people? We've been waiting over
half and hour! It's a complete disgrace." The doctor agreed, "They're
hopeless, I've never seen such a rabble on a golf course." The clergyman
spotted the approaching greenkeeper and asked him what was going on,
"What's happening with that group ahead of us? They're surely too slow and
useless to be playing, aren't they?" The greenkeeper replied, "Oh, yes, that's
a group of blind fire-fighters. They lost their sight saving our clubhouse from
a fire last year, so we always let them play for free anytime." The three
golfers fell silent for a moment. The clergyman said, "Oh dear, that's so sad. I
shall say some special prayers for them tonight." The doctor added, rather
meekly, "That's a good thought. I'll get in touch with an ophthalmic surgeon
friend of mine to see if there's anything that can be done for them." After
pondering the situation for a few seconds, the project manager turned to the
greenkeeper and asked, "Why can't they play at night?"
And this (thanks G Bee)... A project manager was out walking in the
countryside one day when a frog called out to him. He bent down, picked up
the frog and put it in his pocket. The frog called out again, saying, "If you kiss
me I shall turn me back into a beautiful princess, and I'll stay with you for a
week as your mistress." The project manager took the frog out of his pocket,
smiled at it, and put it back into his pocket. The frog called out once more, "If
you kiss me and turn me back into a princess, I'll stay with you for as long as
you wish and do absolutely anything that you want. Again the Project
manager took the frog out of his pocket, smiled at it and put it back. Finally,
the frog demanded, "What's the matter? You can turn me back into a
beautiful princess, and I'll stay with you for ever and do anything you want.
Why won't you kiss me?" to which the project manager replied, "Understand,
I'm a project manager. I simply don't have time for a girlfriend, but a talking
frog .... that's cool."